Competing Nationalisms: The mobilisation of history and archaeology in the Korea-China wars over

Koguryo/Gaogouli
By onson !hn http://www.japanfocus.org/-Yonson-Ahn/1837
Abstract: This article explores how and why history and archaeology have been mobilised and utilised in nationalist
projects in East Asia, especially in the case of the Koguryo dispute between Korea and China. Koguryo
Korean!"#aogouli Chinese!, an ancient $ingdom in the period between %& 'C and A( ))*, encompassed a vast area
from central +anchuria to south of ,eoul. According to the -.ortheast /roject0, launched in China in 1221, #aogouli was
an ethnic regime in an ancient Chinese province. 3n contrast, Korean historians of nationalist persuasion view Koguryo as
an ancestral state of the Korean historical tradition and a foundation of the national identity. 4nity, continuity and
coherence are claimed in both communities through invo$ing the history and culture of Koguryo"#aogouli.
Koguryo"#aogouli relics which were put on the 4.E,C5 6orld 7eritage 8ist in 1229 are pivotal in the contestation
between China and Korea. 3n both, the ancient relics are held to show the distinctiveness of a national past lin$ed to the
present. This article argues that the contested history of Koguryo"#aogouli should be examined as a site of historical
hybridity between China and Korea, rather than being claimed as a site of exclusive national history.
Among recent disputes over history tet!oo" revisions# territoria$ c$aims in %ast Asia# there eists a very centra$ conf$ict
and ongoing de!ate !etween &hina and 'orea. (t concerns the history and heritage of 'oguryo/)aogou$i *37+&-A,--8.
/10# which is often referred to as one of the ancient 1hree 'ingdoms of 'orea# a$ong with 2ae"che and 3i$$a.
'oguryo/)aogou$i encompassed a vast area from centra$ 4anchuria to south of 3eou$ at the height of its power# around
the fifth century *(m 'i-hwan 5667: 88..
9igure 1 : 4ap of 'oguryo/)aogou$i
*3ource. 'im# :ena ed.# Koguryo Tomb +urals# 3eou$: (&;4;3-'orea# 5667: 7 *&ourtesy of (&;4;3-'orea..
(n so-ca$$ed <history wars=# !oth &hina and 'orea c$aim that 'oguryo/)aogou$i is historica$$y and ec$usive$y theirs. 1hey
mo!i$ise ancient history and archaeo$ogy to su!stantiate their c$aims to sovereignty over the contested past.
>istoriographica$ and archaeo$ogica$ constructs of nationhood have !een dep$oyed in these disputes. 1he conf$ict has
important imp$ications for the use and perception of history and archaeo$ogy.
"# Koguryo history and the $Northeast %ro&ect'
3ince 9e!ruary 5665# the &entre for the 3tudy of +order$and >istory and )eography under the &hinese Academy of
3ocia$ 3ciences *&A33. has !een wor"ing on a five-year state-funded project ca$$ed the <3eria$ ?esearch 2roject on the
>istory and &urrent 3tatus of the @ortheast +order ?egion#= otherwise referred to as the <@ortheast 2roject=. 1his project
dea$s with various pro!$ems re$ated to history# geography and ethnic issues in &hinaAs @ortheastern provinces. 1here are
three provinces in this region: >ei$ongjiang# Bi$in# and :iaoning. Cnder the project# research on the ancient history of the
region is focused on the "ingdoms of 'ojoson *+& 5333 - +& 168.# 'oguryo *+& 37 - A, --8.# and 2arhae *A, -88 - A,
85-.. 1he "ingdom that is receiving the most etensive attention in the @ortheast 2roject is 'oguryo# which is current$y
home to $arge ethnic 'orean communities in the @ortheastern 2rovinces as we$$ as to 4ongo$s# >ui# a few 4anchus and
$arge num!ers of <>an= migrants from @orth &hina. 1he various tri!es that inha!ited 'oguryo are regarded !y the
projectAs historians as among the many minorities that were eventua$$y a!sor!ed into <)reater &hina=. 3ince a!out two-
thirds of 'oguryo territory $ies within todayDs &hina# its history is considered a part of &hinese nationa$ history.
