by Spartel Pty.
Ltd., the Containerised Composting Process developed by Green Mountain Technologies Inc. (P.
Bernard pers. comm.) in the United States and the 13.8 m
3
Stinnes-Enerco Inc. containers in Colchester
County in Canada (Anonymous, 1999a).
Some modular processes are based on roll-off transport containers. These containers are completely
enclosed with stainless steel perforated floors through which air is supplied. These modular designs
give facilities the opportunity to expand processing capacity as feedstock supply increases.
Plate 4.2 Examples of batch-type and modular containerised composters. The photograph on the right
shows how the containers are transported and unloaded, with the assistance of a roll-off truck.
Plate 4.1. The Biobox
;
Green Mountain Technologies Inc. the Containerized Composting Process and others from
NaturTech, Stinnes Enerco Inc. and Ag-Bag Technologies Inc. These systems are similar in concept
and are made from or modelled on steel solid waste roll-off containers. This type of container provides
a durable enclosure that is modular and moveable. These systems have provisions for leachate
collection with the option for leachate reuse. Many containers are served by single central air delivery
systems and comprise process control and biofilter systems. The containers are filled via a door at the
side or top and processed as batch systems (Rynk, 2000a).
A number of 30 m
3
containerised composters from NaturTech are being used in Minnesota, USA to
collect and process food organics from supermarkets, businesses and households. The food organics
feedstocks are mixed with wood chips and cardboard as bulking agents to facilitate the in-vessel
composting process. After mixing the feedstocks, a loader is used to deliver the compost mixtures into
a top-loading door on a NaturTech vessel. Following a 21 day composting cycle, the material is
removed through a swing door on the back of the unit and placed in static curing piles (Riggle, 1997).
Similarly, the University of Massachusetts has a centralised in-vessel composting facility, which
receives food organics from a number of sources including on-campus sources, local businesses and
off-campus organisations. The facility has 7 indoor roll-off containers with 23 m
3
capacity.
Feedstocks are processed in the containers for approximately 18 days and then placed in windrows for
a further 10 days (Chaves, 1998).
As these systems are modular, additional units can be added to the system depending upon the amount
of material processed by a facility. The total throughput of a system is determined by the volume and
number of containers plus retention time (typically within 2-3 weeks) (Rynk, 2000a). In most
instances, the containers are only used for the first stage of a composting process, followed by a second
composting stage in windrows or aerated piles.
Containerised composting units are suitable for the treatment of a wide range of compostable organics
materials, including food organics. Large scale operations, municipalities, universities, large schools
and correctional institutions use containerised composting units for converting compostable organics
into saleable recycled organics products (Goldstein, 1998).
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 23
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4.2.2.2 Passively aerated in-vessel systems
Passive aeration involves the natural ventilation of a container of composting material. Air required by
the process occurs by diffusion and convective mechanisms. Examples of passively aerated systems
include the VCU (see Case Study 4.2 for details) and the TEG Environmental PLC silo-cage. The
PLC silo cage contains the composting feedstocks in tall, narrow wire mesh cages, arranged in series
of modular units. A 10 cm gap separates adjacent cages and provides a channel for air flow and
oxygen diffusion. Cages are approximately 4 m high, 6 m long and 1.2 m wide, allowing for the core
of the mass to be at the most 60 cm from the airspace surround the cage. This continuously fed system
has a cycle time of 8 to 24 days depending upon the feedstock used. The manufacturer recommends an
additional 14-21 days for the composting/maturation of the pasteurised product (Rynk, 2000a).
4.2.2.3 Rotating drums and agitated-aerated containers
Aerated rotating drums are manufactured by a number of companies including BW Organics Inc. and
Environmental Products and Technologies Corporation in the United States of America (Rynk, 2000a).
Rotating drum-based processes are applicable at a range of scales, from small on-site situations to large
scale centralised processing facilities. Horizontal rotary drums mix, aerate and move feedstock
material through a system. Drums are usually mounted on large bearings and turned by a bull gear.
Air is supplied through the discharge end and is incorporated into the material is it tumbles.
Decomposition in a drum is rapid, however further composting/maturation is required in windrows. A
number of commercial-scale drums have been developed over recent years that are suitable for
composting food organics and other materials. The largest drums range from 2.5-3 m in diameter and
9-15 m in length (Rynk, 2000a).
Agitated-aerated containers include those developed by Wright Environmental Management Inc. (see
Case Study 4.3 for details), Global Earth Products Inc. and Resource Optimization Technologies Inc.
Agitated containers compost materials contained in long channels with concrete walls (Rynk, 1992). A
turning machine, which travels on top of the beds, agitates and moves the materials. Most, but not all
systems provide forced aeration through the floor of the channel. The agitated bed is usually contained
within a larger facility. Channel length and the turning frequency influence the composting period in
the channel (generally 10-28 days). Channel lengths typically range from about 60-90 m. Most
facilities use multiple channels and a single turning machine. Agitated beds are currently being used to
process large quantities of food organics at a number of prisons in the United States of America (Rynk,
2000a). For example, a correctional facility in Travis County, Texas, USA uses Wright Environmental
Management Inc. technology to process food organics. Using this in-vessel technology, the facility
composts approximately 500 kg of food organics on a daily basis. Wood chips are blended with the
food organics, comprising 40% of the feedstock mix. Following a 28 day processing period, the
compost is placed in windrows to mature for an additional 2 week period. The final compost is used in
the gardens within the correctional facility.
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4.2.2.4 Tunnel composting system
Although tunnel composting systems are predominantly used in the mushroom industry, a number of
facilities are starting to use this technology to compost food organics (Manser and Keeling, 1996;
Rynk, 2000a). Examples include the Natural Recovery Systems Pty. Ltd. facility in Melbourne (see
Case Study 4.1 for details) and Brentwood Recycling Systems. Brentwood Recycling Systems in
Unanderra, New South Wales constructs tunnel composting facilities. They utilise a GICOM
Composting Systems tunnel process to convert a variety of feedstock materials including garden and
food organics into compost. Compostable organic material is fed into a tunnel and then air is
circulated within the tunnel to control temperature, humidity, oxygen content and pressure. Compost
temperature is measured at several points within the tunnel. These systems are similar to forced
aerated containers with a processing period of between 14 to 21 days. Products should be effectively
pasteurised through this process. Further composting/maturation may be required to produce a stable
and matured end-product.
