Lateglacial, Early and Middle

Holocene Environments, Human

Occupation, and Resource Use in the
Atacama (Northern Chile)
Martin Grosjean"
Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6TlZ4
Lautaro Nunez A.
Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueolbgicos y Museo, Universidad Catdlica del
Norte, San Pedro, Chile
Paleoenvironmental data from the Atacama Altiplano (21"-24"S) indicate that water,
vegetation and animal resources were more abundant during lateglacial and early Holo-
cene times than today. The rate of precipitation increased above 4000 m elevation to
400-500 mmlyr compared to the present 200 mm/yr. Dry conditions prevailed below
3500 m. Evidence of Paleoindian habitation is still missing, even though there is no
evidence for environmental prohibitors during lateglacial time. The early Archaic hunt-
ers (10,820 yr B.P.-ca. 8500 yr B.P.) inhabited the Altiplano (high Puna) and its western
slope, where water was available due to higher river runoff from the Altiplano, and
the resources in different elevation zones were accessible. Natural resources decreased
significantly during the middle Archaic period (8500-ca. 5000 yr B.P.). Lakes receded
to today's levels, pedogenesis in the Altiplano terminated, and human activities were
restricted to the most stable sites in the Rio Lao and the Rio Purifica catchments north
of 23"s. The less stable oases south of 23"s (Salar de Atacama and Punta Negra) were
abandoned. The climatic changes are best explained by shifts of the (sub)tropical circula-
tion. Q 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
In areas with marginal food and water supplies, the rapid and fundamental
environmental changes were primary driving forces in the subsistence of hunt-
ing and gathering cultures. Their capacity for buffering the fluctuations in the
potential natural resources was limited. In this context, the Atacama desert
provides with its former lakes, peat bogs, glacial deposits, paleosols and archae-
ological sites a variety of archives to study the interaction between man and
his environment since the first human habitation about 10,800 yr B.P.
* Present address: Department of Physical Geography, University of Berne, Hallerstrasse 12,3012
Berne/Switzerland.
Geoarchaeology: An International J ournal, Vol. 9, No. 4, 271-286 (1994)
0 1994 by J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0883-6353/94/040271-16
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Today, this extremely dry area is located between the tropical and extratropi-
cal circulation belts, and is, therefore, most sensitive to climatic changes. Even
the smallest shifts in the precipitation regime effected significant changes in
the water budget of lakes, and in pedogenesis, vegetation, and animal resources.
Under the current, hostile climatic conditions, all lakes are dry or highly
saline (Salars), vegetation is too scarce to initiate any substantial pedogenesis,
groundwater recharge is limited, and there are no glaciers even in the continu-
ous permafrost belt above 5800 m elevation.
Rapid and fundamental changes took place in the Central Andes during the
transition from Pleistocene to Holocene. Glaciers retreated (Seltzer, 19901,
vegetation began to regroup (Fernandez et al., 1991), animal extinction rate
increased, and man began to occupy the dry Andes in Peru, Southern Chile,
and Patagonia (12,560 yr B.P. Guitarrero Cave, 12,600 yr B.P. Los Toldos
Argentina; and 12,000-13,000 yr B.P. Monte Verde; Lynch et al., 1985). As
in other mountains of the world, the vertical zonation and the strong interaction
between climate and topography determined the pattern of human resource
use. Vertical gradients dominate the climate, vegetation, hydrology, etc., and
therefore a broad variety of ecotopes was accessible within a short distance.
This is one important key to understanding the very efficient, seasonal, and
vertical transhumance in the past, including the high Puna and the dry, west-
ern foot zone. This system persists today in some areas of Bolivia (Lauer and
Erlenbach, 1987), Peru (Lynch, 1973) and northern Chile (Nuiiez, 1992).
