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ECONOMICS

History of Economics

Economics originated from the Greeks, it was first known as OIKONOMIA (OIKONOMICOS) which
means household management.
The father of economics is Adam Smith


Definition
Here we will look at three definitions given by famous economists.

His definition was called as the Wealth Definition. He defined economics as a study of wealth in
his famous book Wealth of Nation published in the year 1776.

Adam Smith

Marshalls definition was known as the Welfare Definition. He defined economics as Economics is
a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.

Alfred Marshall

Robins definition was known as the Scarcity Definition. According to Robin Economics is a
science, which studies human behavior as a relationship between
Lionel Robin
ends and scarce means which
have alternative uses
His definition can be summarized as:
.

- (ends) human wants are unlimited
- (scarce means) resources are limited
- (alternative) different

In short, he means, human wants are unlimited but the resources are limited but all these limited
resources have many uses.


BASIC ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

These are basic requirements or necessities of life. These are things people cant live without.
Example, food, clothing, shelteretc

Needs

These are things people would like to have over and above their needs. Wants are unlimited.
Example, to have expensive perfume

Wants

When a particular commodity is not enough to satisfy all human wants completely it is known
as scarcity. It means the supply of a commodity is limited in relation to its demand.
Scarcity
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These are the factors of production used to produce other goods and services. Resources can
also be called as the factors of production. Resources can be classified into three:
Resources
Natural Resources: these are gifts of nature example, trees, air, landetc
Human Resources: all efforts of human, whether physical, mental, skilled or
unskilled.
Manufactured Resources: these are man-made resources example, machinery


Economizing is making the most of what we have, that is using the limited resources in such a
way that it gives the maximum benefit and reduces wastage. Example, a paper is economized if
we use both sides of it to write.

Economizing

It is the selection between two or more commodities. We are forced to make choices because
our resources are limited and wants are unlimited. When we make a choice we select the
commodity that gives us the maximum satisfaction.

Choice

Opportunity cost is the next best alternative forgone.
It the real cost of choosing something. When we make a choice we have to give up or forgo
something, the forgone thing is the opportunity cost.

For example, suppose you have only RF 100 and you want to buy a CD and story book. Can you
buy both? No you cant because your resource (money) is not enough here. So you have to
make a choice, which means you have to forgo something. Lets say, you decided to buy the
story book so you are giving up the CD hence, the opportunity cost of buying the story book is
the CD that you have forgone.

Opportunity Cost
Opportunity cost is not how much money we spend on goods, but the other goods and
services we could have bought with the money.
Opportunity cost should also include other relevant costs like the value of time spend
and the value of the opportunities we forgo.

For example: suppose you are considering on visiting an aunt (who is willing to help you in the
economic assignment) or going to Athena to watch a movie. Your aunt does not charge you for
helping you out but you would have to spend around 2 hours at her house. The movie cost RF
25 and the movie goes on for 2 hours. Is tutorial free? No, because it comes at the expense of
missing the movies plus some other works which you could do at that time.
The opportunity cost of going to watch the movie is the goods which you could buy with RF 25
and the missed tutorial session with your aunt.


These are intangible things which we cant see, feel or touch. Example, service of a teacher,
doctor...etc
Services
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Good is anything that is tangible which has the power to satisfy human wants. Tangible things
are those things which we can see, feel and touch. Goods can be mainly categorized into the
following:
Goods
Goods

Free Goods Economic Goods


Consumer Goods Producer Goods




Durable Goods Non-Durable Goods

These are gifts of nature for which are available in abundance (large quantities) and does not
have any cost of production, therefore we dont have to pay a price for it hence, there is no
opportunity cost. Example, river water, sunlight, airetc

Free Goods

These are man-made goods which involves a cost of production so we have to pay a price for
these goods and they are limited in supply and have an opportunity cost. Example, pen,
clothesetc

Economics Goods

These are goods produced for direct consumption. Consumption means using up of goods and
services.

Consumer Goods

These are goods used to produce other goods and services, these goods are not used for direct
consumption. Example, machineries

Producer Goods

These are goods which last for long period of time. Example, cars, TVetc

Durable Goods

These are goods which do not last for a long period of time; they have a very short life.
Example, fruits, batteries, pensetc.

Non-Durable Goods

Any kind of work that helps to satisfy peoples wants and for which the consumers are willing to
pay a price for it is known as production. It includes both the output of goods and services. For
example, education, health services, work done in factoriesetc.

Production
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Consumption refers to the using up of goods and services to satisfy human wants. It can be
either direct consumption or indirect consumption.
Consumption
Direct consumption means using up of goods and services directly e.g. food,
clothingetc
Indirect consumption means using up of goods and services indirectly e.g. using of an
airport or railway station...etc.


Distribution is dividing of different resources into different sectors of production, in the most
efficient way.

Distribution

Exchange is buying and selling of goods and services for money.

Exchange

Income is the flow of money in a given period of time. Example, salary

Income

Wealth refers to the stocks of goods which have a money value. It can be:
Wealth
Private wealth:

the stock of goods possessed by an individual person e.g. car,
depositsetc
Social wealth:

wealth which is owned by the community e.g. roads, parks, schoolsetc
National wealth:

everything that is owned by the people of the country which has
money value. It is the sum of private and social wealth.

We buy goods and services to satisfy our wants. When we use the good or service we are
consuming it, this is known as utility. When we speak of consuming a good, we are describing
the using-up of the utility the good provides rather than of the good itself. For example, we
enjoy the programmes in the TV (we consume it) not the television set itself.

Utility

Merit goods are those goods that the government thinks people should have, and if not provided
by the government these goods and services will be underprovided by the private sector.
Example: Education and Health.

Merit Goods

Public goods are those goods which are non-exhaustible (non-rivalry) and non-excludable.
Public Goods
This means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce the amount of
the good available for consumption by others; and no one can be effectively excluded from
using that good.
For example, if one individual eats a cake, there is no cake left for anyone else, and it is
possible to exclude others from consuming the cake; it is an exhaustible (rival) and
excludable private good.
But, street-lights neither reduce the amount of brightness available to others, nor can
people be effectively excluded from using the light. This makes it a public good.
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1- Land
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Factors of production are the resources used to produce goods and services. Factors of production are
broadly classified into:
2- Labour
3- Capital
4- Entrepreneur

1-

LAND (Natural Resource)
Land refers to all the natural resources on Earth which are available to us for the
satisfaction of our wants. It refers to everything in atmosphere, in the sea and in the
ground. It is the gifts of nature.
The price paid for the use of land is rent
The supply of land is limited, this means the supply of land does not increase or decrease on
its own. But land has alternative uses, since the same piece of land can often be put into
different uses.
.
There are renewable and non-renewable
Replaceable resources are such as wood, which can be grown again within a period of time.
resources found in the land. It is true that there is
strictly limited supply of minerals in the earths surface like oil, oil once used up we cannot
bring it back these are known as non-renewable or non-replaceable resources.
Land is occupationally mobile,
Land is
that means a piece of land can be used for various purposes,
like to farm or to build a house or to have a shopetc.
geographically immobile

, that means land cannot be moved from one place to
another.
2-

LABOUR (Human Resource)
Labour refers to all kinds of human effort whether physical, mental, skilled or unskilled
which is done for a reward other than the pleasure derived from it.
Labour is one of the active factors of production.
The reward for labour is wage or salary.

