1

Nama : Mustofa A.S

Nim : 15028
Bulldozer
bulldozer is a crawler (continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate
(known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, etc., during
construction work and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device (known as a
ripper) to loosen densely-compacted materials.
Bulldozers can be found on a wide range of sites, mines and quarries, military bases, heavy
industry factories,
engineering projects
and farms.The term
"bulldozer" is often
used erroneously to
mean any heavy
equipment (sometimes
a loader and
sometimes an
excavator), but
precisely, the term
refers only to a tractor
(usually tracked) fitted
with a dozer blade.
That is the meaning
used here.
Most often, bulldozers
are large and powerful
tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give them excellent ground hold and mobility through
very rough terrain. Wide tracks help distribute the bulldozer's weight over a large area
(decreasing pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in sandy or muddy ground. Extra wide
tracks are known as 'swamp tracks'. Bulldozers have excellent ground hold and a torque
divider designed to convert the engine's power into improved dragging ability. The
Caterpillar D9, for example, can easily tow tanks that weigh more than 70 tons. Because of
these attributes, bulldozers are used to clear areas of obstacles, shrubbery, burnt vehicles,
and remains of structures.The bulldozer's primary tools are the blade and the ripper.
Some bulldozers, especially bulldozers in military usage, have been fitted with armor to
protect the driver from enemy fire, enabling the bulldozer to operate in battle zones. The
best-known use of an armored bulldozer is probably the use by the Israeli Defence Forces
(IDF) of the IDF Caterpillar D9, for earth moving, clearing terrain obstacles, opening routes,
detonating explosive charges and demolishing structures whilst under fire. The extensive
use of armored bulldozers during the Second Intifada drew controversy and criticism from
human rights organizations while military experts saw it as a key factor in reducing IDF
casualties.
2


Ripper
The Rips machine assigns to a
stable isometric action of a finitely
generated group G a certain
"normal form" approximation of
that action by a stable action of G
on a simplicial tree and hence a
splitting of G in the sense of Bass
Serre theory. Group actions on real
trees arise naturally in several
contexts in geometric topology: for
example as boundary points of the
Teichmller space (every point in
the Thurston boundary of the
Teichmller space is represented
by a measured geodesic lamination
on the surface; this lamination lifts
to the universal cover of the surface
and a naturally dual object to that lift is an R-tree endowed with an isometric action of the
fundamental group of the surface), as Gromov-Hausdorff limits of, appropriately rescaled,
Kleinian group actions,and so on.
The use of R-trees machinery provides substantial shortcuts in modern proofs of Thurston's
Hyperbolization Theorem for Haken 3-manifolds. Similarly, -trees play a key role in the study
of Culler-Vogtmann's Outer space as well as in other areas of geometric group theory; for
example, asymptotic cones of groups often have a tree-like structure and give rise to group
actions on real trees. The use of R-trees, together with BassSerre theory, is a key tool in the
work of Sela on solving the isomorphism problem for (torsion-free) word-hyperbolic groups,
Sela's version of the JSJ-decomposition theory and the work of Sela on the Tarski Conjecture
for free groups and the theory of limit groups.
The ripper is the long claw-like device on the back of the bulldozer. Rippers can come as a
single (single shank/giant ripper) or in groups of two or more (multi shank rippers). Usually,
a single shank is preferred for heavy ripping. The ripper shank is fitted with a replaceable
tungsten steel alloy tip.
Ripping rock breaks the ground surface rock or pavement into small rubble easy to handle
and transport, which can then be removed so grading can take place. With agricultural
ripping, a farmer breaks up rocky or very hard earth (such as podzol hardpan) which is
otherwise unploughable, in order to farm it. For example, much of the best land in the
California wine country consists of old lava flows. The grower shatters the lava with heavy
bulldozers so surface crops or trees can be planted.


