1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Wireless technologies have evolved remarkably since Guglielmo
Marconi first demonstrated radio's ability to provide continuous contact with
ships sailing in the English Channel in 1897. New theories and applications of
wireless technologies have been developed by hundreds and thousands of
scientists and engineers through the world ever since. Wireless
communications can be regarded as the most important development that has
an extremely wide range of applications from TV remote control and cordless
phones to cellular phones and satellite-based TV systems. It changed people's
life style in every aspect. Especially during the last decade, the mobile radio
communications industry has grown by an exponentially increasing rate,
fueled by the digital and RF (radio frequency) circuits design, fabrication and
integration techniques and more computing power in chips. This trend will
continue with an even greater pace in the near future.
1.1. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
A wide variety of different wireless data technologies now exist, some
in direct competition with one another, others designed to be optimal for
specific applications. Wireless technologies can be evaluated by a variety of
different metrics. Of the standards evaluated, these can be grouped as
1.Wireless Personnel Area Network (WPAN) systems 2.Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN) systems 3.Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN).

1.2. OFDM SYSTEMS:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has grown to be
the most popular communications systems in high speed communications.
OFDM technology is the future of wireless communications. OFDM is a
2

multicarrier transmission technique, which divides the bandwidth into many
carriers each one is modulated by a low rate data stream. In term of multiple
access technique, OFDM is similar to FDMA in that the multiple user access is
achieved by subdividing the available bandwidth into multiple channels that
are then allocated to users. However, OFDM uses the spectrum much more
efficiently by spacing the channels much closer together. This is achieved by
making all the carriers orthogonal to one another, preventing interference
between the closely spaced carriers. The difference between FDM and OFDM
is as shown in the figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Frequency spectrum of FDM signal and OFDM signal

OFDM is simply defined as a form of multi-carrier modulation where
the carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each sub carrier is orthogonal to
the other sub carriers. Two signals are orthogonal if their dot product is zero.
That is, if you take two signals multiply them together and if their integral over
an interval is zero, then two signals are orthogonal in that interval.
Orthogonality can be achieved by carefully selecting carrier spacing, such as
letting the carrier spacing be equal to the reciprocal of the useful symbol
3

period. As the sub carriers are orthogonal, the spectrum of each carrier has a
null at the centre frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This
results in no interference between the carriers, allowing them to be spaced as
close as theoretically possible. Mathematically, suppose we have a set of
signals

then,

{


(1.1)
The signals are orthogonal if the integral value is zero over the interval
[a a+T], where T is the symbol period. Since the carriers are orthogonal to
each other the nulls of one carrier coincides with the peak of another sub
carrier. As a result it is possible to extract the sub carrier of interest.


Figure 1.2 Time and Frequency domain view of OFDM signal

1.2.1. OFDM Generation and Reception
Figure 1.3 shows the block diagram of a typical OFDM transceiver.
The transmitter section converts digital data to be transmitted, into a mapping
of subcarrier amplitude and phase. It then transforms this spectral
representation of the data into the time domain using an Inverse Discrete
Fourier Transform (IDFT). The Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT)
4

performs the same operations as an IDFT, except that it is much more
computationally efficiency, and so is used in all practical systems. In order to
transmit the OFDM signal the calculated time domain signal is then mixed up
to the required frequency. The receiver performs the reverse operation of the
transmitter, mixing the RF signal to base band for processing, then using a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) to analyze the signal in the frequency domain. The
amplitude and phase of the subcarriers is then picked out and converted back
to digital data. The IFFT and the FFT are complementary function and the
most appropriate term depends on whether the signal is being received or
generated. In cases where the signal is independent of this distinction then the
term FFT and IFFT is used interchange

