NERVOUS SYSTEM

Terminologies: Please memorize the following terms for your sake.

* Afferent - conveying toward the center; sensory

* Axon - central core which forms the essential part of a nerve fiber. It transmits
impulses to the other neurons(away from the cell body0, or to muscle fiber and grand
cells.

*Dendrite - A branched and tree-shaped protoplasmic process from a neuron. It

transmits impulse towards the cell body.

*Effector - a nerve end organ which serves to distribute impulses which activate
muscle contraction and gland secretion.

*Efferent - conveying away from the center; motor.

*Fissure - any cleft or groove; a deep fold in the cerebral cortex which involves the
entire thickness of the brain wall.

*Ganglion - Collection or mass of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS

*Gyrus - a convoluted ridge; tortuous elevations of the surface of the brain caused
by unfolding of the cortex

*Intemuncial neuron - a nerve cell that transmit impulses from one part of the brain or
spinal cord to another.

*Nucleus/ei - group of neurons serving a common function located in the CNS

*Neuroglia - supporting structure unit of the nervous tissue

*Neuron - anatomical or basic structure unit of the nervous system

*Plexus - a network of nerves

*Preganglionic fiber - axon of neurons whose cell bodies are in the brain or spinal cord.
Fiber that transmit impulse from the CNS to the autonomic ganglia.

*Postganglionic fibers - transmit impulse from cell bodies in the autonomic ganglia to
visceral effectors

*Ramus - a branch of a nerve

*Receptor - sensory nerve terminal which respond to stimuli

*Reflex - it is an involuntary response to stimuli; physiological or functional unit
in the nervous system

* Reflex arc - the structural basis of reflex action

* Stimulus - any agent, act or influence producing a reaction in a receptor

*Sulcus- a groove, trench or furrow; a depression on the surface on the brain

The gyri/gyrus

*Synapse - region of contact between processes of two adjacent neurons, forming a

place at which nerve impulse is transmitting from one neuron to anothe

*Tract - A collection or bundle of nerve fibers having the same origin, function
and termination.

*Meninges - protective covering of the Brain and Spinal Cord.

Nervous System

- concerned with the reception, transmission, interpretation, integration of these

sensations which arise from the internal and external environment
- Pathway and processing system of impulses

2 Main Division

1. CNS - brain and spinal cord

2. PNS - cranial, spinal nerves, autonomic nerves

NEURON OR NERVE CELL

- 3Unit of the nervous system

Part of the Neuron

1. Dendrites - receptive surface for the neuron.

2. Axon - arises from an elevation on the nerve cell body (axon hillock).
Transmit impulse away from the cell body.
3. Cell body - contains the organelles and is responsible for metabolic
processes.
Components of Nerves

Nerve fibers (surrounded by Endoneurium) -- Fascicles/Nerve bundle

(surrounded by Perineurium) –Nerve (surrounded by Epineurium)

*Myelin Sheath – contains cholesterol, cerebroside and phospholipids

- it serves as an insulator for faster nerve conduction/transmission of impulses
- it covers the axon of the myelinated nerves
- produced by the Schwann Cells (PNS) and Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

*Nodes of Ranvier - these are areas in the axon of myelinated fibers devoid of myelin

- responsible for SALTATORY CONDUCTION

Classification of Neurons

1. UNIPOLAR - has short processes has only one main process leaving the cell
body
E.g. Cerebrospinal ganglia

2. BIPOLAR - it has 2 main processes leaving the cell body

E.g. retina, spinal and vestibular ganglion of the inner ear, olfactory
mucous membrane
3. MULTIPOLA - if it has only one axon and many dentrites
E.g. CNS, Penpheral Autonomic ganglia

Note; All Unipolar and Bipolar neurons are sensory or afferent in function.

B. According to Function

1. Afferent
2. Efferent
a. Somatic efferent – carry impulses that cause contraction of skeletal
muscles
b. Secretory efferent - carry impulse that lead to secretion of glands
c. Augmentor efferent - strengthen the force of contraction
d. Accelerator neurons - increase the force and rate of contraction
e. Inhibiting neuron – decrease the force and rate of contraction of
smooth and cardiac muscle

3. Associational (Intemuncial) - transmits impulses form one part of the brain or

spinal cord to another and their processes do not leave the CNS

NEUROGLIA
- supporting cells of the nervous system
3 Types of Neuroglia

1. Astrocytes - star shaped that participates in brain development and

metabolism of neurothransmitter, helps from the blood brain barrier maintain proper
balance of K

a. Protoplasmic astrocytes - attained to the blood vessels to the pia mater

by means of pedicles and are found chiefly in the gray matter
b. Fibrous astrocyles - attached to blood vessels by means of their
processes and are found chieftly in the white matter