Whereas human habitation on the western slope of the Atacama Altiplano
is relatively well known (Ntinez and Santoro, 1988,1990; Lynch, 1990; Nufiez,
1992) detailed information about the paleoclimatic conditions since lateglacial
times is sparse. The environment during habitation had to be inferred from
the adjacent areas in Bolivia, Argentina (Fernandez et al., 1991), or semiarid
Chile (Veit, 1991). Recent paleoenvironmental studies in the interior of the
Salar de Atacama (Figure 1) have brought some insight into the dynamics of
natural resources in space and time with the respective paleoclimatic implica-
tions (Grosjean et al., 1991; Messerli et al., 1993; Grosjean, in press).
The aim of this study is to present a synthesis of the lateglaciallearly Holo-
cene environmental conditions and to discuss the man-environment relation-
ship for the early Archaic period (10,800-8500 yr B.P.) in the light of these
new data. Earlier studies in the same area (Lynch, 1986, 1990; Lynch and
Stevenson, 1992) are supported and/or modified. The scope of our study is
determined by two key questions: (1) Why is there no Paleoindian occupation
associated with late Pleistocene fauna despite humid lateglacial conditions in
the Altiplano?, and (2) Why were the early Archaic sites in the Salar de
AtacamalPunta Negra catchment (Tuina, Tul An, and Punta Negra) abandoned
during the middle Archaic period (Silencio archeol6gico)? And why, in con-
trast, did human occupation persist further north in the Rio Loa valley? Were
the environmental conditions in the Atacama basin during middle Holocene
so hostile that they limited human occupation?
272 VOL. 9, NO. 4
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Figure 1. Map showing the research area and the archaeological sites mentioned in the text.
METHODS
In reconstructing the paleoenvironment i n this dry and cold environment,
emphasis was put on the chronological control and on cross-correlations of
hydrological, limnological, pedological, palynological, and glaciological proxy-
data. This multiproxy mapping was carried out in different altitudinal belts
from the Salar de Atacama (2400 m) to the Altiplano (4500-6700 m) i n order
to evaluate vertical gradients i n the environment.
Paleohydrological information was obtained from water budgets of paleo-
lakes in the Altiplano, where fossil shorelines were mapped and correlated
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 273
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
with key sediment strata and facies of known age. A water and energy budget
model was used to derive paleoclimatic scenarios from the history of the lake
levels in the case study catchment of the Laguna Lejia (Grosjean, in press).
Pollen, ostracode, and diatom data from lake sediments (Messerli et al., 1993;
Grosjean, in press) provided information about local vegetation, long distance
transport of pollen, and paleolimnological data. Radiocarbon dating was used
on aquatic organic matter (total organic fraction with accelerator mass spec-
trometry AMS) and on inorganic carbonates. Thermoluminescence dating was
used on the 4-12 pm polymineral fraction of volcanic ash layers and slope
debris (Burgi, 1992). The spatial distribution and development of the early
Holocene paleosol was mapped in vertical transects on the western slope of
the Altiplano (Schreier et al., in prep.). This brought insight into the regional,
long-term climatic pattern and the vertical shifts of the vegetation belts, as
manifested in the degree of physical and biological weathering.
The archaeological investigation included the Altiplano, its western slope,
and the Atacama basin. Emphasis was put on a transect in the Quebrada
Tul h, where the Atacama basin and the adjacent Altiplano are connected by
a series of sites. The radiocarbon dates cover a subregional, Archaic sequence
from 10,820 14C yr B.P. to 4050 14C yr B.P. Information about the pattern of
mobility, the subsistence mode, and the adaptation to resources in space and
time was obtained by petrographic and functional analysis of artifacts, bones,
macroscopic organic remains, and various chronostratigraphic tests.
LATEGLACIAL ENVIRONMENT, PALEOINDIAN PERIOD
(CA. 17,000-CA. 11,OOO YR B.P.)
(See also synthesis in Figure 5. )
The lateglacial time was characterized by moist and cool climatic conditions.