.
Figure 1.3 Block diagram of OFDM transmitter and receiver

The high data rate serial input bit stream is fed into serial to parallel
converter to get low data rate output parallel bit stream. Input bit stream is
taken as binary data. The low data rate parallel bit stream is modulated in
Signal mapper. Modulation can be BPSK, QPSK, and QAM etc. The
modulated data are served as input to inverse fast Fourier transform so that
each subcarrier is assigned with a specific frequency. The frequencies selected
are orthogonal frequencies. In this block, orthogonality in subcarriers is
introduced. In IFFT, the frequency domain OFDM symbols are converted into
5

time domain OFDM symbols. Guard interval is introduced in each OFDM
symbol to eliminate inter symbol interference (ISI). All the OFDM symbols
are taken as input to parallel to serial data. These OFDM symbols constitute a
frame. A number of frames can be regarded as one OFDM signal. This OFDM
signal is allowed to pass through digital to analog converter (DAC). In DAC
the OFDM signal is fed to RF power amplifier for transmission. Then the
signal is allowed to pass through additive white Gaussian noise channel
(AWGN channel).
At the receiver part, the received OFDM signal is fed to analog to digital
converter (ADC) and is taken as input to serial to parallel converter. In these
parallel OFDM symbols, Guard interval is removed and it is allowed to pass
through Fast Fourier transform. Here the time domain OFDM symbols are
converted into frequency domain. After this it is fed into Signal demapper for
demodulation purpose. And finally the low data rate parallel bit stream is
converted into high data rate serial bit stream which is in form of binary.
1.2.2. OFDM SYSTEMS:
The following block diagram shows Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) system consists of various blocks as in figure 1.4.The
input data bits are mapped by the modulation QPSK where the bits are
grouped as symbols and Inverse Fast Fourier transform is taken. Now the
training sequences and cyclic prefix are inserted which is passed through the
AWGN and Fading channel. With the help of synchronization, the OFDM
symbols are mapped to the original position if any offset occurs due to the
channel behavior. After that removal of cyclic prefix, training sequences and
FFT is taken for the OFDM symbols. Now the symbols are decoded into bits.


6











Figure 1.4 Block diagram of OFDM System with Synchronization

1.3. ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH THE RECEIVER SUB-SYSTEM:
OFDM systems are very sensitive to timing synchronization, frequency
offset synchronization and frequency-selective fading channels. Carrier
frequency offset (CFO) estimation and compensation are critical in OFDM
communications, since the orthogonality of subcarriers makes a simple OFDM
receiver feasible. However, CFO destroys the orthogonality between active
users, and causes inter-carrier interference (ICI) and multiple-access
interference (MAI). Time synchronization is another issue involves finding the
best possible time instant for the start of received OFDM frame. So it is
necessary to mitigate the above two issues associated with the receiver sub-
system.





DATA BITS
SYNCHRONIZA
TION
QPSK
MAPPING
IFFT
CYCLIC
PREFIX
AWGN &
FADING
CHANNEL
REMOVE
CYCLIC
PREFIX,TR
AINING
SEQUENCE
FFT EQUAILIZ
ATION
SYMBOL
DETECTIO
N
TRAINING
SEQUENCE
7

1.4. LITERATURE SURVEY:
In [1], the authors discussed about synchronization using training
sequences. Estimation of timing offset, frequency offset are done in this
report.
In [2], symbol detection using one training sequence for two symbols.
The algorithm use CramerRao lower bound for frequency offset .
In [3], describes about Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) of
symbol and carrier frequency offset with the help of Cyclic prefix .
In [4], describes optimal ML estimator of time and frequency offset
using window. The correlation residing in cyclic prefix samples and
useful data samples.

1.5. SCOPE OF THE WORK:
It is aimed to study the receiver synchronization algorithm of OFDM
systems which is shown in figure 1.4 by simulating a transceiver. With the
help of design specification chosen, the algorithm in [1] was carried out with
the help of MATLAB simulation considering the effects of multipath channel
impairments, Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO) and synchronization of OFDM
symbol.
Following to this introduction, Chapter 2 describes various multipath
channels and provides introduction to synchronization. Chapter 3 explains the
techniques involved in synchronization of OFDM receiver over time, carrier
frequency and phase offsets. The simulation specifications and observed
results have been discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 concludes the work carried
out in project work phase-I and ends with future work to be carried out in the
phase-II.