As ear$y as 188-# &hinese historian 3un Binji *188-. suggested that 'oguryo is separate from the history of the 1hree
'ingdoms in the 'orean 2eninsu$ar. >e argued that <the peop$e of +uyeo and )oguryeo had the same $ineage as the
&hinese in the @ortheast region# whi$e the 'orean peop$e were a part of the 3i$$a $ineage.= *3un 1888 cited in :ee 566E:
188. 1hus# 'oguryo is considered to !e affi$iated to &hina in his wor". According to 4ar" +yington *5667-a.# from 1883
there was a sharp increase in the num!er of artic$es that specify 'oguryo as one of the minority nationa$ities of ancient
&hina# and an insepara!$e part of &hinese history. 1his trend appeared to pea" in 1887# and gradua$$y tapered off in 5666.
At the 1883 academic conference in BiAan the @orth 'orean historian 2a" 3ihyong direct$y cha$$enged the &hinese view
that the "ingdom is an integra$ part of &hinese history. 1he &hinese historian 3un Binji issued a re!utta$ and su!seFuent$y
pu!$ished a num!er of papers to reinforce his position. /50 Aside from 3un Binji# 4a ,aGheng# &hi 1iehua# Hhang +i!o# and
Hhang +oFuan have !een incorporating 'oguryo history into <&hineseness=. +ut &hinese scho$ars are not of one voice on
this issue. 1here are &hinese historians who ac"now$edge 'oguryoAs <'oreanness=# for eamp$e Biang 9eifei and Iang
Jiaofu# as we$$ as those who ac"now$edge 'oguryo history as !eing shared !y !oth 'orea and &hina within <a framewor"
of the dua$ e$ements of a sing$e history= *yishi liangyong lun.# such as Biang 4engshan# :iu Himin# and Ju ,eyuan *3un
Binji 5667-a..
1he &hinese argument for 'oguryoAs historica$ heritage in the @ortheast 2roject is !ased on two main points: the first is
that the 'oguryo state grew out of the >an &hinese commandery of Juantu. @ot on$y 'oguryo *37 +& K A, --8. !ut a$so
2arhae *'orean./+ohai *&hinese. *A, -88 - A, 85-. are considered to !e founded !y 4ohe *&hinese./4a$ga$ *'orean.
and !e$onged to the 1ang ,ynasty according to a history tet!oo" in &hina. ;ne of the &hinese history tet!oo"s says:
<,uring the 3ui and 1ang# the 4ohe $ived a$ong the 3onghua and >ei$ong ?ivers. (n the second ha$f of the seventh
&entury the 3umo-4ohe tri!e grew stronger. At the end of the seventh century ,a Huorong# the $eader of the 3umo#
united a$$ tri!es and formed a government. :ater the 1ang %mperor JuanGong proc$aimed ,a Huorong 'ing of the +ohai
&ommandery. After this proc$amation# the 3umo-4ohe government ca$$ed itse$f +ohai.= /30
9igure 5: 4ap of +ohai/2arhae
*3ource. http://www.china"now$edge.de/>istory/A$tera/northeast.htm$
*&ourtesy of C$rich 1heo!a$d.
&hinese historians such as 3un >ong and Hhong 9u c$aim that >an &hinese cu$ture had !een a!sor!ed and integrated
into 'oguryo# and eventua$$y !ecame mainstream cu$ture in 'oguryo. As a resu$t# the commona$ities in cu$ture among the
1hree 'ingdoms# 'oguryo *37 +& K A, --8.# 2ae"che *18 +& - A, --6.# and 3i$$a *E7 +& - A, 83E. are viewed as
stemming not from their mem!ership in the same ethnic group# !ut from their a!sorption into >an cu$ture *3un >ong
5667# cited in 3un Binji 5667-a.. 9urthermore# 3un Binji and 3un >ong c$aim that some remains of the tom!s from the
ancient period in BiAan are not 'oguryoAs !ut are those of the >an or Jian!ei *&hinese./3on!i *'orean. * 3un Binji and 3un
>ong 5667.. 'orean historians and archaeo$ogists of the nationa$ist persuasion offer a different story. 9or eamp$e 'im
Ion-yong *1883: 5-3# Fuoted in: @e$son 188E: 518-556.# a $eading 3outh 'orean archaeo$ogist# assumes that the 1hree
'ingdoms# despite their differences# were founded !y Yemae" descendants who entered 'orea from 4anchuria in a!out
1666+&. 3ome 'orean historians# such as Yeo >o-"yu *5667. and &hoe +eo!-jong *5667.# !e$ieve that !oth the origins of
the 'orean peop$e and the formation of 'oguryo as a state are direct$y re$ated to the Yemae" tri!e# which is c$ear$y
distinguisha!$e from the 1ungus# 4ongo$ and 1ur"ic tri!es. /70 'orean nationa$ist historians and archaeo$ogists consider
the Yemae" to represent the origins of 'orean nationa$ity. 1his formation of the 'orean peop$e and the cu$tura$ unity and
continuity of 'orea from a sing$e ancestra$ antecedent has !een of great concern for nationa$ist historica$ narratives in
'orea.