3


Power Shovel

Power shovel (also
stripping shovel or front
shovel or electric mining
shovel) is a bucket-equipped
machine, usually electrically
powered, used for digging
and loading earth or
fragmented rock and for
mineral extraction. Shovels
normally consist of a
revolving deck with a power
plant, driving and controlling
mechanisms, usually a
counterweight, and a front
attachment, such as a boom or crane which supports a handle with a digger at the end.
The machinery is mounted on a base platform with tracks or wheels.The bucket is also
known as the dipper. Modern bucket capacities range from 8 m
3
to nearly 80 m
3
Power shovels are
used principally for excavation and removal of overburden in open-cut mining operations, though it
may include loading of minerals, such as coal. They are the modern equivalent of steam shovels, and
operate in a similar fashion.
The shovel operates using several main motions:
hoist - pulling the bucket up through the bank (i.e. the bank of material being dug)
crowd - moving the dipper handle out or in to control the depth of cut and when
positioning to dump
swing - rotating the shovel between digging and dumping
propel - moving the shovel unit to different locations or dig positions
A shovel's work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of four phases:
digging
swinging
dumping
returning
The digging phase consists of crowding the dipper into the bank, hoisting the dipper to fill it,
then retracting the full dipper from the bank. The swinging phase occurs once the dipper is
clear of the bank both vertically and horizontally. The operator controls the dipper through
a planned swing path and dump height until it is suitably positioned over the haul unit (e.g.
truck).
4



Motor Grader
grader, also commonly
referred to as a road grader,
a blade, a maintainer, or a
motor grader, is a
construction machine with a
long blade used to create a
flat surface. Typical models
have three axles, with the
engine and cab situated
above the rear axles at one
end of the vehicle and a
third axle at the front end of
the vehicle, with the blade in
between. In certain
countries, for example in Finland, almost every grader is equipped with a second blade that
is placed in front of the front axle. Some construction personnel refer to the entire machine
as "the blade."
In civil engineering, the grader's purpose is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely) the "rough
grading" performed by heavy equipment or engineering vehicles such as scrapers and
bulldozers.Graders can produce inclined surfaces, to give cant (camber) to roads. In some
countries they are used to produce drainage ditches with shallow V-shaped cross-sections
on either side of highways.
Graders are commonly used in the construction and maintenance of dirt roads and gravel
roads. In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base course to create
a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on. Graders are also used to set native soil
foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction of large buildings.
In some locales such as Northern Europe, Canada, and places in the United States, graders
are often used in municipal and residential snow removal. In scrubland and grassland areas
of Australia and Africa, graders are often an essential piece of equipment on ranches, large
farms, and plantations to make dirt tracks where the absence of rocks and trees means
bulldozers are not required. A more recent innovation is the outfitting of graders with GPS
technology, such as manufactured by Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc., Trimble Navigation,
Leica Geosystems or Mikrofyn for precise grade control and (potentially) "stakeless"
construction.
Capacities range from a blade width of 2.50 to 7.30 m and engines from 93373 kW (125
500 hp). Certain graders can operate multiple attachments, or be used for separate tasks
like underground mining.

5


Loader
loader is a heavy equipment
machine often used in construction,
primarily used to load material
(such as asphalt, demolition debris,
dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs, raw
minerals, recycled material, rock,
sand, and woodchips) into or onto
another type of machinery (such as
a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-
hopper, or railcar).
Loader (also known as: bucket
loader, front loader, front end
loader, payloader, scoop loader, shovel, skip loader, and/or wheel loader) is a type of
tractor, usually wheeled, sometimes on tracks, that has a front mounted square wide bucket
connected to the end of two booms (arms) to scoop up loose material from the ground,
such as dirt, sand or gravel, and move it from one place to another without pushing the
material across the ground. A loader is commonly used to move a stockpiled material from
ground level and deposit it into an awaiting dump truck or into an open trench excavation.
Loaders are used mainly for uploading materials into trucks, laying pipe, clearing rubble, and
digging. A loader is not the most efficient machine for digging as it cannot dig very deep
below the level of its wheels, like a backhoe can. The capacity of a loader bucket can be
anywhere from 0.5 to 36 m
[1]
depending upon the size of the machine and its application.
The front loader's bucket capacity is generally much bigger than a bucket capacity of a
backhoe loader.
Unlike most bulldozers, most loaders are wheeled and not tracked, although track loaders
are common. They are successful where sharp edged materials in construction debris would
damage rubber wheels, or where the ground is soft and muddy. Wheels provide better
mobility and speed and do not damage paved roads as much as tracks, but provide less
traction.
In construction areas loaders are also used to transport building materials - such as bricks,
pipe, metal bars, and digging tools - over short distances.
Front loaders are commonly used to remove snow especially from sidewalks, parking lots,
and other areas too small for using snowplows and other heavy equipment.
6


