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MOMENTS AND SYSTEMS OF PARALLEL FORCES

Turning effect of forces

Forces have turning effects. These turning effects depend not just on the force but also on
the distance from the force’s line of action to the turning point (called the pivot or fulcrum).
If you push a door it will turn around the axis formed by its hinges. The turning effect will
be greater the farther you move from them; it is easier to close or open a door from the
handle because the handle is far away from the hinges.

Moments of a force
The turning power of forces referred to a point is measured by its moment to it. The
moment of a force referred to a point is its strength times the distance from the point
to the line of action of the force. The distance is the shortest segment from the point to the
line so it is the size of the perpendicular to the line of action traced from the point. The
drawings show some examples:
F=2N
F=3N Moment= 3N . 0,2m = 0,6Nm
d=0,1m
d=0,2m xP

x P Moment = 2N . 0,1m = 0,2Nm

P d=0
x
F= 1N Moment = 1N. 0m = 0

Notice that the moments of a force to points lying on its line of action are equal to zero
(no turning effect)
Turns can be clockwise and their moments will be considered as negative or
anticlockwise in which case moments will be taken as positive.

clockwise M>0
xP clockwise xP anticlockwise
M>0
M<0 xP

Parallel forces

Although it is not evident, the moment of the resultant force of a system of forces meeting
at a point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components (Varignon’s theorem), so
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we don’t have to worry about it. The resultant will act along a straight line that goes
through the point at which the forces meet. But what if they do not meet?

In the case of parallel forces the resultant can be easily found summing up the forces
algebraically: Parallel forces will be positive if they all point to the same direction, and
those pointing opposite to them will be considered negative. To get to the resultant force do
just like in the case of co-lineal forces. But now the moments of the forces have to be
considered because their “turning effects” will depend on how near or far are they to a
possible turning point. Now the moments play a fundamental role in problem solving and
the point at which the resultant force should be applied must be found so that the moment
of R will equal the sum of the moments of the original system.

Adding parallel forces graphically

The size of the resultant can be found graphically as shown for co-lineal forces to find the
point at which the line of action should pass the following method should be used
If forces point to the same direction:

Resultant
• Draw the system as it is (scaled of course)
• Change position between both forces
• Join tails to tips with two lines (dotted in figure)
• The resultant force will be parallel to the other two and its line of action will go
through P

If forces are opposite:

Resultant

• Draw the system as it is

• Change position between both forces
• Join tip to tip and tail to tail
• The resultant force will be parallel to the other two and its line of action will go
through P
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Adding parallel forces analytically

As in the case of co-linear forces are treated as real numbers. Forces pointing rightwards or
upwards are usually considered to be positive and those forces pointing opposite to them
are given a negative value. Then forces are added in the usual form for real numbers.
To find the point at which the resultant should be applied we must consider that the
moment of the resultant should be the same as the sum of the moments of the individual
forces. Hence the first thing to do is to choose one point as the centre of moments and then
refer all distances to this particular point
Example: calculate the resultant force and the point at which it should be applied for two
parallel forces with intensities of 3N and 4N, both pointing upwards and with lines of
action at 0,25m distance.
The resultant force will be obviously R = 3N + 4N = 7N
Now let us choose the point at which the 3N force is applied. Then;
MR = Σ Mi = M1 +M2 = 3N.0m + 4N.0.25m = 0 + 1Nm = 1Nm. As MR + R. d we get
d = MR / R = 1Nm / 7N = 1/7 m = 0,143 m away from the 3N force.