2. Oligodendrocytes/Oligodendroglia - produce myelin sheath in the Brain and

Spinal Cord
3. Microglia – brain macrophages

SYNAPSE
- site of transmission of nerve impulse from one neuron to another
- permits transmission of impulse in one direction only

Types of Synapse

1. Axodendritic -
2. Axosomatic
3. Axoaxonic

*Syanptic Vesicle – found in sypnatic endings

- contains the neurotransmitters for facilitation of transmission of impulses

*Synaptic Cleft – separates the presynaptic and postsymatic membrance

Note: Transmission of activity from one neuron to another is chemical in nature. It

involves the release of an excitatory neurotransmitter (Ach) by the synaptic vesicle across
the synaptic cleft. Termination of transmission is made by the release of the
Acetylcholinesterase which stops the action of the Acetylcholine.

Characteristics of Nervous Tissue

A. All or None Law – nerve fibers respond to a threshold stimulus (stimulus

strong enough to cause a response) maximally or not at all.
B. Absolute Refractory Period – period when the nerve fibers will not respond to
any maximal stimulus. This gives the fiber a forced rest, thus making the
nerve indefatigable.
C. Relative Refractory Period - only a stimulus stronger than the first that
produced an action potential, will result in the transmission of a nerve impulse
 D. Super Normal Phase – the nerve become more excitable than before it can be
excited by a subthreshold stimulus in reference to the first stimulus which
excited the nerve.
E. Self-Propagation – the impulse does not die before it gets to its destination. It
gets a boost at each node of Ranvier to furnish it with enough energy to get it
to the node.

Action Potential - a sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and eventually
reverse the membrane potential (depolanization) and then restore it to the resting state
(repolarization)

Gray Matter - contains either neuron cell bodies, dendrite, and axon terminals or bundle
of unmyelinated axons and neuroglia.
- no myelin sheath

White Matter - aggregations of myelinated processes from mayneurons.

- there is myelin sheath

Directions of White Matter

1. Project Fibers – connects cerebral cortex with subcortical centers

2. Association Fibers – connects cerebral cortex of one area which another area
on the same side.
3. Commissural Fibers – transverse fiber which connect one side of the brain to
the other.

Brain
- is a hollow organ which contain a system of spaces (Ventrides)
- 2% of total body weight
- Contains billions of neurons and glial cells
- Well developed, involved in many aspect of higher learning such a memory,
behavior and learning language

Ventricles of the Brain

- 5 cavities within the brain lined with ependyma
- filled with CSF
- 2 lateral ventricles, 3rd Ventricle, Cerebral Aqueduct/Aqueduct of Sylvius/Iter,
4th Ventricle

Cerebrospinal Fluid
- entire nervous system contains abut 80-150 ml of CSF
- 400-500 ml produced and reabsorbed daily
- Source of nourishment of the brain

Functions of the CSF:

1. Mechanical Support to the Brain
 2. Controls brain excitability – regulates ionic composition/balances the
electrolytes
3. protection from pressure changes

*Choroid Plexus – produces the CSF

CSP Flow:

Choroid Plexus - Lateral Ventricle – Foramen of Monroe – 3rd Ventricle ---

Iter --- 4th Ventricle --- Foramen of Magendie (Medial)/Foramen of Luschka
(Lateral) --- Subarachnoid space --- Cerebral Convexities --- Arachnoid Villi ---
Venous Circulation

Division of the Brain

1. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
a. Cerebral Hemisphere (Telencephalon) with each hemisphere
composed of
1. Cerebral Cortex
2. Basal Ganglia
3. Rhinenception
b. Diencephalon
1. Doral portion (Thalamus and Epithalamus)
2. Ventral portion (hypothalamus and subthalamus)

2. Midbrain or (Mesencephalon) - this connects, the forebrain with the hindbrain

and surrounds cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius.
a. Ventral portion - cerebral peduncle
b. Dorsal portion - superior and inferior colliculi

3. Hindbrain or (Rhombencephalon)
a. Metencephalon - cerebellum, pons
b. Myelencephalon - Medulla Oblongata

1. Forebain
- largest division of the brain
- consists of cerebral hemispheres and diencephalons

Cerebral Hemisphere
- extend posteriorly overlap the portion of the brain
- median longitudinal fissure separates the 2 hemisphere
- corpus callosum connects the 2 hemispheres
- has 5 lobes frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal and insula

*Central Sulcu/Fissure of Rolando - separates the frontal lobe and parietal lobe
*Lateral Cerebral Fissure/Sylvian Fissure – separates the fronto-pariental lobes from the
temporal lobes.