4.2.3 Energy budgets
Curzio et al., (1994) indicated that the use of composting-based technologies to process food organics
resulted in a net energy deficit, as the process itself does not produce energy. This is particularly true
for facilities where forced aeration and turning processes are utilised. The use of other processing
machinery also adds to the overall energy requirements for the production of an end-product.
4.2.4 Input feedstock requirements
In-vessel technologies are capable of processing a wide range of compostable organic materials. Food
organics in particular are easily processed in these systems, as these feedstock types are highly
putrescible. However, it may be necessary to mix other feedstocks with these materials in order to
achieve optimum carbon-nitrogen ratios and to also improve the porosity of the compost mixture (Gies,
1995). The mix is dependent upon the particular food organics used, the process and the material used
as bulking agent in the compost mixture.
In a 1997 survey, Goldstein, (1997) concluded that in terms of food organics, fruit and vegetable
trimmings are by far the most common feedstock composted in the United States of America. In
addition, garden organics are the most frequently used amendments to adjust the physical and chemical
characteristics of the food organics feedstock to produce a suitable compost mixture. Woodchips and
sawdust are also used by many food organics composters (Goldstein, 1997).
4.2.5 Processing capacity and land requirements
Processing facility size varies with the type of technology used and also the number of vessels utilised
in an operation. The additional composting/maturation (e.g. windrowing) required to produce a more
mature product adds to the space requirements of a facility. However, the area required for the
windrowing or maturation of in-vessel composted materials is significantly less than that required in
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 25
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facilities where an initial in-vessel composting phase is not used. This occurs because the overall
volume of feedstock material is usually reduced by up to 50 % through the size reduction and in-vessel
composting stages of processing.
The processing capacity of large-scale in-vessel composting technologies ranges from 1-4 m
3
per day
to in-excess of 50 m
3
per day depending upon the type of process and number of modules used (for
modular systems).
4.2.6 Processing time
This is dependent upon the process used and also on the characteristics of the feedstocks. In most
instances, processing time for primary decomposition is quite short for food organics. On average,
processing time ranges from a few days to several weeks. If an additional maturation/composting
phase is implemented by a facility, this will generally add another 2-4 weeks to the total processing
time of food organics depending upon the product quality requirements of the market to which the
products are sold.
4.2.7 Outputs and products
Soil conditioners and mulches are the main products manufactured from in-vessel composting systems.
Although discharged material from these systems is usually pasteurised, it may still be immature and
relatively unstable. In these instances, further maturation via composting in windrows is required in
order to produce higher quality stable and mature products suitable for a wide range of applications.
Such products can then be utilised for various purposes in a range of situations, including:
Potted plants
Home gardens
Commercial landscaping
New housing developments
Parks, gardens, playgrounds and other community open spaces
Roadside applications
Forestry and agricultural applications
Mine site applications
4.3 Quality issues relating to the technology
Although there is no state or federal legislation controlling the quality of material produced by the
processing of food organics using in-vessel composting technologies, manufacturers of compost should
be aware of some relevant Australian Standards that identify minimum quality levels for different
compost based products.
Composts generated from aerobic composting processes should be compliant with the guidelines
described in Australian Standard 4454 (1999). Although in-vessel systems produce pasteurised
products, it may be necessary for a product to be composted/matured in windrows/static piles if a stable
and matured compost is to be manufactured. This will add to the overall processing time of the
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 26
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feedstock, but should result in the production of higher value soil conditioner and mulch products.
Products that do not comply with Australian Standards risk spreading weed seeds and plant/animal
pathogens, which can impact on the environmental health of animals and humans. Immature products
can also have phytotoxic effects on plants if applied incorrectly. Such risks are greatly reduced if
mature composted products are used.
4.4 Environmental impacts and licensing requirements
General environmental impacts and licensing requirements are summarised in Section 3. The reader is
directed to this section for relevant details.
Emissions from in-vessel aerobic composting processes are usually limited to carbon dioxide, water
vapour and occasional traces of ammonia. In addition, emissions of volatile organic compounds and
leachate are also possible. In order to minimise such outputs process control is essential. Facilities
operating within NSW must comply with the conditions of their environment protection license in
accordance with the Protection of the Environment Operations Act (1997). Key process control
features required at a facility to minimise impacts on the environment are documented in Establishing
a licensed Composting Facility by the Recycled Organics Unit (2000b).
Some in-vessel composting facilities are established at existing council-owned waste management
centres for processing food organics. As these facilities are licensed, well managed in-vessel
composting facilities can be easily established. The provision of council support for the development
of high performing in-vessel composting facilities at existing waste management centres is a novel
concept, effectively overcoming many of the delays normally experienced in developing a composting
facility. This is currently occurring in the Wingecarribee Shire Council area (south-west of Sydney),
with assistance of Macarthur Waste Board (M. Jackson pers. comm.).
4.5 Economics
In-vessel composting systems are commercial systems, which may be purchased or licensed for use,
and/or specially designed by consultants. They usually carry high capital costs compared with
windrowing (see Section 5), but lower costs than anaerobic digesters (see Section 6). The operation
and maintenance of in-vessel systems generally requires greater expense and a higher level of
knowledge and skill than windrow and aerated pile technologies. In-vessel systems, however, offer
several potential advantages, including reduced labour, fewer weather problems, potentially better
odour control, closer process control, faster composting, reduced land area, and consistent compost
quality (Rynk, 1992).
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Table 4.2 Cost of processes on a capacity basis.
Company Name Capital cost ($ AUD) Volume of in-
vessel chambers
(m
3
)
Capital cost/
chamber capacity
($AUD/m
3
)
VCU Technology Pty. Ltd., 10
chamber
$1 400 000 250
$5600/m
3
VCU Technology Pty. Ltd., 1
chamber
$198 000 25 $7920/m
3
Green Mountain Technologies Inc.,
Earth Tub/CompTainer
$13 000/Earth Tub
$70 000/ CompTainer
2.9
30
$4820/m
3
$2333/m
3
NaturTech, Containerized
Composting Process
$400 000/ container 15
$26 667/m
3
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 28
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4.6 List of manufacturers
The Recycled Organics Unit does not endorse any of the manufacturers listed in the Table 4.3. The
generic technology profiles presented in the previous sections (or in the case studies) do not directly
reflect the performance of specific proprietary technologies.