Bac khoe
backhoe, also called
a rear actor or back
actor, is a piece of
excavating
equipment or digger
consisting of a
digging bucket on
the end of a two-
part articulated arm.
They are typically
mounted on the
back of a tractor or
front loader. The
section of the arm
closest to the vehicle
is known as the
boom, and the section which carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipperstick (the
terms "boom" and "dipper" having been used previously on steam shovels). The boom is
attached to the vehicle through a pivot known as the kingpost, which allows the arm to slew
left and right, usually through a total of around 200 degrees. Modern backhoes are powered
by hydraulics.
Most backhoes are at their strongest curling the bucket, with the dipper arm next most
powerful, and boom movements the least powerful.
A backhoe loader is a tractor-like vehicle with an arm and bucket mounted on the back and
a front loader mounted on the front. This type of vehicle is often known colloquially as a JCB
in Europe (after its inventor) and simply a Backhoe or a Tractor Loader Backhoe (TLB) in
North America. In North American terms, a Backhoe includes both a front bucket and a rear
hoe, on a chassis originally derived from farm tractors. A dedicated hoe on its own chassis is
more properly referred to as an excavator.
Backhoes can be designed and manufactured from the start as such, or can be the result of
a farm tractor equipped with a Front End Loader (FEL) and rear hoe. Though similar looking,
the designed backhoes are much stronger, with the farm variation more suitable for light
work. The farm variation also requires that the operator switch seats from sitting in front of
the backhoe controls to the tractor seat in order to reposition the equipment while digging,
and this often slows down the digging process.
Backhoes are general purpose tools, and are being displaced to some extent by multiple
specialist tools like the excavator and the speciality Front End Loader, especially with the
rise of the mini-excavator. On many jobsites which would have previously seen a backhoe
used, a skidsteer (colloquially often called a Bobcat after the most well known manufacturer
and inventor of the category) and a mini excavator will be used in conjunction to fill the
backhoe's role. However, backhoes still are in general use.
7


Clam Shell
Clam Shell is an excavator with a function as pengeduk
flops. What distinguishes the Back Hoe is on bucketnya,
a bucket at the Clam Shell sepertihalnya crab claw like
pincers.






Scrapper
Scrapper is a kind of tractor with a blade at the center and have a bucket or container to hold
the material you want to move a particular capacity, Scrapper serves to peel soil material and
the material is then inserted in a bucket or container in the Scrapper is a closed or can be
regarded as heavy equipment wheels tires (tire) that is usually used to load / transport and
dispose of (spreading) in individuals
with or without assisted driving
(bulldozers).


8


Dragline
dragline excavator is a
piece of heavy equipment
used in civil engineering
and surface mining.
In civil engineering the
smaller types are used for
road, port construction,
and as pile driving rigs.
The larger types are used
in strip-mining operations
to move overburden
above coal, and for tar-
sand mining. Draglines are
amongst the largest
mobile equipment ever built on land, and weigh in the vicinity of 2000 metric tonnes,
though specimens weighing up to 13,000 metric tonnes have also been constructed.
A dragline bucket system consists of a large bucket which is suspended from a boom (a large
truss-like structure) with wire ropes. The bucket is manoeuvred by means of a number of
ropes and chains. The hoist rope, powered by large diesel or electric motors, supports the
bucket and hoist-coupler assembly from the boom. The dragrope is used to draw the bucket
assembly horizontally. By skillful manoeuvre of the hoist and the dragropes the bucket is
controlled for various operations. A schematic of a large dragline bucket system is shown
below.
In a typical cycle of excavation, the bucket is positioned above the material to be excavated.
The bucket is then lowered and the dragrope is then drawn so that the bucket is dragged
along the surface of the material. The bucket is then lifted by using the hoist rope. A swing
operation is then performed to move the bucket to the place where the material is to be
dumped. The dragrope is then released causing the bucket to tilt and empty. This is called a
dump operation.
The bucket can also be 'thrown' by winding up to the jib and then releasing a clutch on the
drag cable. This would then swing the bucket like a pendulum. Once the bucket had passed
the vertical, the hoist cable would be released thus throwing the bucket. On smaller
draglines, a skilled operator could make the bucket land about one-half the length of the jib
further away than if it had just been dropped. On larger draglines, only a few extra metres
may be reached.
Draglines have different cutting sequences. The first is the side cast method using offset
benches; this involves throwing the overburden sideways onto blasted material to make a
bench. The second is a key pass. This pass cuts a key at the toe of the new highwall and also
shifts the bench further towards the low-wall. This may also require a chop pass if the wall is
blocky.
9