1he second point emphasised !y scho$ars associated with the @ortheast 2roject is that )aogou$i/'oguryo constituted# in
the words of 4a ,aGheng# <an inf$uentia$ ethnic group in &hinaAs !order area in northeastern &hina !etween the Iestern
>an ,ynasty *56- +&-A, 57. and the 1ang ,ynasty *A, -18-867.=. /E0 A contrasting representation of 'oguryo can !e
seen in the <@ationa$ >istory= tet!oo" for high schoo$ students in 3outh 'orea:
<+ased on interna$ reforms !y 'ing 3osurim# 'oguryo $aunched a $arge eterna$ conFuest to 4anchuria during the reign
)reat 'ing 'wanggaetAo .... As a conseFuence of the continuing territoria$ epansion po$icy# 'oguryo reigned supreme
over @ortheast Asia. 'oguryo occupied huge territories of 4anchuria and the 'orean 2eninsu$a and esta!$ished a great
empire with a comp$ete po$itica$ system. (t came to compete with &hina on an eFua$ !asis.= /-0
1his 'orean history tet!oo" stresses 'oguryoAs conFuest and territoria$ epansion against &hina. 'oguryo is represented
as the supreme power of @ortheast Asia# riva$$ing &hinaAs 3ui and 1ang dynasties# rather than a tri!utary state under
&hinese ru$e. 1hus# the contrasting views of 'oguryoAs position in history !etween 'orea and &hina are stri"ing# whi$e
each presumes a c$ear$y de$ineated geographica$ and nationa$ !order !etween < 'orea= and < &hina= in ancient times# and
a $inear nationa$ history to the present.
1he officia$ &hinese position regarding the proper historica$ p$ace of 'oguryo is a reading !ac" of contemporary &hinese
views of the unifying mu$tiethnic nation that is composed of >an &hinese and fifty-five other ethnic minorities rooted in
antiFuity# as 4ar" +yington *5667-!. maintains. (n other words# the way minority nationa$ities are today conceived as
forming part of a <)reater &hinese nation= has !een imposed on the remote past. >owever# historica$$y# ru$ers and officia$s
viewed neigh!ouring peop$es and states on the northeastern and other !order areas of the &hinese empire as
<!ar!arians=. &ontemporary &hinese po$icyma"ers are "een to raise awareness of the common traits as a means to
integrate diverse peop$es and ethnic groups into the >an &hinese historica$ $egacy !y associating the cu$tura$ and
historica$ attri!utes of !order popu$ations with nationa$ <core= areas. 1his is especia$$y apparent in efforts to incorporate the
history# memories and sym!o$s of the 'orean minority in the @ortheast 2rovinces within &hinaAs <nationa$ history=. 1he
@ortheast 2roject can thus !e understood as an attempt to construct a unitary nationa$ history and identity. Assimi$ating
ethnicity into nationa$ity through positing a common history is c$ear$y evident. >ere the mu$tiethnic state can !e
understood as <an organism= in which each ethnic community !ecomes an insepara!$e organ of the !ody. * &amp!e$$
1885: 87-85. (t is a historica$ reading that a$so has imp$ications for the stateAs attempts to dea$ with demands for more
autonomy or independence of ethnic groups# nota!$y the 'orean minority in &hina.