Table 4.3 Manufacturer contact details.
Company Name Contact details
Natural Recovery
Systems
15 Berends Drive
Dandenong, Vic. 3175
Email: chudson@netspace.net.au
Tel: 03 9706 5557
Fax: 03 9706 5559
VCU Technology Pty.
Ltd.
11 Newman St
Newtown
Sydney NSW 2042
E-mail jk@vcutechnology.com
Internet: www.vcutechnology.com
Ph. +61 2 95573487
Fax +61 2 95573453
Wright Environmental
systems Inc.
9050 Yonge Street, Suite 300,
Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada L4C 9S6
Spartel Pty. Ltd. PO Box 1097
Wester Leederville, WA, 6007
Australia
Tel: 08 93606699
Fax: 08 93107334
Global Earth Products
Inc.
R.R. #2
Utopia, ON L0M 1T0
Canada
TEG Environmental
PLC
TEG Environmental PLC
Crescent House, 2-6 Sandy Lane
Leyland, Lancashire
PR5 1EB, United Kingdom
Email: teg@teg-environmental.com
TEL: +44 (0)1772 422220
Stinnes Enerco Inc.
(Canada)
Sheridan Science & Technology Park
2800 Speakman Drive
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, L5K 2R7
Internet: http://www.stinnesenerco.com
Green Mountain
Technologies Inc.
East Coast Office
PO Box 560
Whitingham,Vermont 05361
Internet: http://www.gmt-organic.com
Brentwood Recycling
Systems
238 Berkeley Rd
Unanderra NSW 2526
Tel: 02 42 717611
Fax: 02 42 729339
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Introduction
The Natural Recovery Systems
in-vessel composting facility is
located in the south-eastern
suburbs of Melbourne at
Dandenong. It is situated in an
industrial area of Dandenong
and is surrounded by a wide
variety of industries. The
closest residential areas/
dwellings are approximately
1500 m from the site. Although
the facility commenced
operations in September 1999, it
was only officially opened on
the 28 March 2001 (C. Hudson
pers. com).
Process description
Currently the facility uses 3 x
200 m
3
vessels constructed of
concrete walls and base. The
base houses a series of plenums
to supply air evenly into the
bottom of the composting bed
through a network of holes in
the floor of the vessel.
The feedstock is loaded into a
concrete vessel by travelling
conveyors. The container is
then hermetically sealed and air
is drawn from within the top of
the vessel via a fan and directed
back into the distribution
chamber at the bottom. The
continual recirculation of air
through the compost bed serves
to equalise temperature and
oxygen and moisture content.
In addition, the constant upflow
of air helps maintain the bed in
a porous state and prevent
excessive compaction.
The in-vessel composting cycle
is controlled by a Citect, System
Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) computer package.
This system controls
temperature, oxygen,
differential pressures, air
velocities, fan motor power
consumption, damper
positioning and cycle times.
Composted material from the
vessels is placed in outdoor
windrows on maturation pads.
The moisture content of the
windrows is monitored during
maturation and water is added
when required. The windrows
are also turned when required.
The Natural
Recovery Systems
in-vessel composting
facility can process
35 000 tonnes of
food organics every
year when operating
at full capacity.
Feedstocks
Source separated fruit and
vegetable material blended
with bulking agents
Facility size
2000 m
2
Process
3 x 200 m
3
in-vessel
containers with a separate
aeration system
Processing time
7 days in-vessel composting
and 2-3 weeks windrow
composting
Outputs
Pasteurised soil conditioner
and mulch
Installations
Melbourne, Victoria
Cost
Information not supplied
Status
Commenced operations
Case study 4.1
Natural Recovery Systems (Melbourne)
In-vessel composting of food organics
Plate 4.3 Concrete vessel used for composting food organics at the
Natural Recovery Systems facility in Dandenong, Victoria. Photo on
the left is an open vessel, and closed on the right.
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 30
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Input feedstock requirements
This in-vessel system is capable
of processing a range of
compostable organic materials
from a range of sources
including: supermarket produce,
food processing residuals,
industrial food manufacturing
sludges, out-of-date products,
produce market wastes, fish
wastes, sawdust and shavings,
straw wastes, garden organics,
waste paper fibre and sewage
sludge. However, the primary
feedstock is fruit and vegetable
residuals from supermarket
chains. At present, their main
customer is the Coles
Supermarket group. Food
organics from this supermarket
chain are source separated for
collection.
Drier materials including saw
dust and garden organics are
mixed with the food organics in
order to achieve the optimum
carbon to nitrogen ratio and to
help maintain required porosity
in the compost mixture.
Processing capacity and land
requirements
The facility is designed to
process 35 000 tonnes of food
organics every year. It is
situated on two adjacent
allotments (approximately 0.4
ha each). One allotment has a
2000 m
2
building in which all
feedstock is received, handled
and in-vessel composting
operations are conducted. The
second allotment houses the
compost maturation pad, which
is fully bunded and sealed. The
area is equipped with leachate
collection and recycling
facilities.
Processing time
The compost mixture undergoes
7 days in-vessel composting and
2-3 weeks windrow composting.
Output
This facility produces
pasteurised soil conditioner or
mulch that complies with the
requirements identified in
Australian Standard AS 4454
(1999).
Existing installations
Currently there is only one
facility located in the
Dandenong area of Melbourne.
Costs
Information not provided.
Source
C. Hudson pers. comm.
Contact details
Natural Recovery Systems
15 Berends Drive
Dandenong, Vic. 3175
Email:
chudson@netspace.net.au
Tel: 03 9706 5557
Fax: 03 9706 5559
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 31
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Introduction
A 10 module VCU was
purchased by the Waitakere
City Council in Auckland City.
The facility was established at
the councils waste transfer
station, which accepts 7500
tonnes per annum of
municipally collected garden
and food organics.
A single VCU (25 cubic metre
chamber size) was initially used
for a three month trial in mid-
2000. The single unit had a
throughput of 2.4 tonnes per day
(on a 7-day continuous cycle).