Mobile Crane
Mobile Crane A cable-controlled crane mounted
on crawlers or rubber-tired carriers. A
hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping
boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as self-
propelled models.
A truck carrier provides the mobility for this
type of crane. This crane has two parts: there
carrier, often referred to as the Lower, and the
lifting component which includes the boom,
referred to as the Upper. These are mated
together through a turntable allowing the upper
to swing from side to side. These modern
hydraulic truck cranes are usually single-engine
machines, with the same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane. the upper is
usually powered via hydraulics run through the
turntable from the pump mounted on the lower. In older model designs of hydraulic truck
cranes there were 2 engines. One in the lower pulled the crane down the road and ran a
hydraulic pump for the outriggers and jacks. The one in the upper ran the upper through a
hydraulic pump of it's own. Many older operaters favor the 2 engine system due to leaking
seals in the turntable of aging newer design cranes.
Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special
equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place such
as local laws. If this is the case most larger cranes are equipped with either special trailers to
help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An
example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the
counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able to remove the
entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane and mostly done with a
conventional crane such as a link-belt HC-238. When working on the jobsite, outriggers are
extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while
stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles per
hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways
from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the
chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for
stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the
most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-
calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the
maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and
travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 short tons (12.9 long tons; 13.2 t) to
about 1,300 short tons (1,161 long tons; 1,179 t.
10


Dump Truck
Dump truck (or, UK,
dumper truck) is a truck
used for transporting
loose material (such as
sand, gravel, or dirt) for
construction. A typical
dump truck is equipped
with a hydraulically
operated open-box bed
hinged at the rear, the
front of which can be
lifted up to allow the
contents to be
deposited on the
ground behind the
truck at the site of
delivery. In the UK and Australia the term applies to off-road construction plant only, and
the road vehicle is known as a tipper, tipper lorry (UK) or tip truck (AU). standard dump
truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. The bed is raised by a
hydraulic ram mounted under the front of the dumper body between the frames, and the
back of the bed is hinged at the back to the truck. The tailgate can be configured to swing on
hinges or it can be configured in the "High Lift Tailgate" format wherein pneumatic rams lift
the gate open and up above the dump body.
In the United States, a standard dump truck has one front axle, and one or more rear axles
which typically have dual wheels on each side. Rear axles are either powered or unpowered.
Most unpowered rear axles can be raised off the pavement, to minimize wear and tear
when the truck is unloaded or lightly loaded, and lowered to become load-bearing when the
truck needs the extra support. These are referred to as lift axles or drop axles. Lift axles can
be steerable or non-steerable; steerable lift axles are always configured with single wheels
on each side, instead of dual wheels. Lift axles positioned in front of the powered axles are
called pushers; lift axles positioned behind the powered axles are called tags. A trailing tag is
a special type of tag mounted on an arm that extends 12 to 15 ft (3.66 to 4.57 m) behind the
truck frame to extend the overall outer bridge length of the vehicle.
Common configurations for a standard dump truck include the six wheeler which has one
powered rear axle, the ten wheeler with two powered rear axles, the tri-axle with one lift
axle and two powered axles, and the quad with two lift axles and two powered axles.. The
largest of the standard dump trucks is commonly called a "centipede" and has seven axles.
The rear two axles are powered, the front axle is the steering axle, and the remaining four
are lift axles. The intermediate axles are present to support the weigh over the length of the
chassis and sometimes to provide additional braking power. In the European Union, the
dump truck configurations are 2, 3 and 4 axles. The 4 axle eight wheeler has 2 axles at the
front and 2 at the rear
[notes 1]
and is limited to 32 metric tons (35 short tons; 31 long tons)
gross weight in most EU countries.
11