1he view of many 'orean nationa$ist scho$ars is that the @ortheast 2roject is part of an aggressive &hinese move to c$aim
territory and history whose imp$ications $oom particu$ar$y $arge in the event of a @orth 'orean co$$apse. /70 1hey argue that
the 2roject is c$ear$y concerned with potentia$ !order issues and territoria$ c$aims that cou$d impact in the event either of
the co$$apse of @orth 'orea or reunification of the two 'oreas. * &hoe 'wang-si" 5667-a. (n fact# the &hinese are
concerned a!out potentia$ po$itica$ insta!i$ity in the !order regions in the event of a @orth 'orean co$$apse# particu$ar$y a
f$ood of refugees and territoria$ !oundary disputes. /80 3uch territoria$ concern has !een epressed !y &hinese historian
3un Binji * 5667-a .. 4aintaining the integrity and sta!i$ity of the nation constitutes another concern in the !ac"ground of
$aunching the @ortheast 2roject. 3cho$ars such as Luan HheGhu *5663.# 3un Binji# 'im >ui-"yo *5667. and 4ar" +yington
*5667-a. perceive the $aunching of the 2roject as a defensive reaction to preserve &hinaAs own territoria$ integrity and
sta!i$ity.
9or their part# &hinese ana$ysts perceive as threatening the nationa$istic sentiments of some 'oreans in !oth the @orth
and 3outh. 1he 'orean attachment to# and historica$ pride in# the former $ands of 'oguryo and 2arhae/+ohai suggests to
these &hinese a nationa$istic or even irredentist sentiment that demands territoria$ restoration of 4anchuria *+yington
5667-c.. (n fact# some 'orean u$tra-nationa$ists in !oth the $i!era$ and conservative camps ma"e c$aims for the <restoration
of the $ost former territories= *'im >ui-"yo 5667: 1-. meaning 4anchuria# that is# the present provinces of :iaoning# Bi$in#
and >ei$ongjiang# the interstitia$ region !etween &hina# ?ussia# and 'orea. /80 1hese territories are regarded as <fa$se$y
separated from the organic nationa$ community= *4aya$$ 1887: 576.# the counterpart to the &hinese vision of a mu$tiethnic
state.
After the C$sa 1reaty of 186E# which put 'oreaAs foreign affairs under Bapanese administration# the &hinese reopened the
Fuestion over 'ando *'orean./Biandao *&hinese./'anto *Bapanese. which is $ocated on the north !an" of the 1umen river
!etween 2ae"dusan and the Yu"chin area# north of the &hinese-@orth 'orean !order. %ventua$$y (to >iro!umi# the first
?esident )enera$ in 'orea from 186- to 1868# signed 'ando over to &hina in 1868. /160 'orean nationa$ists regard this as
an i$$ega$ transfer !etween Bapan and &hina# in echange for BapanAs ec$usive rights to !ui$d and contro$ a rai$way in
4anchuria. A group of fifty-nine 3outh 'orean 4em!ers of 2ar$iament from !oth ru$ing and opposition parties su!mitted a
reso$ution to nu$$ify the 'ando &onvention to the @ationa$ Assem!$y on 3eptem!er 3# 5667. /110 2opu$ar irredentist
sentiment in 'orea is reified in attempting to recover those parts of 4anchuria that are considered to have !een part of
ancient 'orea. (n c$aiming the regions as an integra$ part of the nation# territoria$ity fuses with nationa$ sentiment.
(ndeed# &hinese officia$s and some historians are concerned !y this move on the part of some 3outh 'orean $egis$ators
and civic groups to nu$$ify the 'ando agreement. 9or instance# 3un Binji *5667-a. argues that an a$teration of the present
!order cannot !e !ased on c$aims of ownership a thousand years ago. >ere 'oguryo history !ecomes a contested
domain of nationa$ist power. ;n the one hand# 3un Binji understands that !oth @orth and 3outh 'oreaAs attempt to
<protect= 'oguryo history as 'orean history is a preparation for a territoria$ c$aim on 'ando. ;n the other hand# 'oreans
are concerned that the &hinese c$aim on 'oguryo wi$$ !e used to maintain or epand its territoria$ c$aims to 'ando when
the two 'oreas are reunified. /150
(n 'orea# it is wide$y he$d that the &hinese government and scho$ars are <conducting a systematic and comprehensive
effort to distort the ancient history of @ortheast Asia=# seen as <a po$itica$ assau$t disguised as an academic endeavour=.