At this time tub-ground garden
organics were processed and
pasteurised. VCU Technology
Ltd. expect that a 7-day cycle
with food organics on a
woodchip matrix will increase
processing capacity to between
3.75 and 4 tonnes per day per
chamber.
As a result of this trial,
Waitakere City Council placed
an order for a 10 chamber
system, ie. 250 cubic metres of
chamber space with a capacity
of 24+ tonnes per day. The
throughput can be increased
with shorter cycle periods, but
with an increase in the odour of
the immature pasteurised
product. VCU Technology Ltd.
does not recommend cycle
periods less than 7 days.
Process description
The VCU 250 is a group of two
rows of five 25 m
3
modules fed
by a shared blender feed system.
The VCU is an insulated tower
in-vessel composting system.
Material is fed via elevator and
distribution systems approxi-
mating continuous-flow, with
the harvest of product from the
base of each chamber. Product
is conveyed to one end and
elevated for skip loading.
VCU uses plug-flow movement
of composting material, and is
passively aerated. Air is
passively drawn in via the base
and exits the top of the system.
Exhaust gas is released at the
top of the chamber after
condensing out much of the
moisture. Condensation
combined with an 8 m release
height render most of the odour
undetectable at the base of the
VCU.
Temperatures within each unit
stratify into thermophilic
The VCU Technology
Ltd. 10 module unit is
capable of
processing 20-40
tonnes of material a
day to produce
coarse mulch.
Feedstocks
Food organics, garden
organics
Facility size
The VCU chambers occupy
an area of 132 m
2
. The
complete facility occupies
several hectares
Process
10 chamber Vertical
Composting Unit with a total
volume of 250 m
3
and a
throughput of 20-40
tonnes/day
Processing time
Feedstock is put through a 7
day in-vessel cycle.
Additional time is required
for further composting and
maturation in static piles
Outputs
Pasteurised coarse mulch or
composted coarse mulch if
further composting is
employed
Installations
Australia, New Zealand and
the United Kingdom
Cost
$1.4 million for 10 units
$198 000 for 1 unit
Status
Operational commercial
facility
Case Study 4.2
VCU Technology Ltd. (New Zealand)
10-module Vertical Composting Unit (VCU)
Plate 4.4 The 10-cell vertical composting unit at Waitakere in
New Zealand has the capacity to process 20-40 tonnes per day.
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 32
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(lower, 40-50C) and extreme
thermophilic (upper, >70C)
zones with distinct resident
organism groups populating
each temperature zone, and
degrading different substrate
components. Compost is
discharged through a roller grid
onto a conveyor.
Input feedstock requirements
Feedstock is shredded through a
hammer mill prior to being
added to a VCU unit. Material
received by the facility is
generally source separated,
allowing for a reduction in
contaminants. Contaminants
are manually removed from
incoming feedstocks prior to
being put through the shredder.
Processing capacity and land
requirements
The 10 chamber VCU can
process between 20 to 40 tonnes
per day of organic material.
The VCU modules occupy an
area of 132 m
2
, while the
complete facility occupies
several hectares.
Processing time
The continuous flow VCU has a
cycle time dependent on the
daily volume fed into the
chambers. Therefore, as the
input volume changes, the cycle
speed (retention time) will vary.
On average, however, a 7 day
cycle is used. Market demand is
used to determine whether
further composting and
maturation is required for the
pasteurised material discharged
from the VCU.
Output
This facility produces
pasteurised coarse mulch or
composted coarse mulch if
further composting and
maturation is applied.
Existing installations
VCU Technology Ltd. has
developed a number of facilities
in Australia and internationally.
Facilities that have been
developed or are in the process
of being developed include:
Lord Howe Island (NSW)
Compaq Computer
(Sydney)
Waitoa rendering plant
(New Zealand)
Unitec (Auckland)
Chemwaste (Auckland)
University of NSW
University of Auckland
(Tamaki) (planned)
Bromley Council in
London (planned)
Sheffield transfer station,
London (planned)
Camden Soil Mix (under
development)
Costs
The cost of the 10 chamber
system in New Zealand is $1.4
million. The cost of a single
chamber unit is $198 000.
Source
J. Kater pers. comm.
Contact details
11 Newman St
Newtown
Sydney NSW 2042
E-mail:
jk@vcutechnology.com
Internet:
www.vcutechnology.com
Ph. +61 2 95573487
Fax +61 2 95573453
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 33
2nd Edition 2007
Introduction
Wright Environmental
Management Inc. have
developed a continuously
loading, fully enclosed, flow-
through process that is used to
convert food organics into
compost in a 14-28 day
period. The end-product is a
pasteurised soil conditioner
suitable for agricultural and
horticultural purposes.
The composting vessel can be
custom designed by Wright
Environmental Management to
handle different feedstock
quantities. A modular stainless
steel construction allows
outdoor operation and
continuously composts from
hundreds of kilograms to
hundreds of tonnes per day.
The unit can be located indoors
or outdoors in any environment,
with only a small shed needed
to contain the loading zone, and
can be used as an on-site or as a
centralised composting facility.
Process description
This system uses computer
control of temperature, oxygen
and moisture.
The in-vessel composter located
at the Ontario Science Centre
presently handles food organics
from seven Provincial
Government facilities. A
schematic of the process is
shown in Figure 4.1.
Food organics are mixed with
an equal volume of amendment
material, including wood chips,
paper sludge and cardboard,
which increase the bulk and
porosity of the compost mixture.
The residuals are mixed with the
bulking agent by a drag chain
mixer, which has two opposed
two-speed augers. The mixture
is then fed into the composter
via a conveyer and enters the
unit through a hydraulic door.
Bacterial activity begins almost
immediately and air is
continuously circulated around
and through the composting
material. As the waste travels
inside the vessel, it passes
through three composting zones
and two mixing zones. The
temperature and humidity levels
are monitored within each zone
and airflow rates are controlled
to optimise composting
conditions.
This Canadian
company uses an in-
vessel, horizontal,
continuous flow
system for
composting a range
of organic materials
Feedstocks
Food organics including:
meats, fats and seafood
pulp sludge
garden organics
Facility size
This technology can process
several hundred kilograms to
several tonnes of food
organics every day.
Process
Completely enclosed
stainless steel modular
construction with odour
control and continuous
loading processes.