Kessler (1991) and Markgraf (1989) proposed a southward shift of the tropical
(summer) circulation to explain the wet conditions in the Central Andes. This
is in agreement with paleoecological evidence between 21" and 24"S, where
precipitation rates of up to 400-500 mm/yr (compared to <200 mm/yr today)
is inferred from former lake levels of the Laguna Lejia in the Altiplano (Gros-
jean, in press). Three independent energy and water budget models (Hastenrath
and Kutzbach, 1985; Kessler, 1985; Grosjean, in press) suggest that the large
lakes were not merely the result of a temperature depression or of melt water
due to rapid deglaciation. An increase in the precipitation rate in the order of
200-300 mmlyr and a reduction of the evaporation rate due to higher cloudiness
was necessary. Studies on the Pleistocene snowline between 25" and 27"s (Fox
and Strecker, 1991) and on lateglacial paleosols in semi-arid Chile (Veit, 1991)
coincide with paleolimnologic, glaciologic and pedologic evidence from the Ata-
cama Altiplano at 21"-24"s (Messerli et al., 1993): It is suggested that the
westerly stormtracks remained stable at 27"-29"s whereas the tropical, mon-
soonal summer circulation shifted southward at least as far as 24"s. These
274 VOL. 9, NO. 4
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA. NORTHERN CHILE
Table I. Current and lateglacial maximum lake surfaces. Data from digital elevation models
(aero photogrammetry), Pampa Punta Negra: Topographical map 1 : 50,000.
Lake Surface Lejia Tuyajto Miscanti/Mixiiques/ Pampa Aguas
[km*, mas11 4325 4040 Varela Punta Negra Calientes 1
4150 4350 4200
Present 1.9 2.7 14.0
Lateglacial 10.8 14.6 35.6
- 2.5-6.7
<6 28.8*
Maximum
Factor: 5.7 x 5.4 2.3 4.3-11.5
* Spillway into Salar Quisquiro.
new data support the reinterpretation of the lateglacial wet phase in the Salar
Punta Negra (Lynch, 1990).
The increased precipitation rate and the reduced evaporation rate due to
higher cloudiness produced large freshwater lakes (lake phase) with sediment
deposits in the presently arid Altiplano above 4000 m. No comparable lake
sediments could be found below 3500 m in the Salar de Atacama/Punta Negra
depression. Several high elevation basins with similar catchment parameters
to the Laguna Lejia show a similar lake evolution. The water surfaces of these
lakes were up to 6 times greater during the maximum stage than at present
(Table I). This suggests that the lake phase was of regional significance for
the Altiplano between 21-24S, synchronous and genetically related to the
Tauca phase in Lake Titicaca.
The up to +25 m higher lake levels in the Laguna Lejia lasted throughout
lateglacial times, bracketed by 16,715 2 195 14C yr B.P. (Hv-17806, carbonate
fraction interpreted as maximum age) and 11,700 f 110 14C yr B.P. (ETH-
61791, total organic fraction). In other lakes, the highest shorelines are marked
by stromatolites, giving ages for the maximum lake phase of 13,160 80 14C
yr B.P. (Beta-63356, Salar Aguas Calientes I) and 11,300 * 70 14C yr B.P.
(Beta-63353, Salar Ollagiie at 21s). Laminated carbonates were still being
precipitated in the Salar Aguas Calientes I after 10,400 * 75 14C yr B.P.,
suggesting persistently high lake levels during ca. 3000 years. The basal depos-
its in the Salar de Tuyajto (12,020 t 95 14C yr B.P. UZ-2667/ETH-7371) also
confirm the lateglacial age of the lake phase. Based on these features, we
conclude abundant water resources in the Altiplano with larger river discharge
to the foot zone, higher groundwater tables and some open-water bodies in
adjacent basins on the western slope. This is in agreement with earlier studies
on lateglacial groundwater formation in the Atacama basin and in the Pampa
de Tamarugal (Fritz et al., 1979). We found no evidence, however, for the
lateglacial age of the large lakes in the Salar Punta Negra depression as
described by Lynch (1986).