/130 &hinese writers have criticised 'orean po$iticising of history. 4a ,aGheng emphasises <we do not accept any
tendencies or practices in the research into )aogou$i history aimed at po$iticiGing academic studies.= /170 %ven though
!oth state that the 'oguryo issue shou$d !e addressed within an academic and scientific framewor"# and shou$d not
deve$op into a po$itica$ or dip$omatic dispute !etween the two countries# this issue recent$y emerged as the source of a
dip$omatic row. (n Apri$ 5667# when the &hinese 9oreign 4inistry removed references to 'oguryo that ep$ained 'oreaAs
1hree 'ingdom %ra from its we!site# the 3outh 'orean )overnment $odged a forma$ dip$omatic protest with the &hinese
authorities. /1E0
(# )istorical values of Koguryo in Korea
9or 'oreans# the northern $ands of 2uyo *'orean./9uyu *&hinese.# 'oguryo and 2arhae have !een thought of as a
spiritua$ mother$and nourishing 'orean cu$ture *+yington 5667-c.. Amongst the ancient "ingdoms# 'oguryo has a$ways
!een treated as an ancestra$ state within the 'orean historica$ tradition which !oth nurtures and unites peop$e under one
nationa$ identity# a fee$ing that has !een particu$ar$y strong in @orth 'orea. 1hus# across the po$itica$ spectrum in
academia and @);s# 3outh 'oreans have !een unanimous in criticiGing &hinaAs c$aim to 'oguryoAs historica$ heritage.
1his has !een true in @orth 'orea# as we$$. A shared 'orean nationa$ism has faci$itated @orth-3outh cooperation on the
issue. &hoe 'wang-si" *5667-!.# a $eading 3outh 'orean historian and protester in the 'oguryo affair# points out that the
&hinese remapping of history cou$d resu$t in:
1. reducing the span of 'orean history to $ess than 5#666 years# there!y $osing 766 years of a proud chapter of its
history# /1-0
5. $osing a historica$ pi$$ar of 'orean identity#
3. de$imiting the siGe of 'oreaDs territory to an area south of the >an ?iver.
A transhistorica$ <we= with time$ess Fua$ities is constructed in nationa$ist narratives. Yoe >o-"yu *5667.# another 3outh
'orean historian# asserts that <it is a!so$ute$y c$ear that the )oguryeo peop$e are ancestors of the 'orean peop$e !ecause
'orea inherited )oguryeo cu$ture in its entirety.= 'oguryo history is thus mo!i$ised to !uttress the continuity of the 'orean
nation-state since the foundation of the nation !y 1anAgun# rough$y five mi$$ennia ago# through to the modern nation-state.
/170 1he historica$$y recovered ancient past has !een powerfu$ in defining contemporary 'orean nationa$ identity. 1hus#
the 'oguryo issue has $ed to an esca$ation in the de!ate over sites of <ethnic origins= and nationa$ continuity in 'orea. 1he
concerns over <damaging the origin of the 'orean nation fata$$y= so that 'orea !ecomes <a root$ess nation= have !een
epressed in the media. /180 1his maintains the trope that <;ur roots define us.=
2rotests against c$aims to the &hineseness of 'oguryo have !een intense. (n ,ecem!er 5663# activist groups in 3outh
'orea and overseas $aunched a pu!$ic awareness campaign. 3outh 'orean civic activists he$d a series of ra$$ies in protest
against the @ortheast 2roject and the &hinese government. 1he issue has !ecome a freFuent topic on 1M and radio. A
group of seventeen historica$ societies across 3outh 'orea too" joint action against their &hinese counterparts in
,ecem!er 5663. /180 1he 3ociety for 'orean Ancient >istory issued a statement condemning &hinaAs actions. ?a$$ies
have !een he$d outside the &hinese em!assy in 3eou$. 3cores of we!sites dedicated to the study of 'oguryo have
sprung up. /560 'orean <netiGens= protest and $ay emphasis on <'orean spirit= !y posting# for eamp$e# statements such as
this: <as a sma$$ country# we have suffered count$ess hardships and humi$iation at the hands of stronger nations# !ut the
spirit of 'orea can never !e etinguished.= /510 <1he 3pirit of 'oguryo is in the hearts of 86 mi$$ion 'oreans#= reads a wide
!anner hung in 3eou$ during a demonstration in Banuary 5667. (t was referring to the popu$ations of !oth @orth and 3outh#
as we$$ as to 'oreans $iving a!road. /550 1he &hinese c$aims to 'oguryo have resu$ted in promoting cooperation !etween
@orth and 3outh 'oreans and the 'orean diaspora. 1he nation is inscri!ed as one surrounded !y others who <stea$= <our
history and territory=. &o$$ective needs to preserve the communityAs irrep$acea!$e historica$ va$ues have !een strong$y
addressed in the face of &hinaAs nationa$ist projects.