Processing time
14-28 days
Outputs
Pasteurised soil
conditioner.
Installations
Several in Canada, the USA
and Britain.
Cost
Cost not available
Status
Operational commercial
facility
Case Study 4.3
Wright Environmental Management Inc.
(Canada) In-vessel continuous flow system
Figure 4.1 The composting vessel is a double-walled horizontal
tunnel (stainless steel interior, burnished steel exterior) insulated to
control the heat produced when organic materials decompose.
Temperature and moisture levels inside the vessel's seven air zones
are monitored constantly, and air flow is independently controlled
in the three composting zones (shown) to assure optimum
composting conditions. The mixing zones (between each
composting zone) assure proper mixing and aeration for bacterial
growth.
Recycled Organics Unit Food organics processing options for New South Wales Page 34
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Oxygen in the vessel is
maintained at 17%, and the
manufacturer claims that the
process is very water efficient.
In the mixing zones, specially
designed spinners throw the
residuals forward to ensure they
are well mixed and aerated. Air
is continuously drawn out of the
composter in order to maintain a
negative pressure. This prevents
air from escaping from the
vessel and ensures that the
majority of exhausted air is
passed through a biofilter to
remove particulates and odours.
After spending approximately
28 days in the vessel, the
finished compost is removed
from the vessel and filtered on a
shaker screen. Larger pieces are
removed and then recirculated
through the composter as
amendment. The finished
product can be used without
further maturation.
Input feedstock requirements
Wright Environmental
Technology accept all
compostable organics,
including: food organics (e.g.
meats, fats, seafood), pulp
sludge, packing and food
processing facility residuals,
garden organics, and
contaminated soils from
bioremediation projects.
Processing capacity and land
requirements
Depending upon the quantity
and type of material to be
treated, composting units can be
custom designed for capacities
from 136 kg/day to several
tonnes/day; requiring between 7
- 140 m of area for operation.
Facilities using the Wright
technology and their associated
processing capacities are listed
below.
Ontario Science Center
North York, Ontario 1.4
tonnes/day
Department of National
Defence HQ Ottawa,
Ontario 340 kg/day
Ste. Anne des Plaine
Institution Laval, Quebec 9
tonnes/day
Mountain Institute Agassiz,
B.C. 680 kg/day
Atlantic Institute Renous,
N.B. 680 kg/day
Jasper National Park Jasper,
Alberta 900 kg/day
San Francisco State
University California 453
kg/day
Belfast Northern Ireland,
UK 453 kg/day
Processing time
The processing time for the
Wright composting system
ranges from 14 to 28 days
(depending upon the desired
product quality).
Output
This technology can produce
high quality compost, suitable
for marketing in agricultural,
horticultural and other markets.
Existing installations
As identified above, Wright
composting units are installed
throughout North America and
in Europe.
Costs
Cost not available.
Source
Internet:
http://www.oceta.on.ca/profiles/
wright/wright.html
Contact details
Wright Environmental
Management Inc.
9050 Yonge Street, Suite 300,
Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada
L4C 9S6
Tel: (905) 881-3950
Fax: (905) 881-2334
Plate 4.5 In-vessel composting
units at the Wright
Environmental Technology
facility in Ontario, Canada.
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Section 5 Windrow-based composting systems
5.1 Introduction
Aerobic decomposition occurs when organic material is decomposed in the presence of oxygen. In
aerobic decomposition, living organism which utilise oxygen, feed upon organic matter and develop
cell protoplasm from nitrogen, phosphorus, some carbon, and other nutrients. Much of the carbon
serves as a source of energy for the organisms and is burnt up and respired as carbon dioxide (Gottas,
1956). This is the main process used in windrow composting systems. As with other compostable
organic materials, highly putrescible food organics can usually be processed in windrows.
In brief, a windrow is a pile of organic material subjected to aerobic decomposition. The pile must be
aerated, through forced or passive aeration systems or via mechanical agitation (Manser and Keeling,
1996). Although windrow composting of food organics is not commonly practiced in Australia, it is
commonly used in North America. Facilities such as prisons (Allen, 1994; Allen, 1997; Marion, 2000),
farms (Anonymous, 1999b), colleges (Seif, 1999) and other centralised commercial facilities use
windrow-based composting processes for food organics and other complementary feedstock materials.
Windrow composting utilises different equipment and infrastructure to that used by in-vessel
composting (as described in Section 4). Equipment includes front-end loaders or windrow turning
machines, shredding and screening equipment, perforated piping (for passive and forced aerated
systems), blowers (for forced aerated systems), and bunded pads for windrow placement (Rynk, 1992).
5.2 Generic description of technology
These systems are considerably simpler than other food processing systems such as in-vessel
composters (Section 4), anaerobic digesters (Section 6) or fermentation processors (Section 7).
Consequently, establishment costs for facilities using windrow technology types may, in some
instances, be considerably less than for alternative technology types. The generic stages in a
composting process are identified in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Windrow based aerobic composting flow chart. Dotted lines indicate a by-product of the main
process.
Odours
Polluted runoff to
leachate
management system
Food
organics
Windrow
composting
Product
blending/
formulation
Bulking
agent
Size reduction
and removal of
contaminants
Screening/
removal of
contaminants
Product
maturation
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The main types of windrow composting systems to be reviewed in this section are (see Section 5.2.2
for details):
Turned windrows
Aerated static piles/windrows
Passively aerated piles/windrows
5.2.1.1 Initial odour control, size reduction, removal of contaminants and addition of bulking agent
Food organics may pose considerable odour problems if not properly received and stored by a facility.
In some instances, facilities bury feedstock material directly into woodchip baths in order to suppress
potential odours. More sophisticated (and expensive) approaches involve the storage of material in
negative pressure containers (e.g. the CompTainer by Green Mountain Technologies Inc.), in order
to suppress odours. In these instances, air is drawn from the containers, and filtered prior to release,
reducing or eliminating odours. In other cases, specialised receival bays that are completely enclosed
under negative pressure (with biofiltration of odours) are used to receive and temporarily store food
organics before being blended with bulking agents and then composted.
An initial size reduction process may be used prior to placing feedstock material into a windrow/pile.
Size reduction of feedstocks to between 10 and 30 mm is beneficial to promote the composting process.