Due to their water storage capacity, glaciers played a major role in buffering
the short-term fluctuations in the water budget. Direct ages for the widespread
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 275
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
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276 VOL. 9, NO. 4
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
glacial features in the Altiplano are not yet available. We believe that they
are related to more humid conditions under tropical influence during lateglacial
times. This is based on the following considerations: (1) Glaciers in permafrost
environments like the high Andes are most sensitive to changes in precipita-
tion, (2) the lowest moraines descend equatorward from 4900 m at 24"43'S to
4200 m at 22'23's (Messerli et al., 19931, (3) widespread Pleistocene glaciation
in the Ojos del Salado area at 27% is lacking, and (4) there are lateglacial glacier
advances further north (Clapperton, 1990; Seltzer, 1990). The equilibrium line,
which no longer exists, was as low as 4650 m (Co. Pajonal, 22'30'S, Messerli
et al. 1993) in the Atacama area, suggesting that most of the volcanoes were
covered by ice. This considerable volume of water in frozen storage may have
provided the lowlands with a stable water supply. Such a supply would have
been of extreme importance for any human inhabitants.
Lateglacial vegetation cover was scarce in the Altiplano. Increasing amounts
of Gramineae, Compositae and Chenopodiaceae pollen were found in the sedi-
ments younger than ca. 15,000 yr B.P. in the Salar de Tuyajto and Laguna
Lejia (Graf, 1992; Messerli et al., 1993). This suggests temperatures slowly
increasing after the last global cold maximum. Evidence for persistently cool
conditions is also found on the eastern slope of the Altiplano at Barro Negro
(23'S/65'37W/3820m; Fernandez et al., 1991), which was probably the main
constraint for dense vegetation in the Altiplano. Records for vegetation cover
in the foot zone are still scarce. But in light of the regional water budget
with higher river discharge and shallow groundwater tables, vegetation in the
Atacama depression (Prosopis juliflora and Geoffrea decorticans; Ochsenius,
1986) was probably abundant and was a sustainable fodder supply for the
Pleistocene fauna (Table 11).
The lack of human Paleoindian occupation associated with Pleistocene fauna
in the Atacama (Nunez, 1983; Lynch, 1990; Nuiiez and Santoro, 1990:88) is still
puzzling. As discussed before, there is no evidence for hostile environmental
conditions in the subtropical Andes, and the concentration of Pleistocene fauna
in areas of higher elevation must have been considerable (Phillippi, 1893;
Casamiquela, 1969-1970; Ochsenius, 1986; Fernandez et al., 1991). However,
the discovery of a few lithic artifacts (Fig. 4 in Nunez, 1983) still leave open
the possibility of Paleoindian occupation in the Atacama. But these finds have
not been documented as well as in the central-south Andean area (Nuiiez and
Santoro, 1990; Lynch, 1990).
EARLY HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENT, EARLY ARCHAIC PERIOD
(11,000-8500 YR B.P.)
(See also synthesis in Figure 5.)
Humid conditions prevailed in the Altiplano during early Holocene times
with up to 400 mm/yr summer precipitation compared to 200 mm/yr today
(Grosjean, in press). High lake levels are reported for the Salar Aguas Calientes
I, where laminated carbonates were still being precipitated after 10,400 ? 75
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 277
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Table 11. Pleistocene fauna in North-Central Chile and adiacent areas.
~
Site
~ ~
Time Species
14C yr B.P.
~~
Reference
Pampa de Tamarugal Late Pleistocene Megatherium
Scelidon
Macroauquenia
Equus
Barro Negro 3820 m 12,530 f 160 Hippidion sp.
10,200 * 140 Hippidion sp.
Quereo 11,400 2 155 Mastodont
(Cuvieronius sp.)
Equus sp.
Ciervo (Antifer sp. )
Camelidae
Mylodon sp.
Ciervo (Antifer sp. )
(C. humboldti)
Tagua Tagua 11,000 f 170 Mastodont, Equus
10,120 * 130 Mastodont
Casamiquela, 1969-1970
Casamiquela, 1969-1970
Casamiquela, 1969- 1970
Casamiquela, 1969-1970
Fernandez et al., 1991
Fernandez et al., 1991
Nufiez et al., in press
Nufiez et al., in press
Nufiez et al., in press
Nufiez et al., in press
MontanB, 1972
MontanB, 1972
Ndfiez et al., 1992
14C yr B.P. (carbonate fraction interpreted as maximum age due to hardwater
effect). But the diatom assemblages in the sediments of Laguna Lejia suggest
increasingly saline water due to high evaporation and long-term enrichment
processes in the still large water body.