Stevin’s relation
In case of having two parallel forces a useful relation derived from the law of moments is
called the Stevin’s relation.
• Call the forces F1 and F2 and the resultant R
• Call the distance between the two forces d and the distance from each of the forces
to the resultant’s line of action d1 and d2 respectively
• Then F1 / d2 = F2 / d1 = R / d
• This can be used for any system of two parallel forces but not for a more complex
system

Combined situations
Many problems include complex systems where forces can be parallel to some and meet
with some other forces of the system. In that case both conditions for equilibrium should be
used, namely

Σ Fi = 0

Σ Mi = 0

SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device that helps make work easier to perform. A machine makes work
easier to perform by accomplishing one or more of the following functions:

1. transferring a force from one place to another,

2. changing the direction of a force,
3. increasing the magnitude of a force, or
4. increasing the distance along which it acts
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MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

When a machine takes a small input force and increases the magnitude of the output force,
a mechanical advantage (MA) has been produced. It is defined as the ratio between
output and input forces or
MA = Output Force / Input Force
The automobile jack is a common device used to produce a mechanical advantage. The jack
multiples the amount of force applied to the jack handle so that a small force (exerted by
the operator) can be used to produce the larger force necessary to lift the automobile.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

No machine can increase both the magnitude and the distance of a force at the same
time. When a machine produces an increase in force, there is always a proportional
decrease in the distance moved. Conversely, when a machine produces an increase in
distance, there will be a proportional decrease in force. Another way to state this concept is
that no machine can produce more work than the amount of work that is put into the
machine. This is known as the Law of Conservation of Energy.

THE SIMPLE MACHINES

You are probably familiar with many different machines. Some of these machines appear
highly complex. However, all machines, no matter how complex, are made up of one or
more of the simple machines. The simple machines are: levers, pulleys and inclined planes

Individually, each of these machines is a simple machine. When two or more simple
machines are combined in such a way that they work as a single mechanism, the device is
classified as a complex machine.

LEVER

A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the
fulcrum. The bar may be either straight or curved. In use, a lever
has both an applied force and a resistance force.
The mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of the length of
the lever on the applied force (effort) side of the fulcrum to the
length of the lever on the resistance force side of the fulcrum (the so called moment arms or
lever arms). However, the effort end of the lever must move a longer distance if the
resistance force is raised.
There are three different classes of levers. The class of a lever is determined by the location
of the applied and resistance forces relative to the fulcrum. Each of the three classes of
levers will be discussed next. For any of the three classes of levers to operate, the effort
should be a little stronger than the force that keeps the system in equilibrium. The force at
the fulcrum (pivot) always balances the other two (resistance and effort) but the moments
of these two forces to the fulcrum should balance each other:
Effort x effort’s arm = Resistance x resistance’s arm
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First-Class Lever. In a first-class lever the fulcrum is located at some

point between the effort and resistance forces. Common examples of
first-class levers include crowbars, scissors, pliers, tin snips and
seesaws.
A first-class lever always changes the direction of force (I.e. a
downward effort force on the lever results in an upward movement of
the resistance force). A first-class lever is illustrated:
With a first-class lever, when the fulcrum is closer to the resistance, the output force is
increased. However, there is a corresponding decrease in both output speed and distance.
Conversely, when the fulcrum is closer to the effort, the output force is decreased and there
is a corresponding increase in both output speed and distance.

Second-Class Levers. With a second-class lever, the resistance is

located between the fulcrum and the effort force. Common examples
of second-class levers include nut crackers, wheel barrows, and bottle
openers.
A second-class lever does not change the direction of force. When the
fulcrum is located closer to the resistance than to the force, an
increase in force (mechanical advantage) results. A second-class lever is illustrated.

Third-Class Lever. With a third-class lever, the effort force is applied

between the fulcrum and the resistance force. Examples of third-class
levers include tweezers, ice tongs, and shovels. A third-class lever
does not change the direction of force; third-class levers always
produce a gain in speed and distance and a corresponding decrease in
force. A third-class lever is illustrated.

PULLEY

A pulley consists of a grooved wheel that turns freely in a frame called a

block, with a rope, belt or chain wrapped around it. A pulley can be used to
simply change the direction of a force or to gain a mechanical advantage,
depending on how the pulley is arranged.
A pulley is said to be a fixed pulley if it does not rise or fall with the load
being moved. A fixed pulley changes the direction of a force; however, it
does not create a mechanical advantage. A fixed pulley is illustrated below.