Supply of labour refers to the number of labour hours offered by a labourer at an agreed
wage rate over a given period of time.
Supply of Labour
It is the service of the labourer that is bought and sold not the labourer.


The supply of labour depends on certain factors such as:
Increase in the size of the working population will increase the supply of labour
Size of the working population:

Increase in the number of holidays, leaves and strikes will decrease the supply of labour
Number of holidays, leave, strikesetc:

An increase in wage rate will increase the supply of labour and vice-versa.

Wage rate:
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Efficiency of labour

Efficiency of labour refers to the amount of work that a worker can do during a given period of time.
Efficiency of labour is also known as productivity. Productivity of labour can be measured in terms of
output per worker per hour. Efficiency of labour is one of the factors which influence the output of a
country.


Factors that affect efficiency of labour (productivity)


Education and training is one of the factors that affect the efficiency of labour. A worker with
good educational background would be more productive than an uneducated worker. If good
education and training facilities are available the countrys working population would be more
efficient.

Education and training facilities


Good working condition is important for a worker to work efficiently. If the workers are working
in a damp, badly-lit, badly-ventilated place the workers cannot give their best to work. But if
they work in a good working condition it will help the workers to increase their productivity.

Working conditions


Workers in firms which are well-managed, well-organized, and which use latest equipments will
generally be more productive than those employed in firms which are poorly equipped and
badly managed.

Management and equipment


Motivation should be given in order to make the workers more efficient as motivation affect
the productivity. Motivation can be of material incentives or moral incentives. Material
incentives like a bonus, or a fully-paid vacation trip...etc and moral incentives like letting the
worker know that he did a good job, or ask the worker to keep up the good worketc.

Motivation
Geographical Mobility of Labour
Mobility of labour

Mobility of labour refers to the movement of the labour from one place to another and one occupation
(job) to another. Mobility of labour can be classified into two:

Occupational mobility of labour




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Geographical Mobility of Labour

Geographical mobility of labour refers to the movement of labour from one place to another for better
rewards or convenience.
For example, a pilot in Maldives goes to America as a pilot.


Barriers (Causes) to Geographical Mobility of Labour

Climatic condition:

it might be difficult for a worker who is in a warm weather country to go for
a job in a cold country.
Scarcity of infrastructure:

a worker may not be willing to move to a country where the basic
infrastructures like good roads, good transport systems are lacking.
Lack of employment opportunities:

the worker can geographically move if jobs are available in
the other parts of the country and other parts of the world. Lack of job opportunities will be a
barrier for the workers to move from one place to another.
Lack of economic development:

workers may not be willing to move to a country if that
country is economically backward.
Lack of technological development:

lack of technological development could also be a barrier
to geographical mobility of labour as workers always like to work at places where they have up-
to-date technology and equipment as it affects their productivity.
Slow urbanization:

urbanization refers to the process whereby cities grow and societies
become more developed. So workers already in area which is very less developed they need to
stay in order to develop that area.

Ways to increase Geographical Mobility of Labour

Providing more employment opportunities:

by providing more job opportunities in the other
parts of the country we can increase the geographical mobility of labour. Job opportunities can
be increased by starting up new industries and also expanding the existing ones. For example:
Herethere project in Maldives that is, the opening of the resort in S.Atoll. Opening of this
resort will create lots of job opportunities in the Southern part of Maldives.
Technological development:

improving the technological status of the country will bring in
more workers to the country, thereby increasing the geographical mobility of labour.
Providing better education and health facilities:

provision of better education and health
facilities in other countries will enhance the geographical movement of labour.
Government policy to reduce congestion: sometimes an area of the country get congested, so
in order to reduce the congestion the government can take measures and create other places
to live where there are jobs available and also with good education and health. In Maldives, the
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introduction of Hulhumale and Villingili has increased the geographical mobility of labour
thereby reducing the congested level in the capital Male.

Providing better transport facilities:

easy transportation from place to place will increase the
geographical mobility of labour
Providing better accommodation:

by providing better accommodation for the workers in the
others parts of the country will enhance the geographical mobility of labour.
Occupational mobility of labour

Occupational mobility of labour refers to the movement of the worker form one occupation to another
for better rewards or convenience.
For example, an Economics teacher becoming an Economist,


Barriers (causes) to Occupational Mobility of Labour

Lack of inherent skills and intelligence:

a worker cannot move to another job if he/she does
not have the necessary skills or intelligence required. For example, a teacher cannot just
become a singer if the teacher does not possess the talent.
Cost and length of training:

sometimes in order to change from one job to another additional
education and training may be required which involves cost and time which some workers may
not be able to afford.
Discrimination based on gender, age, marital statusetc:

some technical jobs like engineering
or refrigerationetc are mostly target for male workers so a female worker may not be able to
get a job in these areas. For certain jobs they require people who fit to a certain age group or
who are single. This sort of discrimination becomes a barrier for those workers who want to
move from one job to another.
Lack of job opportunities:

even though the worker wants to move to another job unavailability
of jobs makes it impossible for the worker to move to another job.
Restrictive practices by trade unions:

a trade union is a group of workers who negotiates on
the behalf of workers. Sometimes the trade union may insist the worker to join for an
apprenticeship first.

Ways to increase Occupational Mobility of Labour

Providing information about job opportunities:

information regarding the available jobs can be
given through Job Centres or by publication in the local newspaper which would help in
increasing the occupational mobility of labour.
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Providing more education and training facilities

: if more education and training centres are
provided the workers can become more mobile.
Financial assistance:

as acquiring more education and training involves a cost in it, financial
assistance such as loans could be provided to the workers.
Providing better promotion prospects

: if jobs provide better promotion prospects workers will
move towards those jobs where they can get better chances of promotion.
Providing better wages and good working conditions:


if better working conditions and good
salaries are provided workers will move towards those jobs hence, it will increase the
occupational mobility of labour.
Capital refers to man-made resources which are used in the production of goods and services. It
can also be referred as the money invested by owner for the use of production
3. CAPITAL (MAN-MADE RESOURCE)

The reward for capital is interest.

Capital is categorized into two:


Fixed capital
Working capital



Fixed capital refers to things which are long-lasting and which do not change their form in the
production process.
Example, factory building, machineryetc

Fixed Capital


These include those things which change their form in the production process of production.
Example, raw materials such as seed and fertilizers change their form in the production process.
Other examples include stock of leather in the production of shoes and bags, stock of money held
for running expenses.


Working Capital
CAPITAL ACCUMULATION

Capital accumulation means addition to the existing stock of capital. Higher the capital accumulation,
higher will be the amount of production and higher the economic development and vice-versa.


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SUPPLY OF CAPITAL

The supply of capital goods depends on the extent to which the society is prepared to forgo the
consumption of consumer goods currently.

In order to use capital goods people in the society must produce them. As we already learnt we have
limited resources so we have to distribute the factors of production that we have to different sectors,
hence, factors of production used to produce capital goods may have been used to produce consumer
goods. Therefore, the opportunity cost of capital goods are the consumer goods that has to be
forgone.

Why is the community prepared to make this sacrifice?