An early Holocene paleosol on the eastern slope of the Atacama basin between
4000 and 4800 m is interpreted as additional evidence for stable, humid condi-
tions in the Altiplano. The paleosols above 4000 m show a higher concentration
of active FecBD, a slightly different clay mineralogy, a more advanced develop-
ment of soil horizons, and a very weak Ahb horizon. These indicate dense
vegetation and considerable biological and physical weathering (Messerli et
al., 1993; Schreier et al., in prep.). The best soil development is found at 4500
m, i.e. 500 m above the current maximum vegetation line. Given the humidity
control of the lower limit of the vegetation belt, the temperature control of the
upper limit of the vegetation belt, and a temperature gradient of 0.7"C/lOO m,
we suggest a (summer) temperature increase of about 3.5"C. Regarding the
age of the paleosol, only indirect dating has been successful so far: The pedogen-
esis is postglacial and terminated prior to ca. 7400 yr B.P. (Schreier et al., in
prep.). Moreover, the I1 B, horizon is related to the uppermost, early Holocene
lake terrace and is associated with early Archaic artifacts (Figure 3). Therefore,
we conclude an early Holocene age of pedogenesis. Again, the vertical distribu-
tion of these soils indicates that the high Andes were an area with optimum
environmental conditions for human habitation. This coincides with early Holo-
cene groundwater formation as reported for San Pedro (Fritz et al., 1979540).
The contribution of large, melting permafrost bodies to the regional water
supply during the temperature increase is still a matter of debate.
278 VOL. 9, NO. 4
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HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
P
- 5000-
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Figure 4. Chronosequence of archaeological sites in the Rio Loa and Atacama basin between
11,000 and 4000 yr B.P.
Despite warmer and moister conditions, tree growth was limited to lower
elevations in the Atacama depression. There is no evidence for Prosopis sp.
and Geoffrea juliflora in quebradas above 3000 m.
The early Holocene warm/moist conditions seem to be linked to the south-
ward shift of the tropical circulation with summer rainfall. Most likely, this
was concomitant with the southward shift of the Panamic Province in the east
Pacific (Rollins et al., 1986), which brought warm tropical waters as far south
as Antofagasta between 9680 5 160 14C yr B.P. and 9400 +_ 160 I4C yr B.P.
(Llagostera, 1979:314).
As shown in Figure 4, the earliest clear evidence for Archaic human occupa-
tion is found in Tuina-l(10,800 yr B.P.), San Lorenzo (10,400 yr B.P.), Chulqui-
1 (9600 yr B.P.), TulAn-68 (9300 yr B.P.), Tambillo-1 (8870 +_ 70 14C yr B.P.,
Beta-63365), and Salar Punta Negra (Sinclair, 1985; Nude2 and Santoro, 1988;
Lynch, 1990; Lynch and Stevenson, 1992; Nufiez, 1992). Summer precipitation
and warmer temperatures were favorable for animal life, and consequently,
the Altiplano provided excellent conditions for seasonal hunting of modern
camelids, birds, and rodents. River runoff and groundwater supply provided
living, gathering, and hunting space in the quebradas and the oases of the foot
zone during the winter. Although there are still no radiocarbon ages available
for human occupation in the Altiplano, the association of high early Holocene
lake levels, soil formation and early Archaic human occupation is obvious:
280 VOL. 9, NO. 4
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Typical, early Archaic, triangular, lithic artifacts and soil formation (I1 B,)
are only found on the uppermost lake terrace, whereas there is no evidence
for these features below the early Holocene water line. For example, Figure 3
shows the present day dry basin of the Pampa Punta Negra. The same pattern
is found in the Laguna Lejia, Salar Aguas Calientes I, and Lagunas Miiiiques/
Miscanti.