Trailer
semi-trailer does not trail completely
behind the towing vehicle, but is
attached at a point that is just forward of
the rear-most axle of the towing unit, so
that some fraction of the weight of the
trailer is carried by the prime mover,
with most of that at the rear axle of the
prime mover, but a small amount at the
front axle. This arrangement requires
both tractor and semi-trailer to be
distinct in design from a rigid truck and
trailer.
In North America, semi tractors usually have 3 axles, the front, or "steer", axle having two
wheels, and each of the two rear, "drive", axles having a pair of "dualies" (double wheels) on
each side. Thus, the most common configuration of tractor has 10 wheels; however, in some
cases dual wheels are replaced by tires known as "super singles" (see below), or wide-base
singles, to reduce the weight of the tractor. (The weight reduction is about 180 pounds
(82 kg) per axle when using super singles). In this case the tractor will only have six wheels.
A smaller tractor, having a single drive axle (six wheeler) is often used to pull shorter trailers
in tight urban environments, such as downtown areas where a 60-foot (18 m) rig would be
too difficult to maneuver. Sleeper cabs (trucks with sleeper units) usually don't have single
axles, but both day cabs and trucks with sleepers are produced with them.
The cargo trailer usually has two "tandem" axles at the rear, each of which has dual wheels,
or eight wheels on the trailer. Many trailers are equipped with movable tandems and fifth
wheels that can be set to adjust the weight on each axle to stay within legal limits.
Although the sum of the weights of the tractor and the trailer (the gross weight) is normally
limited to a certain amount, some roads are marked with a different gross restriction to
prevent road damage. Cargoes that exceed allowed weights are usually marked with
overweight load and must obtain a permit to use certain roads.
In most areas a truck is generally limited to two trailers and a total length of 26 metres
(85 ft) and in urban areas this length limit is further reduced to 19 metres (62 ft). 25 or
26 metre - with permits from state authorities - (82 ft to 85 ft), 62.5 ton (137,788 lb) B-
doubles are very common in all parts of Australia including state capitals and on major
routes may outnumber single trailer configurations.
Although dual wheels are most common, use of two single, wider tires (known as "super
singles") on each axle is becoming popular, initially among bulk cargo carriers and other
weight-sensitive operators. With a growing desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions the
use of the super single tire is gaining popularity.

12


Tridum Roller
Road rollers use the
weight of the
vehicle to compress
the surface being
rolled (static) or use
mechanical
advantage
(vibrating). Initial
compaction of the
substrate on a road
project is done
using a padfoot
drum roller, which
achieves higher
compaction density
due to the pads having less surface area. On large freeways a four wheel compactor with
padfoot drum and a blade, such as a Caterpillar 815/825 series machine, would be used due
to its high weight, speed and the powerful pushing force to spread bulk material. On
regional roads a smaller single padfoot drum machine may be used. The next machine is
usually a single smooth drum compactor that compacts the high spots down until the soil is
smooth, and this is usually done in combination with a motor grader to get a level surface.
Sometimes at this stage a pneumatic tyre roller would be used. These rollers feature two
rows (front and back) of pneumatic tyres that overlap, and the flexibility of the tyres
provides a kneading action that seals the surface and with some vertical movement of the
wheels, enables the roller to operate effectively on uneven ground. Once the soil base is flat
the pad drum compactor is no longer used on the road surface.
The next course (road base) would be compacted using a smooth single drum, smooth
tandem roller or pneumatic tyre roller in combination with a grader ,and a water truck to
achieve the desired flat surface with the right moisture content for optimum compaction.
Once the road base is compacted, the smooth single drum compactor is no longer used on
the road surface (There is however an exception, if the single drum has special flat-wide-
base tyres on the machine). The final wear course of asphalt concrete (a.k.a. asphalt or
blacktop in North America, or macadam in England) is laid using a paver and compacted
using a tandem smooth drum roller, a three-point roller or a pneumatic tyre roller. Three
point rollers on asphalt were very common once and are still used, but tandem vibrating
rollers are the usual choice now, with the pneumatic tyre roller's kneading action being the
last roller to seal of the surface.
Rollers are also used in landfill compaction. Such compactors typically have padfoot or
"sheep's-foot" drums, and do not achieve a smooth surface. The pads aid in compression,
due to the smaller area contacting the ground.