8

CHAPTER-2
MULTIPATH CHANNELS AND INTRODUCTION OF
SYNCHRONIZATION

In this chapter we will first describe fading and multipath, the
performance-limiting phenomena that occur in wireless atmospheric radio
channels, and then turn our attention to modeling and simulation of these
channels. Fading and Multipath occur in many radio communication systems.
These effects were first observed and analyzed in troposcatter systems in the
1950s and early 1960s. In any wireless communication system there could be
more than one path over which the signal can travel between the transmitter
and receiver antennas. The presence of multiple paths is due to atmospheric
scattering and refraction, or reflections from buildings and other objects. In a
multipath situation, the signals arriving along different paths will have
different attenuations and delays and they might add at the receiving antenna
either constructively or destructively. If the path lengths and/or the geometry
change due to changes in the transmission medium or due to relative motion of
the antennas, as in the mobile case, the signal level might be subjected to wild
fluctuations. Multipath fading affects the signal in two ways: dispersion (time
spreading or frequency selectivity) and time-variant behavior.

Mobile communication is affected, in addition to multipath (or small-
scale fading), to another type of fading which is referred to as shadow or large-
scale fading. Shadow fading reveals itself as an attenuation of the average
signal power. Shadow fading is induced by prominent terrain contours (hills,
buildings, etc.) between transmitter and receiver. The receiver is said to be
shadowed by these objects.
9


2.1. WIRELESS CHANNELS:
Wireless channels operate through electromagnetic radiation from the
transmitter to the receiver. In principle, one could solve the electromagnetic
field equations, in conjunction with the transmitted signal, to find the
electromagnetic field impinging on the receiver antenna. This would have to
be done taking into account the obstructions caused by ground, buildings,
vehicles, etc. in the vicinity of this electromagnetic wave.

A good understanding of the wireless channel, its key physical
parameters and the modeling issues, lays the foundation for simulating a
wireless channel. The defining characteristic of the mobile wireless channel is
the variations of the channel strength over time and over frequency. The
variations can be roughly divided into two types
Large-scale fading, due to path loss of signal as a function of
distance and shadowing by large objects such as buildings and
hills. This occurs as the mobile moves through a distance of the
order of the cell size, and is typically frequency independent.
Small-scale fading, due to the constructive and destructive
interference of the multiple signal paths between the transmitter
and receiver. This occurs at the spatial scale of the order of the
carrier wavelength, and is frequency dependent.

2.1.1. Rayleigh channel:
Rayleigh channel is also a kind of slow fading channel. In a radio link,
the RF signal from the transmitter may be reflected from objects such as hills,
buildings, or vehicles. This gives rise to multiple transmission paths at the
receiver. The relative phase of multiple reflected signals can cause
10

constructive or destructive interference at the receiver. This is experience over
very short distances (typically at half wavelength distances), thus is given the
term fast fading. The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to describe the
statistical time varying nature of the received signal power.
2.1.2. Discrete multipath channel model:
If a multipath channel is composed of a set of discrete resolvable
components that originate as reflections or scattering from smaller structures,
e.g., houses, small hills, etc., it is called a discrete multipath channel. The
model in its most general form has, in addition to variable tap gains, variable
delays and a variable number of taps. This model is applicable mostly to
rapidly changing environments. The low pass-equivalent impulse response of a
discrete multipath channel is given in the following equation 2.1,
=

(2.1)
With the corresponding output is given by,
=

(2.2)

For many channels it can be assumed as a reasonable approximation that
the number of discrete components is constant and the delay values vary very
slowly and can also be assumed constant. The model then simplify
=

(2.3)

This multipath channel model can be realized by means of multi tap FIR
filter, where the number of taps depends on number of reflected paths.