Almost identical, triangular, lithic artifacts in the Altiplano, in the adjacent
Quebradas and in the Atacama basin (eg. Aguas Calientes I at 4100 m and
Tambillo at 2400 m) are evidence for seasonal, vertical mobility of early Archaic
societies. Primary lithic material is found on the entire transect. This shows
that shifting areas of resource use was the principal strategy for subsistence
during early Holocene. In summertime, fresh and dried meat was transported
from the Altiplano (4500 m) down to lower quebradas and the Atacama basin
(2400 m), where cactaceae and trees provided complementary food resources,
and where alternative and additional pasture was available for camelids during
winter (Nufiez, 1992). The beginning of human occupation in the Atacama was
contemporaneous with the first dated lithic artifacts in the adjacent areas at
Inca Cueva and Huachichocana (Aschero, 1983; Fernandez-Distel, 1974) where
the subsistence mode was similar to that of Tuina involving seasonal circum-
puna transhumance (Yacobaccio, 1983). In all of these sites, there is only
evidence for modern fauna (mainly camelids). This suggests that the Pleisto-
cene fauna had already disappeared. Whatever the reason for their disappear-
ance, there is evidence for a relation between extinction of fauna and fundamen-
tal changes in the vegetation at the end of the Pleistocene, as reported from
Barro Negro in NW Argentina (Fernandez et al., 1991).
MIDDLE HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENT, MIDDLE ARCHAIC
PERIOD (SILENCIO ARQUEOLdGICO) 8500-5000 YR B.P.
(See also synthesis in Figure 5.)
The Aguas Calientes I lake receded to todays level at about 8400 yr B.P.
(Grosjean, in press), slightly earlier than the attainment of low lake levels in
Lake Titicaca at 7700 yr B.P. (Wirrmann and De Oliveira Almeida, 1987). Soil
formation was terminated before ca. 7400 yr B.P. (Schreier et al., in prep.;
Messerli et al., 1993). These findings suggest a shift to generally drier condi-
tions with decreasing water, vegetation, and animal resources towards middle
Holocene. Evidence for episodic, fluvial-torrential sedimentation is found in
the Quebrada Puripica, north of the Salar de Atacama: More than 20 middle
Archaic fireplaces between 6460 ? 230 14C yr B.P. (Beta-63366) and 5300 ?
100 14C yr B.P. (Beta-63360) are embedded in clastic sediments that represent
single storm events. This in turn suggests generally dry conditions, with heavy
and highly variable rainfall and poor erosion control on the adjacent slopes.
These storms may also have caused the temporal floodings in the dry Salar
de Atacama. Radiocarbon-dated charcoal in clayhilt deposits in a profile pit
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 28 1
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Figure 5. Environment and human occupation on the western slope of the Atacama Altiplano
(22-23S) during lateglacial, early, and middle Holocene.
between San Pedro and Tulor yielded an age of 5605 2 65 14C yr B.P. (ETH-
58481, which fits well to the episodic deposits in the Quebrada Puripica.
The generally increasing aridity towards the thermal optimum is also con-
firmed for Quereo (N~fiez et al., in press), for Barro Negro in NW Argentina
(Fernandez et al., 1991) and in Lake Titicaca (Wirrmann and Oliveira, 1987).
This seems, therefore, to be a regional phenomenon which was probably related
to a northward shift of the (sub)tropical summer circulation (= monsoonal
circulation), an increasing influence of the southeast Pacific anticyclone SPH,
and the onset of the Humboldt current (Rollins et al., 1986; Enfield, 1989).
During these fundamental environmental changes, only the sites with the
most stable water resources (e.g. Rio Loa, Rfo Puripica) show continuous,
middle Archaic habitation. But most of the sites south of the Rio Loa were based
on environmentally more sensitive resources, and were abandoned (Figure 4).
So, there is evidence for the climatically induced Silencio Arqueolbgico in
the southern part of our research area, i.e., in the Salar de Atacama (Nufiez,
1992) and in the Salar Punta Negra (Lynch and Stevenson, 1992). In the
northern part, i.e., in the Rio Loa, Rfo Puripica, and in the Rio Toconce area,
as well as in southern Peru (Aldenderfer, 1988), the middle Archaic habitation
continued.