It is because the use of capital goods increases the productivity of industries and workers hence,
enhance the development of the country.

a)
INVESTMENT

Investment means the production of real capital goods in a country during a year. Investment is said to
have taken place when capital goods are produced. Example, construction of factory buildings. There
are three major terms related to investment:

Gross investment is the total output of real capital goods produces in a country during a year

Gross Investment
b)
Depreciation refers to the reduction in the value of capital assets (capital goods) due to wear
and tear resulting from continuous use

Depreciation
c)
Net investment is the annual increase in the total stock of capital. This is always less than gross
investment because net investment refers to the sum of capital after deducting depreciation
from gross investment. Increase in net investment increases future productivity.

Net Investment = Gross Investment Depreciation

Net Investment
4.

Entrepreneurs refers to the person who undertakes the responsibility and risks of employing the land,
labour, capital and who decides on how these resources are to be used. The reward for the
entrepreneur is profit or loss.




Entrepreneur (human resource)
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Planning and organizing the production process
Major functions of entrepreneur include:
Combining the factors of production
Deciding what and how much of goods to be produced
Bearing the risk involved in running the business.
Rewarding other factors of production (like paying, rent, wages and interest)
Putting new ideas into the production process (innovation)


PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

Production refers to the output of goods and services which satisfy human wants for which we
are prepared to pay a price.
PRODUCTION

Production also means transformation of inputs (raw materials) into outputs (finished or semi-
finished goods).
It also means the output of demanded goods.

Productivity of labour is usually measured in terms of output per worker-hour
PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity is a measure of the efficiency with which goods and services are produced.
Productivity of labour is also known as efficiency of labour.

Productivity = Output
Input

Output refers to the number of items produced while input refers to the number of hours worked

A simple example will make this clear:
Suppose two workers, Aishath and Fathmath, are making identical articles, both of them using exactly
the same equipment.
In a 40-hour week, Aishath produces 400 articles
In a 40-hour week, Fathmath produces 600 articles

Aishaths productivity = 400 articles
40 hours
= 10 articles per hour

Fathmaths productivity = 600 articles
40 hours
= 15 articles per hour

This simple example shows that productivity of Fathmath is greater than Aishath
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SECTORS OF PRODUCTION
1) Primary sector (extractive industries)
(THE MAIN DIVISIONS OF PRODUCTION)

The many different industries producing goods and services are divided into four broad groups. They
are:
2) Secondary sector (manufacturing industries)
3) Tertiary sector (service industries)
4) Quaternary sector (research and development industries)


The primary sector is called primary because it is the first stage of production.
1. Primary sector (extractive industries)

This industry generally involves changing natural resources into primary products either
through extracting them from ground or growing them.
Most products from this sector are considered raw materials for other industries.
Major businesses in this sector include agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying
industries


The secondary sector is the second stage of production process.
2. Secondary sector (manufacturing industries)

This industry includes those economic sectors that create a finished or usable product in the
manufacturing and construction industries.
This sector of industry generally takes the output of the primary sector (raw material) and
manufactures (converts) it into finished or semi-finished goods.
Examples include industries producing steel, chemicals, furniture, and construction of
buildingsetc.


The tertiary sector of
3. Tertiary sector (service industries)

industry (also known as the service sector or the service industry) is the
third stage in the production process. Services are defined in economics as "intangible goods"
that is those things which we cannot see, feel or touch.
The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to businesses, the other sectors
of production as well as final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and
sale of goods from producer to a consumer.
In a modern society, the firms in the primary and secondary sectors would find it impossible to
function without the services supplied by banks, insurance companies and post officeetc.
education and health services are also classified as tertiary industries.


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The quaternary industry involves research and development industries which come under high
order service.
4. Quaternary sector (higher order service industries)

It includes all those services which are concerned with the collection, processing and
transmission of information.
The quaternary sector can be seen as the sector in which companies invest in order to ensure
further expansion. Research will be directed into cutting costs, producing innovative ideas, new
production methods...etc.
Example: micro technology


In the
The importance of different sectors to the economy

The proportion of labour force employed in the different sectors of the economy varies according
to the level of economic development.

developing countries

a large percentage of the working population is employed in the
primary sector (mainly agriculture).
In the developed countries

The percentages of the labour force in the primary, secondary and tertiary industries changes as an
economy becomes more developed.

a large percentage of the working population is employed in the
tertiary sector
In the early stages of development there is a movement of workers from agriculture (primary
industry) to manufacturing industries (secondary industries).

As a country develops, improvement in the productivity of the manufacturing industries plus
the increasing demand for services, leads to movement of workers to the service sector.

The fall in the percentage of working population in the primary and secondary sectors does not
necessarily mean that output in these sectors are falling.

These changes in employment are often due to technological developments which have greatly
increased the productivity of labour in all the sectors of the economy.







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Industry

Distribution of working population among different sectors of the Economy of the Maldives

Amount of
working
population
Sectors of
the
economy
Agriculture and Forestry 4236 Primary
Fishing 8388 Primary
Quarrying 339 Primary
Manufacturing 19259 Secondary
Electricity, Gas & Water 1229 Secondary
Construction 5930 Secondary
Wholesale & Retail Trade 11711 Tertiary
Hotels & Restaurants 12090 Tertiary
Transport, Storage and
Communication
7098
Tertiary
Financing, insurance, business and
real estate
31741
Tertiary
Community, social and personal
services
3464
Tertiary
Not Stated 4746
Total working population of
Maldives
110231
Source: Employed Population by Industry, Census of Maldives 2006


Sector Primary Sector Secondary Sector Tertiary Sector Not Stated
Percentage of
the
Working
population

12%


24%

60%

4%



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In Maldives 60% of the working population is employed in the tertiary sector, while only 12% of the
working population is employed in the primary sector.

No, Maldives is having less percentage of working population in the primary sector because we
dont have the natural resources for primary sector work; we only have fishing and very few
islands doing agricultural work.
Does that mean that Maldives is a developed country?
But Maldives is blessed with beautiful white beaches and sea, which attracts lots of tourists.
Therefore, more people are employed in the tourism industry which belongs to the tertiary
sector.
Employment of working population in different sectors is not the only key indicator to decide
whether the country is a developed or developing country; there are many other factors to be
considered. Hence, Maldives is considered as a developing country.


Division of labour can be applied when the process of production is complex and can be broken
down into separate and simple operations.
DIVISION OF LABOUR AND SPECIALIZATION

Division of labour takes place when the process of production is broken down into a large number of
separate and simple operations whereby each worker is responsible for and spends his/her time
carrying out one of these operations.

For example, division of labour can be applied in the production of chairs. One worker can cut the
wood, one worker can work on the legs of the chair, while another on the hands of the legs, and
another on the seat of the chair, another on the back of the chair, and then there could be one worker
who assembles all the parts of the chair. Another one can paint the chair and so on. Each worker will
be specialized in doing only one distinct job.


It can also be applied where the mass production takes place that is where a specialized
product is manufactured. And mostly there will be an assembly line in the factory where each
worker does a separate task.

Examples of division of labour can mainly be found in secondary and tertiary industries. In
manufacturing cars, television sets and domestic electrical appliances each worker fits a single
component as the product moves down the assembly line. This system of production is
commonly known as mass production.

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A picture of an assembly line
Another example of division of labour is found in banking industry where some staff may deal directly
with customers, receiving and paying cash, while some others are dealing with cheques and other
documents while others deal with customers seeking loans and so on.