(ndeed# the two 'oreas have competed to esta!$ish hegemony and $egitimacy as heirs of the 'orean nation since the
partition in the postwar era. 'oguryo antiFuities and history em!ody specia$ po$itica$ significance in this competition. 1hey
denote the $egitimacy of po$itica$ authority and ru$e in @orth 'orea. 'oguryo is eu$ogised as an em!odiment of the true
nationa$ spirit and depicted as a champion of 'oreanness against treacherous pro-foreign 3i$$a in the @orth 'orean officia$
version of history * 2etrov 5667.. 3ome @orth 'orean archaeo$ogists deny that <the >an &hinese ever conFuered any part
of the 'orean peninsu$a.= *2earson 1878# in @e$son 188E: 558. @orth 'orean historians under$ine the <se$f-re$iance#
uniFueness and superiority of )oguryeo cu$ture=. *&hin >o-tAae 1886. According$y# &hinese c$aims on 'oguryo have !een
strong$y denounced as <a pathetic attempt to manipu$ate history for its own interests= or <intentiona$$y distorting historica$
facts through !iased perspectives= in @orth 'orean media. /530
Cn$i"e @orth 'orea# 'oguryo history as a research topic had not !een very popu$ar among historians in 3outh 'orea.
3tudies of ancient history in 3outh 'orea have !een focused on 3i$$a instead# due main$y to the fact that 3i$$a was $ocated
in the 3outh. (t was not easy to get access to 'oguryo archaeo$ogica$ sites# which are main$y $ocated in former 4anchuria
and in @orth 'orea# particu$ar$y !efore 3outh 'orea and &hina agreed to dip$omatic re$ationships in 1885. >owever# the
@ortheast 2roject in &hina resu$ted in a 'oguryo <!oom= in 3outh 'orea. 3ince the mid 1886s there has !een a
pro$iferation of research and ehi!itions on 'oguryo history# art or cu$tura$ heritage. 1he 3outh 'orean government#
countering the &hinaAs @ortheast 2roject# $aunched the 'oguryo ?esearch 9oundation *#oguryeo yon$u chaedan. on the
1 st of 4arch# 5667. /570 1his 9oundation is to !e merged into the @ortheast Asian >istory 9oundation *Tongbuga yo$sa
chaedan. under the 9oreign 4inistry in 566-. /5E0 (n addition# ancient history and archaeo$ogica$ remains have !ecome
commodities to !e consumed. Marious commercia$ products with 'oguryo motifs *for eamp$e# 1-shirts# ties# scarves and
2& games. have come on the mar"et in 3outh 'orea. 1M dramas# musica$s# martia$ arts and commercia$s a$$ draw upon
the g$ory of 'oguryo. /5-0
4ost of the research on 'oguryo in 3outh 'orea is simi$ar in approach to that in @orth 'orea# stressing the history and
re$ics as 'oreaAs and emphasising 'oguryoAs <distinct$y different historica$ consciousness from &hinaAs=. *:ee 566E: 175#
183. ;n$y a few 'orean historians see 'oguryo as a separate site from !oth 'orea and &hina. 1hey inc$ude 'im >an-"yu
*5667. and :im Bie-hyun *5667. in 3outh 'orea and Yi 3ongsi *5661. in Bapan. 'im >an-"yuAs :odongsa *>istory of
:iaodong.# pu!$ished in 5667 in 3outh 'orea# generated intense criticism in !oth 3outh 'orea and &hina. >e points out
that :iaodong# where 'oguryo was $ocated# has its own history which needs to !e distinguished from !oth 'oreaAs and
&hinaAs# and that :iaodong had ties with neigh!ouring states. (n &hina his wor" is considered dangerous !ecause it cou$d
trigger independence sentiment in :iaodong. (n 'orea# his wor" has not !een at a$$ we$come since it contradicts the notion
that 'oguryo is the historica$ root of 'orea.