11

2.2. INTRODUCTION OF SYNCHRONIZATION:
Synchronization is the method which synchronizes the transmitter and
receiver of the OFDM symbols. There are two categories of synchronization
in general:
Data-Aided methods: A known data sequences is to be transmitted and
which has to be known to both transmitter and receiver. The drawback
of the data-aided scheme is the leakage of the bandwidth efficiency due
to redundancy overhead.
Two methods are used namely,
Pilot based
Training sequence based
In pilot based, the data symbols is known to both transmitter and
receiver. The pilots are inserted in between of OFDM symbols. Generally it is
complex form and operated in the frequency domain.
In training based, a block of data symbols is known to both transmitter
and receiver. This block of data symbol is inserted either at the starting of
OFDM symbols or at the end of the OFDM symbols . Due to this information
rate is reduced.

Non-Data-Aided methods: Non-data-aided methods or called blind
relying on the cyclostationarity and virtual sub-carriers, etc. The blind
estimation requires a large amount of computational complexity.



12

Techniques in Synchronization:
Correlation based
In correlation based method, the main idea is to perform correlation
between the data symbols and to find which position is having correlation
peak.
Two approaches are used namely

Correlation is done between the received data and its delayed
parts
Correlation is performed with the received data and with the local
sequences.

The different types of synchronization errors are given by a tree diagram
shown in figure 2.1.







Figure 2.1 Types of synchronization error
We consider the effects of Symbol timing and RF mismatch oscillator which
leads to timing offset and frequency offset respectively are explained in the
future chapters
Synchronization Errors
Timing Errors Frequency Errors
Sampling clock Symbol timing RF Oscillator Doppler effect
Timing Offset

Frequency offset
13

CHAPTER-3
OFDM RECEIVER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In digital radio communication systems information symbols are
transmitted by means of suitably chosen waveforms that modulate a carrier
signal with a suitably chosen frequency. Due to the radio environment,
imperfections generate fluctuations in these waveforms actually are received.

Because of these fluctuations, the receiver's knowledge of the
transmitters carrier frequency and waveform constellation is not always
sufficient to assure reliable detection. In order to detect the information
symbols reliably, the receiver may need to counteract the channel
uncertainties.

The requirements on the synchronization depend, among other factors,
on the type of modulation. This chapter is concerned with how channel
uncertainties are estimated in orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM) transmission systems. It addresses the estimation of symbol time
offsets, carrier frequency offsets and phase offs

Before an OFDM receiver can demodulate the subcarriers, it has to
perform two synchronization tasks. First it has to find where the symbol
boundaries are and what the optimum timing instants are to minimize the
effect of inter carrier interference (ICI) and inter symbol interference (ISI).
Second it has to estimate and correct for the carrier frequency offset of the
received signal because any offset which introduces ICI. In this chapter we
discuss timing synchronization techniques, frequency offset estimation
techniques and phase offset estimation techniques in detail in order to nullify
14

the effects of ICI. The baseband modulated signal s(n) , after parallel to serial
conversion and IFFT is expressed as,

(3.1)

The received complex signal that is transmitted over a multipath channel
with impulse response h(n,l), x(n) is the output signal which is expressed as
x(n)=

(3.2)

The received signal is corrupted by AWGN noise and fading by
channel. The offsets between the transmitter and receiver is modeled in
received signal with schematic shown in figure 3.1. The received is modeled
with equation (3.3).

+ w(n) (3.3)
Where,
- Unknown arrival time of the received symbol
- Frequency offset.
- AWGN channel


Figure 3.1 Block diagram of time, frequency, phase offset insertion in
transmitted signal with AWGN channel

15

The estimated offsets are used to correct the received signal before
passing the same to the detector. The process carrier out in the course is
depicted in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Internal blocks of Synchronization

3.1. SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION OF OFDM SYSTEM:
OFDM is a well known multi-carrier modulation technique which can
provide significant robustness to channels with long delay spreads at the cost
of a loss in spectral efficiency. OFDM efficiently modulates N parallel sub-
carriers by performing an N-point inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) on
N complex data symbols. The output of the IDFT consists of N samples which
are referred to as an OFDM symbol.

Hence, OFDM needs to employ time and frequency synchronization.
Time synchronization is to decide for the symbol boundaries. Commonly, a
sequence of known symbols- preamble (training sequence) is used to detect the
symbol boundaries. It has less sensitivity to timing offset as compared with
single-carrier systems, since timing offset does not violate the orthogonality of
subcarriers in OFDM system, but causes ISI in single-carrier systems.