13


Double Drum Roller
Tandem Roller: comprises the pivot
2 (two axles) and pivot 3 (three-axle
tandem rollers). The use of the roller
is generally to obtain a rather
smooth surface, such as the rolling
of asphalt concrete and others.
Tandem roller provides the same
path on each wheel, weighing
between 8-14 tons, weight gain
caused by fluid filling (ballasting)
ranged between 25% - 60% of the
weight roller. To obtain additional
density is usually used on the job
rolling three axle tandem roller.
Tandem roller should not be used to
crush rocks are hard and sharp as it will damage the wheels penggilasnya.
bulldozers are large and powerful tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give them excellent
ground hold and mobility through very rough terrain. Wide tracks help distribute the
bulldozer's weight over a large area (decreasing pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in
sandy or muddy ground. Extra wide tracks are known as 'swamp tracks'. Bulldozers have
excellent ground hold and a torque divider designed to convert the engine's power into
improved dragging ability. The Caterpillar D9, for example, can easily tow tanks that weigh
more than 70 tons. Because of these attributes, bulldozers are used to clear areas of
obstacles, shrubbery, burnt vehicles, and remains of structures.

14


PNEUMATIC-TIRED ROLLERS


The pneumatic-tired rollers are widely used for compaction of subgrades, bases,
bituminous mixes, and many types of material. They have rubber tires instead of steel tires
or drums and generally feature two tandem axles, with three or four tires on the front axle
and four or five tires on the rear, as shown in figure 11-42. They are aligned so the rear tires
cover the spaces left between the tracks of the front tires. The tires are mounted in pairs
that can oscillate, or singly with spring action, so tires can move down into soft spots that
would be bridged by a steel drum.
The rubber tires add to their downward pressure a kneading effect, as material is pressed
toward spaces between the tires. Pneumatic-tired rollers can be ballasted to adjust the
weight. Depending on size and type, the weight may vary from 10 to 35 tons. However,
more important than gross weight is the weight per wheel for the material being
compacted. Figure 11-43.Action of a pneumatic-tired roller. CAUTION Pneumatic rollers
ballast with water are top heavy and are very unstable when operating on uneven
terrain

15


Dredger
Dredging is an excavation
activity or operation usually
carried out at least partly
underwater, in shallow seas or
fresh water areas with the
purpose of gathering up bottom
sediments and disposing of them
at a different location. This
technique is often used to keep
waterways navigable.
It is also used as a way to
replenish sand on some public
beaches, where too much sand
has been lost because of coastal
erosion. Dredging is also used as
a technique for fishing for
certain species of edible clams and crabs, see fishing dredge.
A dredge is a device for scraping or sucking the seabed, used for dredging. A dredger is a
ship or boat equipped with a dredge. The terms are sometimes interchanged.
The process of dredging creates spoils (excess material), which are carried away from the
dredged area. Dredging can produce materials for land reclamation or other purposes (usually
construction-related), and has also historically played a significant role in gold mining.
Dredging can create disturbance in aquatic ecosystems, often with adverse impacts.
Capital: dredging carried out to create a new harbour, berth or waterway, or to deepen
existing facilities in order to allow larger ships access. Because capital works usually
involve hard material or high-volume works, the work is usually done using a cutter
suction dredge or large trailing suction hopper dredge, but for rock works drilling and
blasting along with mechanical excavation may be used.
Preparatory: work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves, often
connected with foundation work.
Maintenance: dredging to deepen or maintain navigable waterways or channels which
are threatened to become silted with the passage of time, due to sedimented sand and
mud, possibly making them too shallow for navigation. This is often carried out with
a trailing suction hopper dredge. Most dredging is for this purpose, and it may also be
done to maintain the holding capacity of reservoirs or lakes.
Land reclamation: dredging to mine sand, clay or rock from the seabed and using it to
construct new land elsewhere. This is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge
or trailing suction hopper dredge. The material may also be used for flood or erosion
control.
Beach nourishment: mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand
eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and
protective function of the beaches, which can be eroded by human activity or by
storms. This is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction
hopper dredge.
16