1.
Advantages of Division of Labour

As division of labour enables workers to do only one simple task continuously, the worker
develops the ability to do the work with great speed and more effectively hence, increasing the
output of the workers as well as the firm.

Practice makes perfect
2.
If a worker has to carry out all the tasks in a production process the worker may have to move
from one machine to other or from one part of the workshop to another. But in specialized
production where division of labour takes place, the product moves around in the assembly
line, the worker does not need to move around to pick tool or change machines. Hence, its
saves a lot of time as no time is wasted due to the movement of workers.

Saves time
3.
No two people have exactly the same abilities and interests. But by creating a large number of
small jobs, the division of labour makes it easier for the workers to choose between jobs which
suit them better with their abilities and interests.

Creates more suitable jobs for the workers
4.
When a worker has to carry out all the operations in a production process the worker may not
be able to use all the tools and machineries at the same time and therefore, some machineries
or tools maybe left idle (as the worker cannot do two tasks simultaneously). When work is
specialized each worker only needs one set of tools and these will be in constant use.

Greater use of machinery
5.
Division of labour enables a worker to do only one simple task, as the worker keeps on doing
the same job, the worker may come up with an idea to create a tool or machine to perform that
operation making the job more faster and more efficient hence, increasing the output.

Innovation of ideas and machinery
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1.
Disadvantages of Division of Labour

Nobody likes to do the same work over and over. Constant repetition of same work all the time
will make the workers bored and frustrated.

Boredom and frustration (monotony)
2.
It is said that specialization has lead to the loss of skills. Products which were made by
craftsman are made by machines today. A worker does not get the satisfaction of saying I
made that as one whole product is not done by one worker alone, it is more like a combined
effort with machines and other workers, as each worker does only a simple operation of the
production process.

Loss of craftsmanship (skill)
3.
Division of labour can be applied on the products which are standardized. For example,
thousands of motorcars, washing machines, and television setetc which are of the same
quality, style and design and hence, lack variety.

Standardized products
4.
In division of labour the workers get trained and skilled in one skill, and they may find that their
skills cannot be used in another industry. Such workers are liable to unemployment in a rapidly
changing world.

Greater risk of unemployment
5.
Division of labour has made the workers to be very dependent on each other. As each worker is
doing a specialized task in the production process, each section depends on the other, and if
there is a break in the production line it could affect the whole production process.


Inter-dependency
1.
Types of Division of Labour
The division of labour can be categorized into:

Occupational Division of Labour (simple division of labour
Occupational division of labour is when a worker gets specialized to a particular occupation.
Example, a teacher, lawyer, fisherman, doctor...etc

)
2.
When a part of a country, or when a region specializes in the production of a particular
commodity. Example, Thoddu in Maldives for growing Watermelon,

Geographical Division of Labour
3.
The division of a complicated production process of a product into simple tasks. For example, a
factory like MIFCO in Maldives which produces canned fish dividing its production process into
simple tasks like one worker cutting fish, another cleaning, another removing the bones and so
on.
Complex Division of labour
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4.
International specialization is when a country concentrates in the production of one or more
products according to their availability of factors of production (factor endowments). For
example, Maldives specializes in fish products, Middle East country specializes in the
production of oil, Sri Lanka specializes in growing tea leaves, Japan specializes in electronic
productsetc


International Specialization
1.
Limits to Division of Labour

Division of labour cannot be applied to all production types. It depends on the following:


Size of market
This is the main factor that limits division of labour. Division of labour can mostly be
effectives only in the case of mass production. Mass production only makes sense if
there is a mass market for the product.
So if there is a small market it is not feasible to apply division of labour, but the larger
the market (more consumers), means more demand so greater the scope for
specialization.
One of the main reasons for limiting the size of the market is transportation cost.

2.

Transportation cost
Transportation cost is one factor that limits the size of the market as mentioned earlier,
that means if transport cost is high; it may not be possible to deliver the products to
different regions of the country hence, limiting the size of the market.
Specialization is possible with a good transport network. This will make it easier to
deliver the products to different parts of the country to different consumers. And
sometimes the specialized work areas could be located in different areas, so without
good transportation network it may not be possible to adopt division of labour.

3.

Nature of the product
The production process of some goods and services cannot be broken down into small
series of tasks.
For example, repair work of vehicles.








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Fixed factors
COST OF PRODUCTION AND TOTAL REVENUE

There are some concepts which you should know first before starting cost of production.

The factors of production can also be classified as
Variable factors

Fixed factors are those factors which do not change with the change in output.
Fixed Factors

Its form do not change during the production process
The supply of fixed factors cannot be changed easily and quickly
Examples include, machineries, factory buildingsetc
Fixed factors apply only in the short-run

Variable factors are those factors which changes with the change in output (that means if
output increases the variable factors also increase and vice-versa).
Variable factors

Most variable factors form change during the production process (e.g. raw materials)
The supply of variable factors can be changed easily and quickly
Examples include, raw materials, labour, fueletc


The Short-Run
There are two time-periods in Economics:

The Long-Run

Short Run refers to a short period of time over which at least one factor would be fixed.
The Short Run

If a firm wants to change its output in the short run, they would be able to change only its
variable factors to bring a change in its output.
There are fixed factors in the short-run.


Long Run refers to a longer period of time over which the firm can change all its factors.
The Long Run

If a firm wants to change its output in the long run, they would be able to change all its factors
There are no fixed factors in the long-run. In the long-run all the factors are variable.


Aminiya School 1
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Total Product (TP)

It is the total number of products (output) produced by a firm during a given period of time by a given
number of workers. It is also known as total output.
The following formula could be used to find total product:

AP =
Average Product (AP)

It is the output per worker. It is also known as the productivity of labour.
The following formula could be used to find average product:

Total Product
No. of workers

MP = TP
Marginal Product (MP)

It is the change in output due to an additional worker. That is, how much more can the firm produce by
adding one more worker to the firm. It is calculated by subtracting the new output from the previous
output.

2
TP
1


For example: a firms total output increased from 300 to 450 units when the firm increased their
number of workers from 3 to 4. So the marginal product of the 4
th
worker is 450 (TP
2
) 300 (TP
1
)
which is equal to 150 units.

It states if more of one variable factor increased to a fixed quantity of fixed factors, marginal
product will first increase and then it will start decreasing.
THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS (The law of variable productions)


The main reason for this decline could be that the fixed factors are not sufficient to cater the
increased no. of variable factors.

For example, in a factory the machineries and factory building remain as fixed factors, the firm
is increasing its no. of workers (variable factor), which would increase the marginal output first,
but if the firm kept on increasing its no. of workers, after sometime the machineries may not be
enough to cater all the workers, the factory building may get overcrowded which could result in
less efficiency and productivity which then result in the fall in the marginal product which is
known as diminishing returns.