The OFDM symbol is added with training sequences and cyclically
extended and transmitted over the air. If the channel is static during the
duration of one OFDM symbol and if the receiver is perfectly synchronized,
16

the sub-carriers orthogonality is maintained at the receiver. Therefore, the data
transmitted on each sub-carrier can be recovered by means of a DFT.
However, the receiver has to be synchronized with the transmitter both in
frequency and time domain.

The method uses the training sequence to detect the beginning of the
OFDM symbol. The frame contains four OFDM symbols and 128 training
symbols are distributed as in the figure 3.3. The first subblock of training
sequence (Trn.seq) has 64 symbols is prefixed to the first OFDM symbol,
remaining 64 symbols are divided into four subblocks and appended at the end
of each OFDM symbols having 270 symbols.

Trn.
Seq
CP+Data Tr.
Seq.
CP+Data Tr.
Seq.
CP+Data Tr.
Seq.
CP+Data Tr.
Seq.

Figure 3.3 Structure of OFDM symbols with training sequence

3.1.1. Synchronization using training sequence method:
In this work, the training sequence of 128 symbols is generated and
inserted at appropriate position as shown in figure 3.3. Instead of correlating
the cyclic prefix in the conventional method, the local copy of the training
sequence is correlated with the received signal to achieve timing
synchronization. In a buffer having a length of one subframe containing the
received signal, the samples over training sequences length are collected from
their reference locations in the transmitted sequence format and correlated with
the local copy of training sequence. The algorithm is described by equation
(3.4),

(3.4)
17

Where,
d
ML
=Estimated Timing point
N
t
= Length of training sequence
tr(k) = reference training sequence
r
tr
(k) = training sequence from received signal r(k)

3.2. CARRIER FREQUENCY OFFSET:
One of the principal disadvantages of OFDM is sensitivity to frequency
offset in the channel. There are two deleterious effects caused by frequency
offset; one is the reduction of signal amplitude in the output of the filters
matched to each of the carriers and the second is introduction of ICI from the
other carriers which are now no longer orthogonal to the filter. Because, in
OFDM systems, the carriers are inherently closely spaced in frequency
domain.

3.2.1 Carrier frequency offset estimation and correction:
The received signal spectrum is shifted from its optimum location by the
offset between the local and transmitter carrier. The offset reflected in the
sampling leads to addition of interference from the symbols transmitted on
other subcarriers to the desired subcarrier. This interference is called
intercarrier interference (ICI). This is illustrated in figure 3.4.

A frequency offset estimate may be generated at the receiver with the
aid of known training sequences to the receiver. An algorithm based on
correlating the cyclic prefix is presented to estimate frequency offset from the
demodulated data signals in the receiver. The technique involves repetition of
a data symbol and comparison of the phases of each of the carriers between the
successive symbols. Since the modulation phase values are not changed, the
18

phase shift of each of the carriers between successive repeated symbols is due
to the frequency offset. The frequency offset is estimated using a maximum
likelihood estimate (MLE) algorithm as in equation (3.5).
Figure 3.4 Carrier Frequency Offset in OFDM spectrum

The procedure for obtaining frequency offset is obtained by leaving the
training sequences, considers only the OFDM symbols which include CP. The
correlation of cyclic prefix with the tail of the OFDM symbols yields the
estimated value of frequency offset, provided by equation (3.5) and this
method is called as maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) .
(

(3.5)

3.3. PHASE OFFSET:
Frequency estimation alone could not complete the carrier
synchronization, additionally it requires estimating and correcting the phase
offset also. Let the CFO corrected signal is represented is d(k), then the
resultant frequency offset corrected signal r(k), which is represented as

(3.6)
19

All the symbols are phase rotated by a constant . To estimate the
phase, received signal is r(k) is multiplied with conjugate of training sequence,
which is represented as

(3.7)
The angle of y(k) provides the estimate of the phase. With this, the
phase corrected signal is obtained as z(k) given by,