This stage also allows for the removal of physical contaminants such as plastic, metal and glass from
the feedstock material. This contaminant removal phase may use mechanised systems with magnets
and metal detectors to remove metal contamination, air blowers to remove plastic, and crushers to
reduce the size of glass. Manual labour is also used for the removal of visual contaminants from
feedstocks.
Bulking agents, such as wood chips or shredded garden organics, are usually added to food organics to
create a compostable mixture of suitable porosity (at least 20 % v/v) and carbon to nitrogen ratios (30-
40:1) that promote the composting process. The ratio of food organics to bulking agent varies
according to the composition of the food organics and the type of bulking agent used.
5.2.1.2 Windrow composting
After the initial mixing process, the compost mixture is formed into piles or windrows using equipment
such as front-end loaders. Windrows are often placed on bunded concrete or asphalt pads (improving
leachate control), but this may not be necessary in all instances. In turned windrow systems, feedstock
material is turned on a regular basis or as required to achieve effective decomposition. This is often
based upon windrow temperatures, moisture content, and the odours from composting material. If
aeration systems (forced or passive) are used, perforated pipes or specialised concrete pads with
aeration channels generally underlie the feedstock material in the windrows. In some instances, wood
chips or similar materials are placed underneath the main feedstock material to act as a sponge to
absorb any leachate. Facilities may have other runoff control infrastructure, such as sloped pads that
redirect leachate to a drain basin or water storage area (Marion, 2000). This leachate is sometimes re-
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used by a facility when mixing fresh feedstock materials in a compostable mixture, and to maintain
moisture levels in compost windrows/piles.
Different levels of labour are required depending upon the process used to maintain a windrow. For
example, if turned windrows are used, regular turning of the composting material is required,
contributing to greater labour requirements. Forced aerated or passive windrow processes do not
require this level of maintenance following the initial establishment process (Manser and Keeling,
1996).
5.2.1.3 Final screening and maturation
Composted products are usually screened with trommels or similar equipment to remove remaining
oversized materials that have not been properly decomposed or to remove any remaining contaminants.
Some facilities re-process the oversized materials by incorporating them into new feedstocks.
Following screening, pasteurised products are often composted/matured for several weeks to several
months, depending upon the process used. This phase helps to produce stable and mature end-products
(Anonymous, 1999b).
5.2.1.4 Covering of windrows/piles
Windrow covers or burial-bath
In some instances composting facilities cover food organics with woodchips or similar materials in
order to suppress the emission of odours from a pile. Other facilities use mature compost or manure to
cover fresh feedstock, suppressing odours and to insulate the composting material. Another approach
is to create a channel in the middle of a woodchip or sawdust pile and place fresh feedstock material
into the bath. The feedstock is then enclosed within the bath by more woodchips or sawdust. Saw
dust is particularly effective for organics of high liquid content (e.g. milk and dairy material).
Plastic covers
Plastic covers over windrows are used to help maintain more consistent temperatures throughout the
feedstock, by reducing heat loss from the outer layers of a windrow/pile. The use of covers also helps
protect composting material from climatic forces such as wind and rain. This is particularly important
if food organics are used, as these materials may become very wet and dense if exposed to rainfall.
These covers are generally used in passively or forced aerated systems, where windrow turning does
not occur. Some cover materials may allow for the diffusion of air from and into the feedstock
material, while suppressing odours.
5.2.2 Range of commercial processes
There are a number of windrow/pile technologies that are available to process food organics. These
technologies include those identified in Table 5.1. In most instances, turned windrows are the favoured
method for processing food organics. However, forced or passively aerated systems are also used, as
they may be more space efficient and less labour intensive than turned windrows.
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(Manser and Keeling, 1996) noted a number of difficulties associated with the use of aerated systems
compared with turned systems. Similarly, in a comparative study in Laem Chabang, Thailand, (Brown
and Chalermwat, 1998) showed that turned windrow composting was more effective than passive
aeration, as there was evidence of anaerobicity in some passively aerated piles. In this study, the turned
windrow systems were also shown to decompose food organics more quickly than the aerated piles.
These findings differ from the experiences of others such as Seif, 1999, where passively aerated
windrows were found to be more suitable for composting food organics than turned windrows due to
better odour control (see Section 5.2.2.3 for details). This is plausible as mechanical turning of piles
often releases odours into the atmosphere.
Table 5.1 Types of processes used in windrow systems.
Process name Description
Mechanically turned
windrows (Rynk, 1992)
The absence of any enclosure, ventilation and odour control characterise
these processes. The simplest facilities may utilise front-end loaders to
pick up residuals. These systems are compatible for use with food
organics.
Aerated static piles
(Manser and Keeling,
1996)
A pile of food organics is placed over a perforated pipe on a prepared base.
Air from a fan is blown or sucked down a pipe, delivering or drawing
oxygen through the material.
Passively aerated
windrows (Rynk, 1992)
A pile of material is positioned over perforated pipes that extend to the
outside of a pile. Outside air then enters the pipe in a natural slow aeration
process. This has lower running costs than forced aeration systems, but
may not be efficient enough to aerate some food organics.
5.2.2.1 Mechanically turned windrows
Windrow composting consists of placing a mixture of raw feedstock materials in long narrow piles or
windrows, which are agitated or turned on a regular basis. They are typically 1 to 3.6 m in height
depending upon the density of the compost mixture. As food organics are of a relatively high density,
windrows incorporating these feedstocks are usually lower in height, averaging 1 to 1.5 m. The width
of windrows varies between 3 to 6 m. The equipment used in the turning process determines the size,
shape and spacing of windrows (Rynk, 1992).
Windrows are aerated by natural or passive air movement (convection and gaseous diffusion) between
turnings. The rate of air exchange depends on the porosity of the windrow. Therefore, the size of a
windrow that can be effectively aerated is determined by its porosity. A low density windrow (e.g.
comprising coarsely shredded garden organics), can be much larger than a wet dense windrow
containing food organics. If a windrow is too large, anaerobic zones may result near its centre, which
release odours when the windrow is turned. At the same time, small windrows lose heat quickly, and
may not achieve required thermophilic temperatures to effectively pasteurise composting material
(Rynk, 1992). Consequently, a balance must be reached in order to optimise composting conditions.