*Parieto-Occipital Fissure – separates the occipital lobe from the parietal and temporal
lobe

A. Cerebral Cortex
- convoluted layer of gray matter upon the surface of each cerebral hemisphere

Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

1. It is the organ of sensation and is concerned with sensory discrimination.

2. All the activities of the body regulated through visceral afferent or efferent or
autonomic nerves are influenced by impulses from cerebral cortex.
3. Its project fibers transmit impulses to the basal ganglia and influence the spinal
cord motor neurons by way of the extrapyramidal tracts.
4. It is the center for
a. reflexes
b. hearing (temporal lobe)
c. speech
d. sleep
e. vision
f. mental process like intelligence, memory, judgment, imagination,
creativity and conscious thought

5.It forms conditioned reflexes

6. It is the location of the sensory areas
7. It is the location of association areas

Brodmann’s Area of the Brain

Area 4 - Pre-central gyrus

- primary motor area
- in charge with all the movements in the body
- Flaccidity

Area 5 - Pre-motor area

- Spasticity

Area 3, 1, 2 – Post-Central gyrus

- primary sensory area
- in charge with all the sensory function of the body

Area 7 - Sensory Association Area

Area 41 - Superior Temporal Gyrus
- Primary Auditor Cortex
- In charge with hearing

Area 43 – Primary Gustatory Area

Area 17 - Occipital Lobe

- Primary Visual Area
- Also known as Striate Cortex

Area 18, 19 – Visual Association Area

Area 44, 45 – Broca’s Area

- motor speech
- in charge with talking

Area 22 – Wernicke’s Area

- Speech comprehension
- Anterior 1/3 of superior temporal gyrus

Limbic System - composed of the cingulated and parahippocampal gyri

- visceral brain
- concerned with emotion and visceral activity of the individual

Note:

Destruction of the limbic system in men is followed by loss of fear and rage
reactions, compulsion to examine objects, increased sexual activity with homosexual
tendencies, and excessive food intake. This is known as the Kluve-Bucy syndrome.

Basal Ganglia
- dark masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemisphere
- composed of the Caudate nucleus, Putamen, Globus Pallidus
- aid in the activity of the motor area and are concerned with the modifying and
coordinating voluntary muscle movement.
- CN and Putamen are the major input of the Basal ganglia
- Globus Pallidus major outflow of the Basa Ganglia
- Parkinson’s Disease

Rhinencephalon
- olfactory portion of the cerebral hemisphere

Functions:
1. Receives and integrates olfactory impulse
2. Establishes reflex connections with visceral activities by way of the
hypothalamus and medulla oblongata
 3. established cortical connections in the hippocampus which send out
commissural and projection fibers

B. Diencephalon

1. Hypothalamus
- forms the floor and part of the wall of the 3rd ventricle and extends from the optic
chiasm to the caudal boundary of the mamillary bodies, ventrally it is connected with
neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary gland)

Functions:
1. Chief subcortical center for regulation of visceral activities
2. temperature regulating center
3. water balance center – osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are sensitive to the
osmotic pressure of blood and the amount of water in the body.
4. center for regulation of food intake
5. regulates gastric secretion
6. regulates activities of the adenohypophysis by secreting hormone releasing factors
7. active during emotional expression.

2. Thalamus
- located at the dorsal portion of the diencephalons
- important relay center for sensory fibers
- sensory integrating center, relay station for visceral response, regulates and
maintains state of consciousness, alertness, attention, expression of emotions.

II . Midbrain
- otherwise known as mesencephalon
- cerebral peduncles on the central and the superior and inferior colliculi on the
roof of the midbrain

Functions:
1. concerned with ocular reflexes and relaying of auditory and visual impulses
2. it is the conduction pathway for impulse to and from numerous structures of
the central nervous system
3. It contains motor nuclei of CN III and CN IV
4. it is the location of the Edinger-Westphal nuclei which give rise to visceral
efferent supplying the smooth muscles of the eye.
5. center involved in postural or attitudinal reflex (tonic neck and labyrinthine
reflexes)
6. center for righting reflexes, concerned with orientation of the head in space.
III. Hindbrain
- rhombencephalon (metencephalon and myelencephalon)

1. Metencephalon
- further divided into the pons and cerebellum
Cerebellum
- Also know as the little Brain
- Largest part o the hindbrain
- Overlaps the pons and medulla oblongata and is
overlapped by the occipital lobe
- Attached to the midbrain by the cerebellar peducles