(3.8)
This z(k) is synchronized signal which is passed through a OFDM
demodulator for further processing to retrieve the information from the signal.
20

CHAPTER 4
OFDM RECEIVER SIMULATION
The block diagram of OFDM system shown in figure has been carried
out with the following design specifications with anomalies described in the
earlier chapters like Time offset, Carrier Frequency offset and phase offset.
4.1. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS:
In this work, the simulation parameters have taken as stated in [1]. This
used 256 point fast Fourier transform (FFT) with 240 active subcarriers, 15
guard subcarriers, 14 cyclic prefix, sample frequency of 1.6MHz, subcarriers
spacing of 6.25kHz, number of OFDM symbols per time slot is 4, training
sequences of 128. These have been summarized in table 4.1(a), (b).
Table 4.1(a) Design specification (I)
PARAMETERS VALUE
Nfft 256
NUsed Carriers 240
Number of lower frequency guard sub carriers 8
Number of higher frequency guard sub carriers 7
Cyclic prefix 14

Table 4.1 (b) Design specification (II)
PARAMETERS VALUE
Sample frequency 1.6MHz
Sample time (T
s
) 625ns(1/1.6MHz)
Number of OFDM symbols per Timeslot 4
OFDM symbol interval 168.75s( 270 * T
s
)
CP length 8.75s ( 14*T
s
)
Sub carrier spacing 6.25KHz(1.6MHz/256)
Number of training sequences 128 symbols
(64+16+16+16+16)
Modulation QPSK

21

4.2. SIMULATION OF OFDM SYSTEM IN AWGN CHANNEL:
In the first step simulation was carried out to estimate the effect of
AWGN channel on bit error rate (BER) performance over signal power to
noise power ratio (SNR). The simulated result is plotted in figure 4.1,and it is
observed that OFDM system requires minimum of 11dB SNR to yield BER of
10
-4
.

Figure 4.1 SNR vs. BER curve for AWGN channel

4.3. SIMULATION OF OFDM SYSTEM IN RAYLEIGH CHANNEL:
The simulation of OFDM system is carried out with the help of
following design specification in Rayleigh multipath channel

Table 4.2 Design specification
Sampling Time 0.1ns
Path delays in ns 0 781 156 2344
Path gains in dB 0 -3 -6 -9
Delay spread 2344ns
Doppler shift 0
Fading type Frequency selective & slow fading


22

4.4. SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION OF OFDM SYSTEM:
A well-known drawback of OFDM is that it requires accurate symbol
synchronization because the OFDM signal is demodulated based on symbol
structure and the arriving time of the received signal is unknown. Wrong
symbol synchronization would cause the inter-symbol interference (ISI), and
then bring up an increase of bit error rate (BER), so it is essential to achieve
accurate and fast symbol synchronization for OFDM system.

The following graph shows that when offset = 125 and estimated timing
is 1084, the OFDM system gets synchronized to the estimated timing.

Figure 4.2 Probability occurrence of estimated timing

4.4.1. Observations:
From the simulation it has been inferred that after an SNR value greater
than 0 dB OFDM system is properly synchronized.
For different value of offsets, simulation is confirms that the system gets
exactly synchronized for positive SNR.


23

4.5. CARRIER FREQUENCY OFFSET ESTIMATION:
As we saw in the earlier chapters CFO is due to the mismatch of the RF
oscillator in the transmitter and receiver side of the OFDM system.
In the figure 4.3 as SNR value increases, MSE of estimated CFO
decreases under Rayleigh channel.

Figure 4.3. SNR Vs MSE for =0.0019

The following table gives estimated offset for SNR=20 dB.

Table 4.3. Estimated Frequency offset for Rayleigh channel (SNR = 20dB)




Frequency offset
Estimated
offset(AWGN channel)
Estimated offset (Rayleigh
channel)
0.0019 0.0019 0.0014
0.0029 0.0029 0.0027
0.0039 0.0039 0.0040
0.0049 0.0049 0.0047
0.0059 0.0049 0.0055
0.0069 0.0069 0.0067
0.0079 0.0079 0.0083
0.0089 0.0089 0.0084
24

It is observed that the offset is possible to estimate exactly while the
channel is AWGN. If the noise increases or channel becomes highly
faded, the error in the estimate becomes larger beyond the values shown
in the table 4.3.