A moveable pulley rises and falls with the load that is being moved. A
single moveable pulley creates a mechanical advantage; however, it does
not change the direction of a force.
The mechanical advantage of a moveable pulley is equal to the number of
ropes that support the moveable pulley. (When calculating the mechanical
advantage of a moveable pulley, count each end of the rope as a separate
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rope). As shown in the following illustration, two rope ends support the pulley. Therefore,
an effort force of 50 N will lift a resistance force of 100 N. The mechanical advantage is 2.

In many applications, both fixed and moveable pulleys are used in combination to form a
device known as a block and tackle. A block and tackle is capable of both changing the
direction of a force and creating a mechanical advantage.

The figure at the left shows a simple block and tackle and the
figure at the right side shows a combination of three moveable
and three fixed pulleys. In this second case the effort to keep
equilibrium will be halved by each of the moveable pulleys so
that for a system with n moveable pulleys:

Effort = Resistance / (2 x n)

INCLINED PLANE

An inclined plane is an even sloping surface. The inclined plane may slope at any angle
between the horizontal and the vertical. The inclined plane makes it easier to move a weight
from a lower to higher elevation. An inclined plane is illustrated below:

Let’s analyse when no external force is applied to a block leaning on an inclined plane

• Force due to Gravity (F)g

:The only reason for this box to
move down the slope will be a
component of gravity's force.
• Normal Force: A normal
force FN is always perpendicular to the
surface that you are on. Since this
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surface is slanted at an angle, the normal force will also point at an

angle.
• Force due to Friction: Ff will always be opposite to the
direction that something is moving. In this situation the object is
moving down the slope
• Break Fg up into components that point down parallel to the
slope (F//) and perpendicular to the slope (F┴).
• The normal component of will be balanced by FN so

F┴= Fg cos 30 = FN

• The component of Fg parallel to the inclined plane will be

F// = Fg sin 30

The force needed to balance the system will be

Effort = weight x sin angle - Friction force

The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is equal to the length of the slope divided by
the height of the inclined plane (cotg angle). This assumes that the effort force is applied
parallel to the slope. While the inclined plane produces a mechanical advantage, it does so
by increasing the distance through which the force must move.
Other simple machines are modifications of these three: the wedge, the screw, the gear, the
wheel-and-axle, winch, etc.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of mass or centre of inertia of an object is a point at which the object's mass
can be assumed, for many purposes, to be concentrated.
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object seems to be
applied. In fact any object is made of particles and each of its particles or small parts
experiences the gravitational pull towards the Earth. These small “weights” form a system
of parallel forces (we can neglect the angle formed because actually the forces should be
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pointing to the centre of the Earth). The resultant force of this system is the weight of the
object and the point of application of this force is the centre of gravity.

The moment of the weight to the centre of gravity is obviously zero.

In a uniform gravitational field, it coincides with the object's centre of mass.
For symmetric objects the CG is located at the centre of symmetry provided the density is
the same all through. Notice that the CG can be at a point outside the body as it is shown
in the ring of the figure.

The CG is a very important point in an object. A complex movement can be easily

described as the movement of the CG plus rotations along axes that pass through it. It plays
a fundamental role for deciding the stability or not of an equilibrium situation.

