STRENGTHENING BY PRESTRESSING

PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES
General
Pre-stressed concrete is reinforced concrete in which the steel reinforcement has
been tensioned against the concrete. This tensioning operation results in a self-
equilibrating system of internal stresses (tensile stress in the steel and compressive
stresses in the concrete) which improves the response of the concrete to external
loads. (Collins and Mitchell 1991).

The first attempts to prestress concrete structures were with normal strength steel,
which were unsuccessful. The first practical use of prestressed concrete was in
France 1928, when Eugene Freyssinet began to use high-strength steel wires for
prestressing (Collins and Mitchell 1991).

The basic idea is to create a negative moment in the construction part to enhance
its capabilities. A prestressed structure can be made much thinner then a structure
with nonprestressed steel reinforcement. Since the method is more costly, it is
mainly used on larger structures or for structures where higher demands for small
deformations exist.
There are two different ways of prestressing,
pre-tensioning and post-tensioning.
Moreover, there are mainly two ways in which to place the reinforcement, inside
the concrete or outside as external reinforcement.

Pre-tensioning

Pre-tensioning is when the cables are stressed prior to casting of the concrete. The
cables remain stressed until the concrete has cured and then they are released or
cut. The cables can be bonded in two ways, to the concrete only or with a
mechanical anchorage. Pre-tensioned cables are used for structures with the
reinforcement inside the structure.
After curing of the concrete the stressing force is released and the rod introduces a
compressive force to the concrete member.

Step 1 - Tensioning of the prestressing rod before casting
Step 2 - Casting of concrete around tensioned rod
Step 3 - The prestressing force is released and the rods cut, causing the shortening
of member

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Post-tensioning

Post-tensioning is when the cables are stressed on an existing structural element,
for example after the concrete has cured if it is a concrete structure. The cables can
be located both inside and outside of the structure. Here a mechanical anchorage in
the end must be used to hold the cables in place and to keep the prestress active.
An externally stressed cable is defined as post-tensioned. External tendons can be
used in new structures but also on existing structures.



External post-tensioning
The external post-tensioning technique has been used effectively to increase the
flexural and shear capacity of both reinforced and prestressed concrete members
since the 1950s. With this type of upgrading, active external forces are applied to
the structural member using post-tensioned (stressed) cables to resist new loads.
Because of the minimal, additional weight of the repair system, this technique is
effective and economical, and has been employed with great success to correct
excessive deflections and cracking in beams and slabs, parking structures, and
cantilevered members.
The post-tensioning forces are delivered by means of standard prestressing tendons
or high-strength steel rods, usually located outside the original section. The
tendons are connected to the structure at anchor points, typically located at the
ends of the member. End-anchors can be made of steel fixtures bolted to the
structural member, or reinforced concrete blocks that are cast into place. The
desired uplift force is provided by deviation blocks, fastened at the high or low
points of the structural element. Prior to external prestressing, all existing cracks
are epoxy-injected and spalls are patched to ensure that prestressing forces are
distributed uniformly across the section of the member.

Figure: External post-tensioned designs
have been a successful strengthening method for many years.
Figure illustrates an external post-tensioning system used to strengthen prestressed
double tees damaged by vehicular impact. Four double tee stems on an overpass
located on the premises of a university in Washington, D.C., were damaged when
the driver of an over-height truck failed to observe the posted height restriction.
The four stems suffered excessive concrete cracking and spalling, and damage
occurred to some of the internal prestressing steel.
Proposed solutions included replacing the damaged double tees with new ones and
installing a steel frame underneath for support. Both options would render the
overpass out of service for a longer-than-desired period. The option of an external
post-tensioning system was more economical, required less time to complete, and
allowed for a strengthening system that provided active forces. Therefore, it was
more compatible with the existing construction. After all cracks were injected, the
sides of the stems were formed and new concrete was cast to restore the integrity
of the stems. The strengthening system then was installed, andafter the concrete
curedthe external strands were stressed according to the engineer-specified
forces.


Types of Prestressing Tendons

An ideal tendon material should not only have high-strength but it also has to
remain in elastic range until relatively high stresses are reached. Furthermore, it
has to show sufficient ductility and good bonding properties, low relaxation and
high resistance to fatigue and corrosion. There are three main types of tendons
used in prestressed
concrete: wires, strands (made of several wires), and bars.

The high tensile strength and ductility of prestressing - steels are obtained by a
production process using:
1) High carbon hot rolled alloy steel;
2) Cold drawn or deformed carbon steel (preferably tempered);
3) Hot rolled and heat-treated carbon steel;

Most of the prestressing wires are produced with a cold working process (drawing
or rolling). There are several kinds of cross-sectional shapes and surface conditions
for wires, the most common are round or oval, smooth or indented, ribbed, twisted,
or crimped.
The strands are made by several wires. For example, in the seven-wire strand six
spherical wires are helically wound over a central wire which has a larger diameter
than the surrounding wires. Because wires are usually produced with small
diameters, the strands show superior properties than single bars due to better
quality control.
They are also easier to handle due to more flexibility than in a single bar of the
same diameter.
Prestressing bars are produced with smooth or ribbed surfaces. The first ones can
be mechanically end-treated to be used in anchoring systems, while the second
ones can be anchored anywhere along their length.

ADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING

Concreting of new structures is improved as there are no or few tendons and
bars in the section
Dimensions of the concrete section can be reduced due to less space needed
for internal reinforcement.
Profiles of external tendons are simpler and easier to check during and after
installation.
Grouting is improved because of a better visual control of the operation.
External tendons can be removed and replaced if the corrosion protection of
the external tendons allows for the release of the prestressing force.
Friction losses are significantly reduced because external tendons are linked
to the structure only at the deviation and anchorage zones
The main construction operations, concreting and prestressing, are more
independent of one another; therefore the influence of workmanship on the
overall quality of the structure is reduced.

DISADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING


External tendons are more easily accessible than internal ones and,
consequently, are more vulnerable to sabotage and fire.
External tendons are subjected to vibrations and, therefore, their free length
should be limited.
Deviation and anchorage zones are cumbrous additions to the cross section.
These elements must be designed to support large longitudinal and
transverse forces.
In the deviation zones, high transverse pressure acts on the prestressing steel.
The saddles inside the deviation zones should be precisely installed to
reduce friction as much as possible and to avoid damage to the prestressing
steel.
In the case of internal grouted tendons, the long-term failure of anchor heads
has limited consequences because prestressing may be transferred to the
structure by bond. In the case of external tendons, the behaviour of anchor
heads is much more critical. Therefore, anchor heads should be carefully
protected against corrosion.
At ultimate limit states, the contribution of external tendons to flexural
strength is reduced compared to internal grouted tendons. The stress
variation between the cracking load and ultimate load cannot be evaluated at
the critical section only, as is done for internal bonded tendons.
At ultimate limit states, failure with little warning due to insufficient
ductility is a major concern for externally prestressed structures.
The actual eccentricities of external tendons are generally smaller compared
to internal tendons.