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The turning procedures used in mechanically turned windrows help:
mix the feedstock materials;
rebuild the porosity of the windrow, and
release trapped heat, water vapour and gases.
An important effect of the turning process is to rebuild windrow porosity, which in turn improves
passive air exchange. The turning process exchanges the material at the windrows surface with
material from the interior. This exposes all material equally to the air at the outer surface and to the
high temperatures inside the windrow, helping materials to decompose evenly while eliminating most
weed seeds and pathogens (Rynk, 1992).
A food organics processing facility was established at a correctional centre in Connecticut, USA using
windrow turning processes. The facility processes in excess of 1 tonne of food organics every day.
The food organics materials comprise bread, fruits, vegetables and pastas, which are bulked with
garden organics to form a compost mixture. The compost-mix is formed into windrows on a covered
concrete pad using a small front-end loader. Feedstocks are composted for a period of 5-6 weeks, and
turned when required. Following composting, the product is screened to remove woodchips, which are
then mixed with new feedstocks and reprocessed. The screened compost is placed in maturation
windrows on asphalt pads and are covered and left to cure until the material is deemed mature. The
finished compost is used as mulch and soil conditioner on the prison grounds (Anonymous, 1997).
Other facilities, such as Seacoast Farms Compost Products Inc. process their food and garden organics
mixes for 4.5 months, with additional maturation periods of 6 weeks (Anonymous, 1999b) (see Case
Study 5.1 for details).
Turning equipment
For smaller scale operations (processing 1-2 tonnes/day), turning can be accomplished with a front-end
loader or a bucket loader on a tractor (e.g. Anonymous, 1997). However, for larger operations,
specialised machines for turning windrows may be necessary. These machines greatly reduce the
processing time and labour requirements, size reducing and mixing feedstocks thoroughly to produce a
Plate 5.1 Front-end loader used for turning windrows in smaller scale commercial operations.
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more uniform compost, but require significant capital expenditures (Rynk, 1992). Importantly,
effective turning processes may be difficult to achieve using less specialised equipment, contributing to
incomplete composting/pasteurisation of some feedstock material.
The California Waste Recovery Systems Inc. composting facility in Lodi, California use a mechanical
agitator, which travels along rows and lifts the compost mixture. Aerated material is then dropped onto
a discharge conveyor and restacked approximately 5 m to the left of its original location. This facility
composts on average 110 tonnes of food and garden organics every day (Masoud et al., 1996).
Prices for turning equipment are dependent upon the type of technology used and the processing
capacity of the equipment (Table 5.2). General prices range from over $100 000 to over $500 000 for
the different types of windrow turners.
Table 5.2 Approximate costs associated in purchasing windrow turners with a range of capacities.
Equipment Capacity Cost (Australian Dollars)
Mobile self-propelled windrow
turner
(m
3
/hour data not available)
9.5 m width
$540 000
Mobile self-propelled windrow
turner
(m
3
/hour data not available)
7 m width
$360 000
Mobile self-propelled windrow
turner
(m
3
/hour data not available)
3.5 m width
$146 000
Tractor with loader (m
3
/hour data not available)
1.4 m
3
bucket
$130 000
5.2.2.2 Aerated static piles
Aerated static piles use a similar piping system to that used in passively aerated windrows. In their
simplest form, these systems comprise a pile of compostable materials placed over a perforated pipe on
a prepared base. Air from a fan (blower) is blown or sucked down the pipe, delivering air or drawing
Plate 5.2 Specialised (straddle) self-propelled windrow turner used for processing large volumes of
material.
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air through the composting material (Manser and Keeling, 1996). The blower provides direct control of
the process and gives an operator the flexibility to use larger piles than in passively aerated windrows
(see Section 5.2.2.3). No turning or agitation of composting materials occurs once the pile is formed.
Depending upon the feedstock characteristics, the active composting period is usually completed in 3 to
5 weeks (Rynk, 1992).
These systems suffer from a number of practical disadvantages, such as the need for a power supply for
fans and a control system to regulate the operation of the fans. In addition, harvesting of composted
product is complicated by the presence of the air pipes, and processing can sometimes be erratic.
However, this can be simplified if a permanent concrete slab with aeration channels is used.
Drawbacks include (Manser and Keeling, 1996):
Piles drying out too quickly due to rising warm air;
Excessive settlement of feedstock (due to a lack of mechanical agitation), which creates voids and
fissures allowing air to pass through channels without penetrating the majority of the feedstock;
Inadequate aeration leading to pockets of anaerobicity (as was the case in the Brown and
Chalermwat, (1998) study);
Feedstocks on the outer surface may not reach pasteurising temperatures, meaning that weed seeds
and pathogens may survive and carry-over into the finished product, and
Material near the ground may never be aerated, simply because the heat in a pile tends to make the
air from pipes rise away.
An example of a facility using aerated static piles to process food organics is Ithaca College in New
York, USA. This facility processes food organics from on-campus sources. The food organics
materials are bulked with wood chips and formed into 1.8 m high static piles. Fans are used to blow air
through perforated pipes into the piles when required. In this instance, the composted product is left to
cure for a very long period (2 years) (Anonymous, 2000a), though this is generally not required.
Plate 5.3 Aerated static piles using blowers to force air through the feedstock material.
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5.2.2.3 Passively aerated windrows
Passively aerated windrow systems eliminate the need for turning by supplying air to the composting
materials through perforated pipes embedded within each windrow. The pipe ends are open, allowing
air to flow into them and through the windrow. Windrows should be 90-120 cm in height, with a
covered top of matured compost, wood chips or some other material to absorb moisture, odours,
ammonia and to insulate the windrow (Rynk, 1992). These systems have similar if not more
pronounced problems to those identified in aerated static pile systems. The diffusion of air in passively
aerated windrows is significantly less efficient than in equivalent aerated static pile systems. In
particular, the use of these systems for food organics may be inappropriate due to the moisture content
and density of food organics feedstocks.