*# +obilising archaeology
9igure 3: 'ing 1ongmyongAs 4auso$eum# @orth 'orea
@ot on$y 'oguryo history !ut a$so its re$ics constitute a source of tension !etween &hina and 'orea. 1he conf$ict a$ready
surfaced in differences in interpreting the ancient history amongst @orth 'oreans and &hinese in the joint archaeo$ogica$
ecavation of the ear$y 18-6s . 1he po$itica$ imp$ication of archaeo$ogistsA wor" was demonstrated when the joint
archaeo$ogica$ project was ha$ted. 'oguryo tom! mura$s are found on !oth sides of the &hinese-@orth 'orean !order as
we$$ as in 3outh 'orea *Yeo 566E.. 3o far# in tota$ over 16#666 tom!s !e$onging to the 'oguryo "ingdom have !een
identified in &hina and 'orea. Among those# 86 discovered near BiAan *the former capita$ of 'oguryo.# Bi$in province of
northeast &hina# and in the vicinity of 2yongyang and @ampo in 3outh >wanghae 2rovince in @orth 'orea have wa$$
paintings * 2etrov 5667.. /570 +oth @orth 'orea and &hina assert ownership of the heritage sites on an ethnic !asis. +oth
app$ied to C@%3&; to have the disputed remains registered as Ior$d >eritage sites. 3outh 'orea supported the @orthAs
!id. +oth countriesA reFuests were passed at the Ior$d >eritage &ommittee meeting he$d in &hina on the first of Bu$y in
5667. /580 @amed <1he &omp$e of the 'oguryo 1om!s#= -3 tom!s from five areas inc$uding the 'angso 1hree 1om!s and
?oya$ 1om! of 'ing 1ongmyong# a$ong with 1- tom!s containing mura$ paintings in @orth 'orea# !ecame a Ior$d
>eritage site. Cnder the tit$e <&apita$ &ities and 1om!s of the Ancient 'oguryo 'ingdom=# the archaeo$ogica$ remains of
three cities *Iunu 4ountain &ity# )uonei &ity and Iandu 4ountain &ity. and 76 tom!s *5- no!$e tom!s# 17 roya$ tom!s.#
a$ong with the 3tone 4onument of 'ing 'wanggaetAo in &hina# have !een put on the C@%3&; Ior$d >eritage :ist. /580
1he 'oguryo re$ics have !een co-registered as those of &hina and @orth 'orea# thus fue$$ing the de!ate regarding the
<rightfu$= ownership of the re$ics. 1he very net day# a 3outh 'orean @);# &oa$ition for 2eace and >istorica$ %ducation in
Asia *Ashia p;yonghwawa yo$sagyoyu$ yondae.# epressed concern that this decision for co-registration made the
Fuestion of who owns the $egacy of 'oguryo on$y fue$s the controversy. /360 1he syncretistic nature of cu$ture has not
!een considered in this protestN on$y the competitive desire to monopo$ise the <nationa$ sites=.
9igure 7 : A hunting scene in the 1om! 4uyongchong# in BiAan# $ocated in contemporary Bi$in 2rovince# &hina.
9igure E: Bars ecavated on 4ount 4anda$# 2yongyang# @orth 'orea.
'oguryoAs re$ics are high$y regarded in the riva$ry !etween &hina and 'orea. 1his indicates that heritage constitutes an
inf$uentia$ part of cu$tura$ hegemony in %ast Asia and a$so# a powerfu$ part of the cu$tura$ and historica$ patrimony of the
peop$e# !oth in 'orea and especia$$y in the @ortheast 2rovinces in &hina. 'ang >yun-soo" *5667.# professor of Ancient
Art in 3outh 'orea# maintains the distinctiveness and inf$uence of 'oguryo cu$ture in %ast Asia in under$ining that the
'oguryo tom!s with mura$s were not mere imitation of their &hinese counterparts and that they were inf$uenced !y
BapanAs funerary cu$ture. As eamp$es of 'oguryoAs inf$uence on BapanAs funerary cu$ture# the 1a"amatsu 1om! and the
'itora 1om! in Bapan have !een cited. /310 3he conc$udes that the inf$uence of 'oguryo seen in Bapan and the 'orean
peninsu$a demonstrates its prominent position as a cu$tura$$y powerfu$ regiona$ state *'ang 5667: 16--167.. As such# the
'oguryo archaeo$ogica$ remains represent the $egacy and hegemony of regiona$ cu$ture.