Diminishing returns occur only in the short-run as in the long run there are no fixed factors so
the firm will have enough time to increase their fixed factors to cater for the increased no. of
workers if its necessary.
TP = Average Product No. of workers
Aminiya School 1
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EXERCISE
No. of workers
Complete the table

TP AP MP
1 30
2 90
3 170
4 285
5 400
6 480
7 550
8 610

Fixed Cost
COST OF PRODUCTION

Cost of production refers to the cost incurred in the production of goods and services. Costs can be
broadly classified as:
Variable Cost

Fixed costs are those cost which are related to the fixed factors of production.
Fixed Cost (FC, TFC)

Fixed costs are those factors which do not change with the change in output. That means even
if output is increasing or decreasing fixed cost would remain unchanged (even if output is zero
fixed costs remain same).
Fixed costs are also known as indirect expenses or overhead cost.
Fixed cost include such expenses as rent, insurance, interest on loansetc
Fixed costs arise only in the short run.

AFC = __
Average Fixed Cost (AFC)

Average Fixed Cost is the fixed cost per unit of output. It can be calculated by the following formula:

TFC__
Output

Variable costs are those costs which are related to the variable factors of production.
Variable Cost (VC, TVC)

Variable costs are those costs which changed with the change in output. That is if output is
increasing variable costs also increase and vice-versa. (If output is zero variable cost is also
zero).
Variable costs are also known as direct cost, as variable costs vary directly with the output.
Aminiya School 1
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Variable costs include such expenses as wages, fuel cost, power, cost of raw materials,
transportetc
In the long run all costs are variable.

AVC = __
Average Variable Cost (AVC)

Average Variable Cost is the variable cost per unit of output. It can be calculated by the following
formula:

TVC__
Output


Total cost is the total cost incurred in the production of a good or service. It includes the sum of
fixed cost and variable cost.
Total Cost (TC)

When output increase the total cost also increase and vice-versa.
This is because when output increase variable cost increases so this increase in variable cost is
also shown in the total cost.
The formula to calculate total cost:

TC = TFC + TVC

ATC = __
Average Total Cost (AC/ATC)

Average total cost is the total cost per unit of output. It can be calculated by the following formula:

TC__
Output

If TC, TVC and TFC are represented on a graph the curve would always look as follows:

costs
units of output
TFC
TVC
TC



Aminiya School 1
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MC = TC
Marginal Cost (MC)

Marginal cost refers to the additional cost incurred by employing an additional unit of factor of
production. This is a measure of the amount by which the total cost changes, when output changes by
one unit. Marginal cost can be calculated by the following formula:

2
TC
1

TR = price output
Total Revenue (TR)

Total revenue refers to the total amount earned by selling a good or service. Revenue can be
calculated by the following formula:



Average Revenue =
Average Revenue (AR)

Average revenue is revenue per unit of output. Average revenue is equal to price. Average revenue can
be calculated by the following formula:


Revenue_
Output


Profit = TR -TC
Total Profit (TP)

Total profit refers to the amount earned after costs subtracted. Profit can be calculated by the
following formula:


Average Profit =
Average Profit

Average profit refers to the profit earned per unit of output. It can be calculated by the following
formula:

Profit_
Output






Aminiya School 1
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Exercise 1
Output
Complete the following table

FC VC TC AC MC AFC AVC
0 1000 0
1 350
2 560
3 740
4 1000
5 1400
6 2000
7 2850
8 3960

Exercise 2
Units of
output
Complete the following table

Price FC VC TC TR Profit
0 100 100 0
1 100 35
2 100 56
3 100 74
4 100 100
5 100 140
6 100 200
7 100 285
8 100 396

Exercise 3
Units of
output
Complete the following table

Price TR FC VC TC AC MC Profit Profit
per unit
0 550 1000
1 550 1350
2 550 1560
3 550 1740
4 550 2000
5 550 2400
6 550 3000
7 550 3850
8 550 4960

Aminiya School 1
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No. of workers
Exercise 4

Total Product Average Product Marginal Product
1 100 100 100
2 120
3 360 120


WHY MARGINAL COST (MC) AND AVERAGE COST (AC) CURVES ARE
"U SHAPED















Initially, as output increases Marginal Product and Average Product increases, this means that
Marginal Cost and Average Cost will be falling.
The MC and AC curves reflect the law of diminishing returns.


But if the output continues to increase after some point, the productivity starts to decline
(Average Product and Marginal Product decreases) which increases the cost as more output is
produced, hence, Marginal Cost and Average Cost starts increasing.

Marginal Cost has a negative relationship with Marginal Product. When output increases
Marginal Product increases and the Marginal Cost decrease. And if output kept on increasing
after the optimum level, diminishing returns sets in and Marginal Product decreases but
Marginal Cost still increase. Hence, that is the reason why Marginal Cost curve is U shaped.

Likewise, Average Product and Average Cost also have a negative relationship. When output
increase, the productivity of the worker increases (Average Product increases) but the Average
Cost decrease. And if output kept on increasing after the optimum level, productivity of the
worker declines (Average Product starts falling) but the cost per unit increases (Average Cost
starts increasing). Hence, that is the reason why Average Cost curve is U shaped.

AC,MC

MC
AC
output
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Exercise:

By using information from the table given in Ex.3 on page 22 draw the AC and MC curves.

















Break-even point is related to short-run production. It is the point where total revenue (TR)
equals total cost (TC). At this point profit and loss both will be equal to zero.
BREAKEVEN POINT

This is the point where the producer covers the cost of producing that particular product. After
the break-even point the producer starts earning profit. Before the break-even point the
producer has loss.
Profit maximization point is where the vertical distance between the TR curve and TC curve is
the maximum and also at the point where marginal cost (MC) equals marginal revenue (MR).
In the long-run, firms will continue to produce if its making a profit.



Aminiya School 1
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Term Grade 8 Economics Page 27

CLASS EXERCISE
Units of
output
Complete the table and draw the TR and TC curves.

Price TR TC Profit Profit
per unit
0 0 1000
1 550 1350
2 550 1560
3 550 1740
4 550 2000
5 550 2400
6 550 3000
7 550 3850
8 550 4960
















a) What is the range of output for which the firm earns profit?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) What is the firms most profitable output?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) What is the break-even point?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------




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Resources are limited
BASIC ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

The main economic problem faced by every society is:

Human wants are unlimited

Our resources (land, labour, capital and entrepreneur) are limited. Therefore, we cannot
produce all the goods and services required by all the people.
So we need to distribute our resources in the most efficient way that is, economizing the scarce
resources.
In other words, the basic economic problem is to decide the best use of our limited resources.

In order to economize the scarce resources, every society must solve the three basic economic
problems. They are:

What

to produce?
How
For
to produce?
whom

to produce?
What goods and services are to be produced and in what quantities?

A society cannot produce all the wants of all the people. It should therefore decide what particular
goods and services to be produced. Basically, major two types of goods the country can produce falls
under the category of consumer goods and producer goods. Therefore, the society should decide
whether they should produce more producer goods or more of consumer goods. The production of
goods also depends on the availability of factors of production and consumer demand.

Labour-intensive method: this is a method of production in which more labours would
be used than machines
How should the goods and services be produced?

Commodities can be produced by using different methods of production. They are:

Capital-intensive method: this is a method of production in which more machinery
would be used than labour.

Some manufactured goods can be produced either by small-firms using lots of skilled labour or by
mass-production using lots of machineries. So the society has to decide whether they should produce
the goods using labour-intensive methods (using more labour) or by using capital-intensive methods
(using more machineries).