HANGING OBJECTS

Consider an object (say a bar) hanging loose from a point above, coinciding with and below
its CG. The force at point X will in the three cases cancel the weight and their moments
will cancel too. But if we just move it a small angle away from this
equilibrium position, the three cases will be different. If CG is below
point X, the torque that appears will drag the object back to initial
position: we call this situation a stable equilibrium position. If CG
is above point X, the torque will push the object away from the
initial position to a situation similar to the first case: this is an
unstable equilibrium position. If both points coincide the object
will remain in this new position usually called neutral equilibrium.
If we look carefully, in the case of stable equilibrium, the CG is at its
minimum and for unstable equilibrium at its maximum possible height. In the third case
the CG is always at the same position.
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OBJECTS STANDING ON A FLAT SURFACE

In case an object is placed on a flat surface, the figure

limited by the points at which the supporting forces act, is
called the supporting base: for a three-legged bench it
will be a triangle, a square for a table, a rectangle for a
piano, etc. The same considerations as in the previous
cases hold: when the object is displaced from its
equilibrium position it will go back again or tumble down depending on the direction of the
torque that appears. As long as the weight passes through the supporting base, that is, as
long as the CG lies upon it, equilibrium will be stable. Look at the cones of the figure:
which of them is in stable equilibrium? Can you think of a position of neutral equilibrium?
The wider the base of an object, the more stable will be because this increases the chance of
the CG lying upon the base (look once again at the cone).
Once again the CG tends to be as low as possible and the object will move towards this
situation. The objects shown have wide heavy bases for this reasons.

In a double deck bus, passengers are not allowed to stand upstairs. A rowing boat is less
stable if you stand up. Which of the flower vases in the figure will be the most and the least
stable?
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PROBLEMS: MOMENTS, PARALLEL FORCES AND RELATED

1- Find the moment of the forces with respect to the points as shown in the diagrams:
5N xP x P’
(a) (b) (c) 12N
Px
5N
.. .. x P...... ..... x P’’.....

(d) x P ... ... .... ...x P’

7N

Measure the distances from points to forces with a ruler

2- The systems shown are in equilibrium: find the missing force and its line of action.

2N 1N
............. 0,50 m ...................... ..... ..................50 cm...............
................40 cm..........
2N 4N 1N

3- Calculate the resultant force and the balancing force for the following cases. Find
the point at which they should be made. Solve both graphically and analytically.
a- Two parallel forces 25 N each pointing downwards and separated by a 50
cm distance.
b- A 50 N force and a 30 N force both pointing upwards separated by a 1 m
distance.
c- Two anti-parallel forces one having a 4 N strength and the other one a 7 N
strength and at 50 cm from each other.

4- Two slaves are carrying the 1400 N heavy Princess Fatty-ma by means of a litter.
One of them holds the litter from behind, 80 cm away from the Princess’ butt and
the other one at 1,20 m in front of it. What force is each of the slaves making?

5- You are given a 1,8 m iron bar to lift a 1.000 N stone. If you can at most make a 200
N force downwards: at what (minimum) distance from the end of the bar would you
put the pivot?

6- The systems shown are in equilibrium: find the missing force and distance to pivot
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20 N
………… 10 cm…………….. …….80 cm………...

2N 4N 10 N

6cm 8,5 cm Find mass X if the mass at the left is 8 N

7-

8- A car has a mass of 1.000 kg. Its front wheels are 2,5 m apart from the rear wheels
and its centre of gravity lies 50 cm behind the front shaft.
a- Calculate the forces on the front and rear wheels
b- If four passengers sit in the cabin the total mass increases
320 N and the centre of gravity is shifted 80 cm
backwards calculate the forces on the four wheels

9- Draw diagrams of a pear in the three kinds of equilibrium studied. (stable, unstable
and neutral)

10- A block is lying on am inclined plane that forms a 30º angle

with the floor. If the mass of the block is 180 kg and the
block is at rest, calculate the friction force

11- Mr. Mason holds a wheel barrow from 1,6 m from the wheel.
Its weight is 200 N and its centre of gravity is 50 cm from the
wheel. Calculate both Mr. Mason’s force and the force at the
wheel. If Mr. Mason loads the barrow with four 50 kg bags of
cement, calculate the force he should do now. The bags are
loaded so that their weight acts at 30 cm from the wheel’s
shaft.

12- “The direction of the change is the same as the direction force that is
producing it”. Explain in what direction your legs will push against the floor if you
want to jump high. Explain your answer.