4.5. PHASE OFFSET ESTIMATION
In figure 4.4 as SNR increases, MSE of Phase offset estimation (in
radian) decreases.


Figure 4.4 SNR Vs MSE of phase offset(0.5235 in radian)








25

The following table shows estimation of phase for different values of
offset shown in Table 4.4
Table 4.4 Phase estimation in AWGN, Rayleigh
channel(SNR=20dB)








As in the case of frequency estimation, the phase estimate also works
well in the higher SNR and deviates from the expected while the noise
increases as well as fading increases.








Phase
offset(in
radian)
Estimated
offset(AWGN
channel)
Estimated
offset(Rayleigh
channel)
0.5236 0.5241 0.5396
0.6109 0.6107 0.6170
0.6989 0.6990 0.6953
0.7854 0.7850 0.7916
0.8727 0.8730 0.8854
0.9599 0.9596 0.9658
1.0472 1.0468 1.0340
1.1345 1.1348 1.1503
1.2217 1.2218 1.2973
1.3090 1.3090 1.4966
26

CHAPTER- 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
5.1. CONCLUSION:
Thus in this project OFDM system is simulated based on the selected
specifications and receiver algorithm was verified with the help of MATLAB
by considering the receiver design anomalies like timing offset, Carrier
Frequency Offset, phase offset. Timing synchronization is done with the help
of training sequences inserted between the OFDM symbols. Carrier frequency
offset is cancelled by means Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) and Phase
offset is estimated and corrected with the help of training sequence
The insertion of training sequence aids the synchronization with
minimum estimation error.
Introduction of training sequence reduces the information rate.
It is observed that OFDM system requires minimum of 11dB SNR to
yield BER of 10
-4
in the case of AWGN channel which is required to
be yielded by the optimum estimator.
It has been inferred that for SNR value of greater than 0dB, the
OFDM system is properly synchronized with the aid of training
sequence.
In CFO and Phase estimation, it is observed that for SNR value
greater than 10dB, MSE values reduces and errors are obtained in

.




27

5.2. FUTURE WORK:
In this project phase-I, the synchronization with the aid of training
sequence has been studied. In the next phase of this project work, it is
intended to study another synchronization scheme proposed in [6], which is a
pilot based joint estimate technique. The outcome of the simulation is to be
compared with the present work for the selected specifications.



















28

REFERENCES

[1]. Zhang Rong-tao Xie Xian-zhong Wang Xi(2006) Synchronization
Algorithm for OFDM based on Training Cyclic Prefix- International
Conference on Communication Technology ICCT, pp.1 - 4
[2]. Schmidl T M, Cox D C. (1997) Robust frequency and timing
synchronization for OFDM. - IEEE Transactions on Communications,
Volume 45 No.12 pp.1613 - 1621
[3]. Van de Beek J J, Sandell M, Boriesson P (1997) ML estimation of time
and frequency offset in OFDM Systems - IEEE Transaction on Signal
Processing, volume 45 No.7 pp.1800 - 1805
[4]. Lee. J, Lou, H and Toumpakaris, D. (Oct. 2004)Maximum likelihood
estimation of time and frequency offset for OFDM systems - Electronics
Letters. Volume 40, Issue 22, 28 Page(s):1428 - 1429

[5]. Michele Morelli, Member IEEE, C.-C. Jay Kuo, Fellow IEEE, and
Man-On Pun, Member IEEE Synchronization Techniques for Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) : A Tutorial Review

[6]. Hung Nguyen-Le and Tho Le-Ngoc (2010) Pilot-Aided Joint CFO and
Doubly-Selective Channel Estimation for OFDM Transmissions IEEE
transactions on broadcasting, vol. 56, no. 4 Page No: 345-362