Tower Crane
crane is a type of machine, generally equipped
with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves,
that can be used both to lift and lower materials
and to move them horizontally. It uses one or
more simple machines to create mechanical
advantage and thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a man. Cranes are
commonly employed in the transport industry
for the loading and unloading of freight, in the
construction industry for the movement of
materials and in the manufacturing industry for
the assembling of heavy equipment.
ower cranes are a modern form of balance crane
that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the
ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes
attached to the sides of structures as well),
tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in
the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the
crane its height. Further the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that
allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are:
the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operators cab.
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a
counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the
center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or
controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's
cab is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be
mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane
operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves.
The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its
motor.A tower crane rotates on its axis before lowering the lifting hook.
In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a
signaller (known as a 'dogger', 'rigger' or 'swamper'). They are most often in radio contact,
and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane,
and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads.
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach (also
see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while
constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to the roof
of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more
difficult than the installation

17


Stone Crusher
crusher is a machine
designed to reduce large
rocks into smaller rocks,
gravel, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to
reduce the size, or change
the form, of waste
materials so they can be
more easily disposed of
or recycled, or to reduce
the size of a solid mix of
raw materials (as in rock
ore), so that pieces of
different composition can
be differentiated.
Crushing is the process of
transferring a force
amplified by mechanical
advantage through a
material made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and resist deformation more, than
those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices hold material between two parallel or
tangent solid surfaces, and apply sufficient force to bring the surfaces together to generate enough
energy within the material being crushed so that its molecules separate from (fracturing), or change
alignment in relation to (deformation), each other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones,
where the weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil. Querns
and mortars are types of these crushing devices.
crushers are machines which use a metal surface to break or compress materials. Mining
operations use crushers, commonly classified by the degree to which they fragment the
starting material, with primary and secondary crushers handling coarse materials, and
tertiary and quaternary crushers reducing ore particles to finer gradations. Each crusher is
designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material, and often delivers its output
to a screening machine which sorts and directs the product for further processing. Typically,
crushing stages are followed by milling stages if the materials need to be further reduced.
Crushers are used to reduce particle size enough so that the material can be processed into
finer particles in a grinder. A typical circuit at a mine might consist of a crusher followed by a
SAG mill followed by a ball mill. In this context, the SAG mill and ball mill are considered
grinders rather than crushers.
In operation, the raw material (of various sizes) is usually delivered to the primary crusher's
hopper by dump trucks, excavators or wheeled front-end loaders. A feeder device such as
an apron feeder, conveyor or vibrating grid controls the rate at which this material enters
the crusher, and often contains a preliminary screening device which allows smaller material
to bypass the crusher itself, thus improving efficiency. Primary crushing reduces the large
pieces to a size which can be handled by the downstream machinery.

18


Sheep Foot Roller
Pounder type of leg of
lamb, the principle of
sheep foot roller is a
cylinder mounted on the
outside legs. On the legs is
the case of high pressure,
so that these legs into the
ground and give the effect
of "solidification from
below". Sheep foot roller
is best used for sandy soils
with little clay containing,
also for plastic and
cohesive soils. Very
effectively used for
compacting loose material
with a layer thickness
between 15-25 cm. In
addition to the pull of sheep foot roller (towed) also found that sheep foot roller engine that
can move itself at speeds of about 32 km / hour. For the sheep foot roller-drawn, if the
force is large enough tractor pullers, usually drawn some distance, lined to the side, one line
or a combination of both. Sheep foot roller size is between 3-5 tons, but some are 12-30
tons.
Some bulldozers have been fitted with armor by non-government civilian operators to prevent
bystanders or police from interfering with the work performed by the bulldozer, as in the case
of strikes or demolition of condemned buildings. This has also been done by civilians with a
dispute with the authorities, such as Marvin Heemeyer, who outfitted his Komatsu D355A
bulldozer with homemade composite armor to then demolish government buildings.





all materials that can be searched on the web Misriyanoor