Although there are appear to be a number of disadvantages or difficulties associated with the use of
passively aerated systems to process food organics, the Middlebury College, Vermont, USA utilise this
technology to process approximately 1 tonne/day of food organics. Their success is attributable to the
use of a large number of perforated pipes and the establishment of low pile heights (see Plate 5.4). The
college collects food organics from on-campus food halls, dining facilities, a golf course and ski area, a
satellite campus, and from special events (note that significant physical contaminant removal is
required). The feedstock material is then stored in a Green Mountain Technologies Inc. CompTainer
until the container is full. The material is then emptied onto a concrete pad and the food organics are
mixed with wood chips and manure. The compost mixture is then placed on a bed of manure and wood
chips, which act as a sponge to absorb any moisture leakages from the bottom of the piles. The
compost pile is formed over numerous perforated pipes and a 15 cm layer of dry manure is then placed
on top of the feedstock in order to seal the odours in a 1 m high pile. The composting period runs for
12 to 16 weeks, followed by a number of weeks in 3.6 m high maturation piles. The finished product is
used as soil conditioner for on-campus landscaping purposes (Seif, 1999).
Plate 5.4 Passively aerated windrow in Vermont, USA. Open ended perforated pipes are placed at
regular intervals perpendicular to the windrow to aerate the food organics feedstock. Although the
operator claims that this is a well managed facility, the photograph shows that it is not a good example
of a well managed passively aerated pile composting process. Note the numerous plastic contaminants
in the feedstock material.
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5.2.3 Input feedstock requirements
Whilst almost any compostable organic material can be windrowed, many materials, including food
organics, need to be mixed with complementary bulking materials to form a suitable compostable
mixture. Due to the moisture, chemical and physical attributes of food organics, it is necessary to mix
them with wood chips or other bulking agents to facilitate the composting process. Work in Northern
America indicates that the addition of bulking agents at a ratio of 2 parts bulking agent to 1 part food
organics (by volume) gives a reasonable mixture for aerobic decomposition to occur (Brown and
Chalermwat, 1998). However, different mix proportions are used depending upon the process and the
facility in question. The addition of bulking agents is necessary to maintain feedstock porosity and
aeration during the composting process.
5.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of these systems
Turned windrows
The turned windrow method is more common in areas where space is not the primary limiting factor,
e.g. farms. Turning processes used in turned windrows help to mix, pulverise and aerate the
composting material. This produces a more uniform compost and reduces the need for further
processing such as, screening and grinding. A major disadvantage of turned windrow composting is
that it is at the mercy of the weather, as most facilities are outdoors. Paved surfaces and open-sided
buildings have been used to better cope with adverse weather, but add to the overall establishment cost
of a facility (Rynk, 1992). Turning often releases odours, so the appropriate siting of facilities that
intend to process food organics is important to minimise impacts on surrounding environments and
land uses. Further details regarding the siting and establishment of composting facilities can be seen in
Establishing a Licensed Composting Facility by the (Recycled Organics Unit, 2000b).
Aerated static piles
In general, aerated static piles provide for a more concentrated (space efficient) method of composting.
Higher, broader piles can be used than in either turned or passively aerated windrows. This makes it
easier to cover these processes with a roof or to enclose them within a building. Forced aeration makes
automation easier, permits closer process control and shortens the composting period. In addition, the
insulating layer of compost and the larger pile size reduce temperature variations. This improves
conditions for destroying pathogens and weed seeds. The insulation layer and lack of turnings
conserve nitrogen and limit the release of odours. Nearly all the nitrogen can be conserved within
aerated static piles, whereas over one-third may be lost in windrow composting (Rynk, 1992).
Passively aerated windrows
Passively aerated windrows share features of both turned windrows and aerated static piles. Like the
turned windrow method, it is more land-intensive. Unlike aerated static piles, passively aerated
windrows do not require electricity for running aeration fans, and therefore have lower running costs.
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As with aerated static piles, passively aerated windrows conserve nitrogen, maintain even temperatures
and minimise the release of odours (Rynk, 1992). However, if aeration is not sufficient (not enough
perforated pipes or piles that are too high) all material may not be effectively composted or pasteurised.
5.2.5 Processing time
Processing time ranges from 3 to 16 weeks depending upon the type of process used and also the
composition of the feedstock. An additional period of 2 to 3 weeks is often used by facilities to mature
and stabilise their composted product.
5.2.6 Outputs and products
Products manufactured from windrow systems are similar to those generated from in-vessel aerated
composting systems (i.e. soil conditioners and mulches are produced). If correct procedures are
followed, the feedstock material should be pasteurised. For stable and mature products, additional
maturation is required.
5.3 Quality issues relating to the technology
Windrow facilities face similar issues to those identified in Section 4 for in-vessel aerated composting
systems. These issues are described below.
5.3.1 Australian standards
Although no state or federal legislation controls the quality of end-products produced by
windrow composting, manufacturers should be aware of some relevant Australian
Standards that identify minimum quality levels for different compost-based products.
Composts generated from composting processes should be compliant with guidelines set
out in Australian Standard 4454 (1999). For compliance to be achieved, it is necessary for the end-
product to be pasteurised. If a composted product is to be produced, additional processing is required
for a mature end-product. Products that do not comply with this Australian Standard risk spreading
weed seeds and plant/animal pathogens.
5.3.2 Pasteurisation
If pasteurisation is to be achieved during the windrow/static pile composting, feedstocks should be
subjected to thermophilic temperatures for the minimum period specified in Australian Standard AS
4454 (1999). Thermophilic temperatures are achieved when feedstock is exposed to temperatures in
excess of 55C. All windrow-based systems risk incomplete pasteurisation of feedstock material due to
intrinsic difficulties associated with turning and making sure all the material is exposed to pasteurising
temperatures. Therefore, greater risks may be associated with end products originating from windrow
composting, due to less process control compared with in-vessel composting systems. The use of
specialised windrow turning equipment reduces the risk of incomplete or inconsistent pasteurisation of
feedstocks. This, however, will add to the establishment cost of an operation.
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5.4 Process control and infrastructure upgrades
To facilitate the transition from composting garden organics to composting food organics, it may be
necessary for a facility to adopt one or a number of the following changes (depending upon the nature
of the feedstock material, existing processes and infrastructure, and site specific issues):
Efficient and well designed receivals process:
Enclosed receivals area delivery vehicles enter a dock area that is enclosed and held under
negative pressure (the food organics material is unloaded directly into the receivals area and
exhaust air is treated through biofilters to remove odours);
Establishing a receival system in which food organics are placed directly into enclosed food
organics storage infrastructure (e.g. Biobox