282 VOL. 9, NO. 4
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
Even in the northern part of the area, seasonal mobility was restricted to a
few preferred pathways with isolated, but stable resources. This is the case
between Chiuchiu at 2400 m, Puripica at 3400, and the upper Loa valley in
the altoandean Puna (Druss, 1977; Nufiez, 1992). There is evidence for the
beginning of domestication of camelids in the Atacama region after 4800 yr
B.P. (Hesse, 1982a, b; Nufiez, 1989) and for the initial expansion of horticulture
towards the end of the middle Archaic period (Yacobaccio, 1983). The subsis-
tence economy was clearly oriented towards greater independence from short-
term fluctuations in water, vegetation, and animal resources. Thus, the de-
crease of natural resources can be seen as a major driving force for the transfor-
mation of the early Archaic hunting and gathering society. Animal domestica-
tion, pastoralism, agriculture, and later ceramics were necessary adaptations
to the harsh environmental conditions during the late Archaic reoccupation
(phases Tuldn and Tilocalar).
SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS
New data for the paleoenvironmental conditions in the Atacama indicate
the importance of the vertical zonation of natural resources. This was most
important for human occupation and economic patterns during early Holocene
time. While increased summer precipitation rates were spatially restricted to
the Altiplano, the Atacama basin benefited from a higher river runoff and
groundwater supply from the highlands. This highland-lowland interaction
between several altitudinal belts formed the ecological base for the early Ar-
chaic hunters. They settled exactly on those sites that provided easy access to
various ecozones and resources in different seasons within a short distance
between the Atacama basin and the Altiplano: Tuina and San Lorenzo, Toconce-
Confluencia, Tambillo, and Tuldn.
Abundant water and animal resources were available at the end of the
Pleistocene, and there is no evidence for an environmental prohibitor. There-
fore, the lack of Paleoindian human occupation is enigmatic and remains the
subject of further inquiry.
The impact of the changing environment on the interaction between man
and nature at the end of the early Archaic period is evident. Technologies and
strategies were not yet available to sustain or to adapt to a crisis in natural
resources. Consequently, human occupation continued only in the most stable
oasis north of the Salar de Atacama, whereas other early Archaic sites south
of 23"s were abandoned. This resulted in a regional, temporary hiatus until
ca. 4800 yr B.P., when domestication of camelids became common and fluctua-
tions in resources could be buffered.
In the context of climatic changes, we emphasize the role of the monsoon
circulation in subtropical areas. With our present knowledge, the tropical
precipitation belt shifted south about 8"-10" latitude. For example, the 400
mm/yr isohyet that is presently located at Lake Titicaca (ca. IS'S), moved as
far as 24"s during lateglacial and early Holocene times. This in turn produced
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 283
HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE ATACAMA, NORTHERN CHILE
the favorable, moist conditions in the Altiplano, and provided living space for
the early Archaic hunters. If this were the case, then it was also the northward
retreat of the monsoon circulation to its present position that produced the
unstable conditions with the Silencio Arqueolbgico in the fragile south. In
this area, resource response to changing climate was particularly sensitive.
And in contrast to the higher latitude areas, where changes in temperature
were dramatic over time, it seems to be the change in precipitation which is
critical in the (subltropical areas. The last word in the interpretation of the
paleocirculation has not yet been spoken. Although the data from all the differ-
ent archives become increasingly consistent, a detailed chronology with knowl-
edge of the spatial extent and the rates of the changes is still lacking.
This article is a fist synthesis of the Swiss National Science Foundation project (NF 21-27 824.89)
and the Chilean Science Foundation project (FONDECYT No. 1930022). We especially thank the
members of our multidisciplinary team, who contributed their results and helped to synthesize
the data: B. Messerli, M. A. Geyh, K. Graf, K. Ramseyer, U. Schotterer, H. Schreier, M. Vuille.
We thank Sylvia Welke, Thomas, and Christina for field assistance. Logistical support and research
permission was kindly provided by Willi Egli, Hugo Romero A., and Marcela Espinoza N. (DIFROL).
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