LOGICMETHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTS |

Statement: Statement is generally meant,

'^roup of' words thf?:t have meaning lint in
bngic statement me-ois s^roiap of words that
lias two tci'ina, first term is used imd.tr subject
and the second term tinder predicate. he
statements in logic arc called propositions or
promises.
!remises" he premises thai has the major
#erm $? called roajor premise and the premise
that hue the minor term is coiled minor
premise.
erm: he. predicate id' major premise i%
billed major term and is denoted by ! and its
snhjec# ib called minor term and is denoted by
S and the terms which are common in both the
premises are called middle term wliich is
demoted b&- '. for e(ample.
Example:
)* men are mortal. +'ajor !romise,
* tarn is man. +'inor !remise,
-am is m ntal +.onclusion,
'ere 'mortal' is major term and its subject
is not minor term here because it ie in minor
pcniise also so ii i
:
- in id die berrn. 'inor
torn here is -am/
*n login" unit of argument is called
proposition or p-cmise and unit of tli ought i
s trilled term. ) proposition is different from a
sentence that its predicate0 either affirm or
cony the subject, i.e., if we s^y thai * have
ta1en food. *n #his sentence predicate ncithef
affirms nor doilies #hei subject hut if we say
that mrm is mui'#al then the word morta t
affirms the man so this is a prop tuition and 2*
have ta1en food2 is just a senlenc3. 4ow #he
5uestion is how will we identify the 2major
and minor premises in a syllmisb +group of
logical state me rf.6&. it is. possible by
identifying the major and minor terms. 7or
tins pmpose study the $st and lnd premises
and identify the predicate which has vital and
wide fiouciip#. *# will be the major term and
the terms winch come in both the premises
will $,8 llic middle term?. ). term may have
o9j-.' wfird nv more than one word.
'oreover minor tern will he used us ftubjent
of the o:iiciusii^^ und its predicate will he
the major i
ypes of Syllogism:
1. .ategorical:
;ere all the propot?i#ions are categorical in
positive or negative form and no
donhtfi illness is dean at ail, e.g. <'l
graduates a^digib1 +'ajor, "/$$ eligible
are rn=n ^ > +'iner, Some in em are
graduates. +.one,&
2 . Hypot het i c
he syllogism of this #ype uses
promise of c.onditionS^ii^he wor1s
hard, he will succeed
$$
. 7ere the first
part is called antecedent- ?ud the
Second piirl is called conse5uent. 0r this
typo of syllogism the major promise is
hypothetical losing sntae thing arid the
minoi
$
premise v,
$
ill bo categorical.
e.g. *f *m comas. = 6#all mco# him. *n
th:s syllogism.
@f he cu m os.
ftlajor,
shall meet him.
+'inor'&
3. :isjunctive:
u this type of syllogism the major
premise is disjunctive and the nr.hcr
two premise6
are
ontegorioal e.g.
3ither lie is an hunest man or s
lluef.
+'ajor,
;e is .an honest man. +'inor,
;e is not. n thief.
+.onclusion,
*n disjunctive statements two terms
opposite in meaning are usr-d. If first is
affirmed
the
secund ni ust be denied.
4. Aelational:
;ere relations between various terms
arc showr orderly, B?,C,
) D E. E D .. . D :,
So ) D : +conelusion
,
F. :ilemma.:
*n such type of syllogisms *1e major
premise is? double hypothetical and
minor premise i^ u disjunctive type
nnd the conclusion will bo eithera
disjunctive Gf
+i, *f these boo1s confirm to Huran they are
reliable jit bey do not they arc superfluous-,
+ii, -if.hei l.;rjy confirm to Huran Gi.' they
=o ;G..
U, i j 3ither they tm? reliable or superfluous.
n the above e(ample the second nnd
third preuijflrp are disjunctive.
IJ. .op tile:
K
he verb used in the promisee in logic is
called cnpida, for tins purpose 'is2 sind
''are
$
arc generally used and logicians do
not uae 'was' and 'w^re
$
as copula
because logicians always tal1 in terms of
the present.
Types of Proposiio!s"
1. i^rom the 5ualitative point of viewL
froi the 5uality point of view it is of
two tvpuii:
). )ffirmative 6 i.t?.., )'l graduates arc
me!#
!D. Megative - t-.p., Mo man. is $ar%&
wor1ing.
2. 'rom $e ()a!iai*e poi! of *ie+:
7rom the 5uantity print ofview it is of
two types:
+a, #'niversaiLin which t-e subject, is universal
and refers to all with mi * e( cop
#ion, i.e., human being are morial.
+h, !articular - in which tlii^Mubjcrct
dues not refer to all, i.e.., mrr.r.
people are hard-wor1ing
he propositi on which begins with
proper noun wiN alec be treated as universal.
Similarly, the propositions which uae%
phrases li1e ^=l but nne
:
', O8P about ,-./
etc, will be treated as paiticulai
proposition6, he word?, li1e sums #imes,
often, generally,, etc, also main
ilmrrupElitjoiis particular6
he propositions which use ivords li1e
few, little, hardly, -scarcely, etc. art.'
i:rir..sidered tn be negative propylition.
Similarly if there fire double negatives used in
"i pri.'pi-^iv.vjri rrran tbo proposition will
become affirm nerve. Gn the basis of above
divisions we 'jB0r. sav ihat there are four types
of categorical propositions in logic.
1. Nniversal affirmative -it ir-i culled 2)2
propositions, i.e.j
)ll labourers aso hatd--fnr1m^.
)ll children y.re true spe. Qi'.cirijj
2. Nniversal MegativeLhev culled 2*t
preposition"., i.e.,
Mo minister is dedicated.
L,Mo human beuiC 's hap R.Ry et.r.
3. !articular )ffirmDilii-^^hsy ,nve culled ',
propositionS: i.f.'..
-Some men are h,Trd-woi^^.iD.
K Some people are lafjuN'-imis.
4. !articular Megative 0'hey ^i-n culled
l,
82
proposition0?, i.e.,
- Some men arc ra: hard wor1ing.
Spi!e minister-" arc not honest.
:istribution of terms in
proposiio!s"
*n case of ) propositions only
subject is distributed.
*n case of 23 prop nation both
subject and predicate are distributed.
*n case of ' proposition neither
subject nor predicate is t i it :.iu
bo(ed.
tn case of 282 proposition only-
predicate is distributed.
Mow. the 5uestion is how will the terru
be distributed. n1e the mtampltt oi2)'
propositiou 2'an is mortal2. ;ere #he term
m:m ha^ two meaning. he first js, mail ,Ut?
unS =uimaii bftiiiV and the second, is man
means animulay, *f tin? term
:
m^n' has beW
used as denotation, i.e., man means human
beinC. the iurm man will be distributed Gn the
ether hand if man menus" anmiality. i.e.. #ion
notation of l.he term, it will not.be distributed
because #hore lire uiher animals be7ideii man
nnd tht? proposition will nor remain universal.
K