For whom should the goods and services be produced?
This question is related the problem of distribution. How should the things which have been produced,
be shared among the members of the community or among the factors of production.
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RESOURCE ALLOCATION

Resource allocation means the distribution (allocation) of the resources among the different sectors of
the economy according to priority so as to maximize the output.
This is to choose goods and services on the basis of priority and allocate the scarce resources for their
production.

The economy (country) is producing two goods that is, consumer goods and producer goods.
THE PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY FRONTIER (PPF)

PPF shows the different combinations of two goods a country can produce at full employment using all
the available resources, given the level of technology. If the country is producing at any point along its
PPF curve, the country is using all of its resources and producing the maximum possible output of both
goods. But if it is producing inside its PPF, it is not using all the resources fully. Therefore, the output of
both the goods will be low.

There are some assumptions that need to be taken when we talk about PPF. They are:

Technology is fixed in the short run so that the country cannot produce beyond the production
possibility frontier (PPF).
When all the resources of an economy are fully employed, the economy will be producing at a
point on the PPF.

A .
Production Possibility Frontier (PPF)
Consumer
goods
Producer
goods


WHEN WILL RESOURCE ALLOCATION WILL BE EFFICIENT?

Resource allocation will be efficient when a re-allocation (re-distribution) of resources do not bring any
higher level of output than before or when it produces the maximum possible level of output.
Resources will be efficiently allocated when the economy is producing anywhere on the production
possibility frontier (PPF).

At point A (in the diagram) the resources are not allocated efficiently as the country is not fully using
all its resources, there is still space to increase the output.

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DEMAND

Demand is the quantity of a commodity consumers are willing and able to buy at a given price over a
given period of time.
Demand in economics means effective demand. Demand is effective when demand is backed by
purchasing power (that is the ability to pay).

SUPPLY

Supply is the quantity of a commodity producers are willing to offer at a given price over a given period
of time.
Supply = Output-Stock

An economic system can be defined as a mechanism which deals with the basic economic
problems of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular
society.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM

The main economic problem is that there are limited resources in relation to unlimited wants. This
problem brings about the need for a system to answer questions like what to produce, how to
produce, how much to produce and how to distribute production.

An economic system is the organizational and institutional pattern through which choices are made
about which wants to satisfy, and how to allocate resources to do this.


The economic systems which have been adopted to deal with economic problems differ from country
to country. The different economic systems include:

Traditional economic system
Command economic system
Market economic system and
Mixed economic system

Traditional Economic System

Traditional economic system is an economic system where they live life according to how their
ancestors have been living. These communities have relatively low living standards as their way of life
has remain unchanged for centuries.

The basic economic problems of what to produce, how to produce and how it is to be shared out are
not seen as problems as these things have been decided long ago by their ancestors.

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These economies are also known as subsistence economies because they are self-sufficient, that
means they produce goods only which is enough for their survival. Examples of traditional economies
can be found in isolated villages of Africa and Asia.

The community with relatively low living standards.
Features of Traditional Economic System

The ways of life remain unchanged for centuries.
They dont have to answer the three basic economic problems, as it has been answered long
time ago by their ancestors.
Exchange if necessary is mostly carried out through barter system.

Market Economic System

Market economic system is an economic system where there is considerable freedom for people to
buy what they want and sell what they produce. It is also known as Free-enterprise economies,
Capitalist economies and Laissez-Faire economies.


Features of Market Economic System

Individuals have the right to own, control and dispose of land, buildings, machinery and other
natural and manufactured resources. In addition, individuals have the right to earn income
from that property in the form rent, interest and profit.

Private property

Individuals are free to set up their own businesses, firms are free to decide what and how they
should produce, workers are free to enter and leave occupations and consumers are free to
spend their incomes as they wish.

Freedom of choice

Market economic system encourages people to do what is best for them. Firms will try to
maximize their profit, workers will try to maximize their income and consumers will try to
maximize their satisfaction.

Self-interest

The aim of all the firms in a market economy is to earn maximum profit, rather than welfare of
the people.

Profit motive

Price mechanism refers to the determination of price through the market forces of demand and
supply. And this price will determine the allocation of resources.
Price mechanism
Aminiya School 1
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For example, if the demand for a commodity increases, the commodity becomes scarce and its
price will increase. This increase in price will make it more profitable to produce. An increase in
demand, therefore, will cause more resources to be used in the production of this commodity.


In a market economy the government has very few economic functions. The main business of
government will be mainly to secure the defense of the country and to maintain law and order.

A very limited role for the government

It means under a market economy, producers will produce only those goods and services
demanded by the consumers. As the aim of producers is to maximize profit, they can do so by
producing what the consumers demand. Hence, the consumers are treated as uncrowned
kings

Consumer sovereignty
There is
Advantages of Market Economic System

more freedom of choice

for producers and consumers.
A market economy encourages competition between firms

. This results in more efficient goods
and services.
Profit motive

encourages firms to find better methods of production so as to minimize their
average cost of production, so that they can charge a low price as to increase demand.
Market economy helps to achieve efficiency in resource allocation

, as the producers are
producing the goods and services which are demanded by the consumers.
Freedom of enterprise encourages producers to produce what consumers want

; as there is high
competition between firms, consumers would get a wide variety of quality goods and services
at low price.
The existence of private property and profit motive enables some people to become rich.
Therefore, the
Disadvantages of Market Economic System
gap between the rich and poor widens

.
Factors of production will be employed only if it is profitable to do so

, so there is a chance that
some of the resources may be left idle.
As all the firms in a market economy are profit motive

, they might fail to provide public goods
which have the feature of non-excludability and non-exhaustibility.
Welfare of the people might be ignored

.
As it allows freedom of choice, it may encourage the consumption of harmful goods

.
As the resource allocation is based on the price mechanism, the economy is more unstable.
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COMMAND ECONOMIC SYSTEM

The command economy is a system in which all the means of production are owned and controlled by
the state. Production and distribution are aimed at maximizing the welfare of the people. A command
economy is so named because the government has the power to command the nations economic
resources. These economies are also known as centrally planned economies.


Features of Command Economic System

In a command economy all the resources are owned and controlled by the state.

State ownership

Production is carried out according to a national plan. Resources are allocated to various
sectors of production through government directives.

Planned production

Prices do not change in response to changes in demand and supply. Prices are fixed by the
government. If there is any shortage for a commodity, the government will enforce physical
rationing. (Rationing is dividing the goods equally among people so that no one person can buy
bulk amount of a commodity).

Prices are fixed by the government

Since the means of productions are owned and controlled by the state, there is no profit
motive. The motive behind all the production is welfare of the society.

Welfare motive
As private property is absent, no
Advantages of Command Economic System

person can become richer by owning more property

,
hence, there is more equal distribution of income and wealth in the society.
As there is welfare motive

, the people are well taken care of.
Economic activities are well planned

so the resources are allocated efficiently.
Economic activities are more stable

as everything is planned ahead by the state and as
there is no price mechanism.