Functions:
1. coordinates voluntary muscular activity
2. regulates tone in extension muscles
3. maintains equilibrium/balance
4. regulates essential excitatory and inhibitory impulses for agonists,
antagonists, and synergists in various muscles movements

Pons
- Means bridge
- Extends from the medulla oblongata to the midbrain
- Motor an sensory nuclei of CNV, VI, VII an VIII
- Pathway for ascending sensory and descending motor fibers

2. Myelencephalon
- also called the Medulla Oblongata
- expanded continuation of the spinal cord
- extends from the foramen magnum to the caudal border of the pons
- CN IX, X, XI, and XII

Functions:
1. serves as the conduction pathway between the higher and lower parts
of the central nervous system
2. contains vital centers important in the control of the heart, blood
pressure, respiration, and swallowing, vomiting and coughing reflex

Reticular Formation
- of the medulla oblongata replaces the gray matte of the spinal cord
- composed of cell bodies or neurons of various sizes, types and shapes
- extends forward from the medulla through the pons, midbrain, and into the
thalamus in the diencephalons
- receives nerve fibers from the second order neurons that are on their way to
the thalamus from the spinal cord, cerebellum, hypothalamus, and the orbito-
frontal region of the cerebral cortex
Functions:
1. the Inhibiting center located at the centromedial portion. Stimulation of this
area results in inhibition of voluntary movements induced by the stimulation
of the cerebral cortex, reflexes, muscle tone, depression of respiration, and
blood pressure.
2. the Facilitating center extends throughout the length of the reticular formation
from the medulla oblongata to the diencephalon. Stimulation of this area will
have the opposite effects of the stimulation of the inhibiting center.
SPINAL CORD
- lies within the vertebral canal
- Extends from the foramen magnum to the lower border of the first lumbar
vertebra.
- 42 – 45 cm long

*Conus Medullaries - cone shaped end of the spinal cord

*Filum Terminale – extends through the end of the dural sac at the level of the 2nd sacral
vertebra to attach to the back of the 1st segment of the coccyx

Cross Section of the Spinal Cord:

*Gray Matter – butterfly shaped located centrally in the spinal cord

- it has 2 ventral/ anterior horns which has motor function
- it has 2 dorsal/posterior horn which has sensory functions
- it has 2 lateral horns (thoraco-lumba area only) which contains the
preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system

*White Matter - composed of myelinated nerve fibers

- fibers are arranged in tracts which are bundles of nerve fibers with the same
origin, termination and function.

Functions of the Spinal Cord

1.Reflex Center

*Reflex - it is an involuntary response to a stimulus

Component of the Reflex Arc

a. Receptor – sensory nerve termina which receives a stimulus

b. Afferent Neuron - transmits impulses from the receptor to the CNS
c. Center or Internuncial Neuron - area where impulse pass from an
afferent neuron across one or more synapses
d. Efferent Neuron- transmit impulses from the CNS to the effector
organ
e. Effector Neuron - nerve end organ which serves to distribute impulses
to activate muscle contraction and gland secretion
2. Conduction Pathway - composed of fibers that transmit impulse to (ascending tracts)
and from (descending tracts) the CNS.

Ascending Tracts:

1. Posterior Funiculi (Fasciculus Gracilis and Fasciculus Cuneatus)

- impulses coming from the extremities and are concerned with proprioception
and kinesthesia (position and movement sense)
- receptors are located in the muscles, tendons, joints
Fasciculus Gracilis - subserves the LE
Fasciculus Cuneatus - subserves the UE

2, Spinocereballar Tracts

- transmit impulses from muscles, tendons and joint from all parts of the body
and the information given to the cerebellum
- involved in the limb movements and maintenance of the posture

3. Spinothalamic Tracts

- has 2 types
o Anterior Spinothalamic – concerned with transmission of impulses
concerned with light touch and pressure
o Lateral Spinothalamic – concerned with the transmission of impulses
concerned with paid and temperature

- from muscles, skin tendons, joints, viscera

- sensation of fullness of the Urinary Bladder, pain from ureter, urinary bladder,
urethra and sexual sensations.

Descending Tracts

1. Corticospinal and Pyramidal Tract

- these tracts transmit impulses concerned with volitional movements

2. Extrapyramidal Tracts

- these are short tracts that integrate activities of the spinal cord
- impulses from the various parts of the brain to exert influence on the neurons
of the spinal cord.
3. Descending Autonomic Tracts

- excitatory and inhibitory influences of the spinal reflex arc