Disadvantages of Command Economic System

Loss of consumer sovereignty

, consumers do not have much choice in a command economy as
everything planned by the state.
Aminiya School 1
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There is no competition

in a command economy as everything is produced by the state; this
reduces the quality of products.
In a command economy mostly shortage of goods arises

(that is demand more than supply) but
prices do not change with the change in demand or supply as prices are fixed by the
government. So the government has to use a physical rationing of the goods.
High degree of government influence

lead to larger bureaucracy and this may lead to
corruption and briberyetc
MARKET ECONOMIES
IN SHORT, THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MARKET ECONOMIES AND COMMAND ECONOMIES

COMMAND ECONOMIES
Freedom of choice No freedom of choice
Free market economy Planned economy
Profit motive Welfare motive
Prices are determined by the
market forces of demand and supply
Prices are fixed
by the government
Limited role for the government Major role for the government

MIXED ECONOMIC SYSTEM

A mixed economy is an economic system in which both private and public sector exist side by side and
operate for the welfare of the people.


Features of Mixed Economic System
Major industries of the economy will be owned and controlled by the public sector. Public
sector is owned, controlled and funded by and accountable to the government. The aim of this
sector is for the welfare of the community.

Private sector is owned and controlled by the private individuals or firms for profit. The aim of
the private sector is to earn profit.

Co-existence of private and public sector

There is a central planning authority that fixes the targets for production of goods and services
and allocates the resources to achieve those targets. They also coordinate for both private and
public sector.

Centralized planning

Features of market economy like freedom of choice, private property, competitionsetc are
found in mixed economies. Similarly, features of command economies like social security, social
justice, equality in the distribution of income and wealth, absence of exploitationsetc are
found in mixed economies.
Co-existence of the features of market and command economy
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The presence of freedom of choice will
Advantages of Mixed Economic System

increase the economic efficiency

in mixed economy.
Since mixed economy is a planned economy

, it can avoid wastage of resources.
Price mechanism is allowed to operate in a mixed economy. Hence, it helps to allocate the
scarce resources in an efficient manner

.
Strategic industries like gas, water and electricity in most mixed economies are owned and
controlled by the state

hence, country is stable.
Mixed economy is
Disadvantages of Mixed Economic System

difficult to operate

, because balancing both private and public sector is
difficult.
Excessive control imposed by the government over the private sector may discourage the
private sector

and reduce their production.
Public sector has certain inborn defects like corruption

, bribery...etc which may reduce its
productivity which could affect the national income of the country.
In a mixed economy, the infrastructure facilities and public utilities (like transport,
communication, energy and water) are controlled by the government and these services may
not be provided efficiently


. In that case, it will affect the private sector negatively as they have
to depend on the government for these services. This will reduce the efficiency of the private
sector, and reduce its productivity, finally leading to the domination of public sector.
HOW DIFFERENT ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ANSWER THE BASIC ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

TRADITIONAL
ECONOMIES
MARKET
ECONOMIES
COMMAND
ECONOMIES
MIXED ECONOMIES
What to produce,
how to produce and
for whom to
produce are not
seen as economic
problems as they
have been decided
long ago by their
ancestors.
What to produce,
how to produce and
for whom to produce
are decided by the
price mechanism of
demand and supply.
What to produce,
how to produce and
for whom to produce
are decided by the
government
directives as
specified in the
national plan.
What to produce, how
to produce and for
whom to produce are
decided by the price
mechanism and
government directives.

Aminiya School 1
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Tourism
THE ECONOMY OF THE MALDIVES

The economy of the Maldives is based on the following principal activities:


Fishing

Shipping

Agricultural sector does not play a major role due to poor soil in Maldives but agriculture can be
found to some extent.

Tradition activities such as mat weaving, jeweler making and lacquer work are also found in
Maldives

A fragile (poor or weak) environmental base.
The key characteristics of the economy of Maldives

Dependence on fishing and tourism industry for income.
Slow rate of economic growth especially at island levels.
Government expenditure is more than the government revenue.

Fishing
Primary Activities

Agriculture

Manufacturing
Secondary Activities

Construction

Distribution, transportation, communication, tourism, real estate, health services, educational
services, banking services, postal services, government administrationetc.
Tertiary Activities


Manufacturing of garments
Modern Activities

Construction of fiber glass boats
Production of PVC pipes
Bottling of aerated water

Aminiya School 1
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BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

A business refers to a person or groups of people obtaining a profit by supplying a good or service.

Firm: a firm is a single unit of business organization producing a particular good or service under a
particular name.

Industry:
Types of business organizations
Public ownership
Private ownership
Cooperatives
Public
Corporations
Municipal
Enterprises
Sole
Proprietorship
Partnership
Limited Companies
Public Limited
Companies
Private Limited
Companies
Worker
Cooperatives
Consumer
Cooperatives
an industry refers to a group of firms producing a particular good or service.

Example: when we refer to all the resorts, we can call it the tourism industry, but if we take one resort
like Bandos Island Resort, it is a firm in the tourism industry



Sole Proprietorship

In this type of business, the whole business is owned and controlled by a single person. This is the
simplest and the oldest form of business organization.

A sole trader is the person who runs a sole proprietorship.

This type of business organization is easy to start, as it does not require huge investment and
other formalities.
Features of a sole trade business


It is owned and controlled by one person for profit.

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The owner can enjoy all the profit; he doesnt have to share the profit with anyone as it is a
one-man business.

It has the flexibility in decision making.

Liability of the owner is unlimited. Unlimited liability means the owner is liable for all his
debts even if that means he has to sell his private properties to pay off the debts.



Advantages of a sole trade business

It is easy and inexpensive to start a sole trade business

: any single person can start a sole trade
business as it requires very less capital, and it doesnt require lots of complicated legal
formalities so it is very easy to start.
Flexibility in decision making:

as this is a one-mane business, the owner can make the decisions
whenever he wants, therefore, he has the flexibility in making quick decisions.
Can provide personal service to the customers:

normally sole trade businesses are very small in
size and there are not much employees, so mostly the owner would have the chance to meet
with customers.
Greater incentive to be efficient:


as the owner gets all the profits and bears all the losses, the
owner would be very motivated to run the business more efficiently to earn more profit and
avoid any loss.

Disadvantages of a sole trade business

Unlimited Liability:

the sole trader has unlimited liability, that means if the business goes
bankrupt, the sole trader is personally liable for the debts of the firm. That is the sole trader
may have to sell off the personal possessions in order to pay the debts.
Difficult to manage if the business expands

: when the business expands, the sole trader will not
be in a position to supervise the entire business; hence, there is a need of a partner to share the
management of the business.
May take inefficient decisions

: as the sole trader has to make the business related decisions on
his own, he may not always make the right decisions. As the sole trader also has the advantage
of flexibility in decision making, he may sometimes make hasty (hurry) decisions, which may not
be so efficient, which could affect the business adversely (negatively).
Difficult to obtain financial assistance: as sole trader businesses are more risky as they are small
in size, hence, it might be difficult for the sole trader to obtain loans or other financial
assistance.
Aminiya School 1
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Partnership

Partnership is a voluntary association of 2 to 20 people which is formed to carry on a business in order
to make profit.
But some of the professions like medicine, law and accountancyetc there is no upper limit on the
number of partners, these partnerships are known as professional partnerships.


Types of partnership

There are mainly two types of partnerships. They are:

Ordinary partnership (general partnership):

In a general partnership all the partners have equal
responsibilities in the running of the business. And all the partners have unlimited liability.
Limited partnership:
o Limited partners are those who have limited liability. Limited liability means if the
business goes bankrupt, the liability of the partners will be limited to the amount of
capital that the partner has contributed to the business. And these partners do not take
part in the running of the business.
in a limited partnership there are limited partners and ordinary partners.
At least one partner should be an ordinary partner.


It is owned and managed by 2 20 partners.
Features of the partnership business


In an ordinary partnership the members have unlimited liability whereas in a limited
partnership the members have limited liability.

Profits and losses are shared among the partners according to the partnership agreement.

An agreement made by one partner on behalf of the partnership is binding and has to be
accepted by all the partners.

If one of the partners dies or is declared bankrupt the partnership will dissolve.



Advantages of the partnership business

More capital than a sole trader:

with several people putting money into the business, a
partnership can raise more capital than a sole trade business.
The management of the firm can be made more specialized: can apply division of labour in the
running of the business, by making each partner responsible for a specialized department such
as, sales, administration, production and so on.
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Losses can be shared:

in the case of ordinary partnership all the partners have unlimited liability
hence, the losses can be shared among all the partners.
It is easy to start and close the partnership:


the partnership can be formed very easily as it
doesnt involve complicated legal formalities. And can also be closed down easily if all the
partners agree for it.

Disadvantages of a partnership business

Partnership can be unstable:

as there are many people in a partnership, there can be difference
of opinion among the partners and this may lead to failure of the business.
Difficult to maintain business secrets:

as all the discussions of the business has to be done with
all the partners it might be difficult to maintain the business secrets, as there is chance that one
of the partner may release the secrets of the business.
Unlimited liability:

in an ordinary partnership all the partners have unlimited liability, that is,
during a loss the partners are liable to pay the debts even after selling their private property.
No perpetual succession:


life of the partnership is uncertain. Withdrawal of a partner from the
partnership will dissolve the partnership.
An incorporated association means that it a registered with the registrar of companies
Limited companies (Joint-stock companies)

Limited companies can be defined as an incorporated association which is an artificial person created
by law with a common seal having perpetual succession.

Once it is registered it is treated as an artificial person by law that means the company can sue
and be sued.
Having a common seal means that the company should have a common name or seal which can
be used in the letter heads
Perpetual succession means the company can continue as long as it is making profit.

Limited companies are also known as joint-stock companies, as a group of people is contributing the
capital to a common fund.

The capital of a company is divided into small units which are called as shares. And therefore, the
owners of the company are called as share holders, as they are buying shares in order to join the
company. There should be a minimum of two shareholders to start a limited company.

The shareholders in a limited company have limited liability. Limited liability means that the liability of
a shareholder is limited to the value of shares held, during a loss.
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Ownership and control

In a limited company ownership and control are in two different hands. The owners of the company
are called as shareholders and the shareholders elect a board of directors, and this board of directors
would be taking part in the running of the business.

The profits paid to the shareholders are known as dividend.

Public Limited Company (PLC)
Types of limited companies

There are two types of limited companies. They are:

Private Limited Company (Pvt. Ltd)

Public Limited Company (PLC)

Public limited companies are very large companies whose shares can be sold to the general public. And
these shares can be freely transferable (bought and sold) by the general public in the stock exchange.
Companies which are public limited should have PLC after the companys name. For example, Bank of
Maldives PLC

Private Limited Company (Pvt. Ltd)

Private companies are usually small in scale compared to the public limited companies. Private limited
companies are mostly owned by a group of friends or family. Private limited companies cannot sell
their shares to the general public. The shares of a private limited company are not quoted in a stock
exchange, hence, is not available to freely transfer the shares.
Companies which are private limited should have Pvt. Ltd after its name. For example, Sun Travels and
Tours Pvt. Ltd

Public Limited Company
Differences between Private and Public Limited Companies
Private Limited Company
Can invite the general public to buy their shares

Cannot invite the general public to buy their
shares
Shares can be freely transferable (bought and
sold) in the stock exchange
Shares cannot be freely transferable, if a
shareholder want to change the ownership of
shares he/she has to get permission of all the
shareholders
More large in size than private limited companies
in terms of:
No. of people employed
The value of assets
The value of output
Small in size than public limited companies in
terms of:
No. of people employed
The value of assets
The value of output
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Share
A small unit of capital of a joint-stock company

Ordinary Shares
Types of Shares

There are two main types of shares. They are:

Preference Shares


Ordinary Shares

These shares do not carry a fixed rate of interest. For this reason the holders of this type of shares are
considered to be the main risk-bearers. They have no guaranteed income and they are at the end of
the queue for a share in the profit, as they are paid last. Dividend varies according to the amount of
profit made. Dividend is the profit given to share holders. This type of shareholders has the voting-
rights of the company.


Cumulative Preference Shares
Preference Shares

These shares carry a fixed rate of interest. Preference shareholders have a right to a share of profit
before all the other types of shareholders. This type of shareholders does not have the voting-rights.

There are two types of preference shares:
Participating Preference Shares



Cumulative Preference Shares

These shareholders will be paid dividend for any arrear years (unpaid years), which have accumulated
during years when the company did not earn enough profit to pay the fixed rate of interest.


Participating Preference Shares

These shareholders carry a right to a fixed rate of interest and additional payments out of profits when
the company makes a huge profit and distribute a bonus.





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Promoters (people who wish to start the limited company)
Formation of Companies

With the help of a

Solicitor (lawyer)

Submits

The Memorandum of Association
And
The Articles of Association

To the

Registrar of Companies

Who then gives a

Statutory Declaration (after approval of documents)
Then issues a

Certificate of Incorporation (the private limited companies can start business)

But the public limited companies have to wait until they get Certificate of Trading


In order to form the limited company the promoters have to submit two main documents that
it, The Memorandum of Association and The Articles of Association to the Registrar of
Companies with the approval of a solicitor.

Then the Registrar of Companies goes through the two documents and if satisfactory will issue
a Statutory Declaration which states that all the documents are satisfactory.

Then the Registrar of Companies issues the Certificate of Incorporation, which states that the
company has been registered.

At this point the Private Limited Companies can start their business but the Public Limited
Companies have to wait until the Registrar of Companies issues the Certificate of Trading.




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Name and address of the company.
The Memorandum of Association

The Memorandum of Association contains the external information about the company. It is the bio
data of the company.
It contains the following:

Objectives and aim of the company.
Amount of capital which the company wishes to raise by issuing shares (in case of public limited
companies)
The name of the company must include Pvt. Ltd in case of private limited companies and
Plc in case of public limited companies.

The Articles of Association

The Articles of Association contains the internal information about the company. It shoes the details of
rules that will be used to control and organize the company. It must contain the rights of shareholders
and rights and duties of board of directors.

The Certificate of Incorporation

This is a certificate to state that the company has been registered. This is certificate is also called as the
birth certificate of the company. This certificate will be issued only when the promoters submit the
two above mentioned two certificates (The Memorandum of Association and The Articles of
Association). This certificate gives the company a legal existence.

A private limited company can start the business after getting the certificate of incorporation. But a
public limited company has to wait until they get a certificate of trading.

By law all the registered companies should publish annual accounts and their copies must be
submitted to the Registrar.
The Certificate of Trading

Once the public limited companies get the certificate of incorporation, they have to submit a copy of
its prospectus. Prospectus is a document which invites the general public to buy shares from the
company. This prospectus should also be submitted in the newspapers.

After approval of the prospectus the Registrar of Companies will issue the certificate of trading, then
the public limited company can start the business.




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