9igure -: A sna"e crossed with a tortoise. 'anso 4idd$e-siGed 4ound# 7th &entury in the 'itora 1om! in Asu"amura# @ara
prefecture# Bapan.
(n any case# the preservation of nationa$ heritage and historic re$ics is considered imperative in esta!$ishing hegemony or
$egitimacy# and in asserting sovereignty over contested territories in !oth countries. Ariane 2errin *5667.# a mem!er of an
(&;4;3 survey team to @orth 'orean >eritage sites# has epressed concern over @orth 'oreaAs heavy reconstruction at
some of the sites# especia$$y 'ing 1ongmyongAs 1om!# which did not meet Ior$d >eritage &onvention criteria for the
authenticity and integrity of a cu$tura$ site. 1his is the case in &hina as we$$# with the re$ics in Hhuanghe in :iaoning. /350
1he po$itica$ va$ue of archaeo$ogy in the present can !e seen in rushed ecavation and reconstruction projects that $ac"
adeFuate research foundations. >ere# archaeo$ogy has p$ayed a critica$ ro$e in the !att$e over the <cu$tura$ capita$= of the
past.
Archaeo$ogy is often associated with patriotism in !oth the <periphery= as we$$ as from the <core=. *>o!s!awm 1886. 4ass
support for cu$tura$ patriotism can !e seen in response to efforts to preserve nationa$ heritage in &hina. <?e$ics protection
priGes= were offered !y the centra$ government in +eijing in ,ecem!er 5663. 1he priGes were awarded to a tota$ of 31
nationa$ $eve$ cu$tura$ re$ics authorities for their efforts to protect historica$ treasures. BiAan 2rovince where 'oguryo
archaeo$ogica$ remains are $ocated was one of the award winners# !oasting numerous cu$tura$ re$ics from the ancient
)aogou$i ruins. /760 1his mass support is pro!a!$y re$ated to recent <regiona$ism= in &hinese archaeo$ogy. Mon
9a$"enhausen *188E: 566. notes the recent <paradigm shift to regiona$ism from centra$ism= in &hinese archaeo$ogy. 1his
has not# however# undercut cu$tura$ nationa$ism. As he stresses# this regiona$ism encourages vo$untary integration# instead
of coercing unity from the centre. *von 9a$"enhausen 188E: 566# 51E. 1he resu$t is to assist the centra$ government in
gaining mass support in cu$tura$ patriotism# and to he$p the $oca$ popu$ation gain officia$ support and $egitimation.
'oguryoAs archaeo$ogica$ findings from the !order regions are corre$ated with the master narratives of nationa$ history#
showing the historica$ and cu$tura$ integrity of the !order$ands# there!y reinforcing nationa$ myths of unity.
9igure 7: 1he 'ing 'wanggaetAo ste$e in BiAan# &hina
9igure 8: A $egend of the founding of 'oguryo inscri!ed on the 'ing 'wanggaetAo ste$e in BiAan# &hina
1he monuments and sacred sites which em!ody ancestra$ tit$e-deeds and memories are crucia$ for engendering a
common nationa$ identity# as Anthony ,. 3mith *188-: 513. underscores. Among 'oguryo re$ics# especia$$y the 'ing
'wanggaetAo ste$e in BiAan# a monument inscri!ed with &hinese characters eto$$ing the ep$oits of a "ing of 'oguryo in
A, 717# reinforces nationa$ pride in 'orea. 1he ste$e is interpreted as evidence of a capacity for conFuest. (t is asserted
that <the 'oguryo peop$e regarded their "ingdom as the centre of the wor$d and too" great pride in its position= *(m 'i-
hwan 5667: 166.. 'orean nationa$ist archaeo$ogy pursues evidence of the uniFueness and homogeneity of 'orean
identity. 3arah @e$son *188E. argues that 'orean archaeo$ogy has !een detrimenta$$y affected !y the contemporary
po$itica$ desire to see 'orean cu$ture past and the present as distinctive and homogeneous. 1he <history wars= g$orify the
heritage of 'oguryo and !o$ster fee$ings of fraternity. 1he significance of archaeo$ogy# history and territoria$ity in forming or
reinforcing ethnic or nationa$ identity is at the centre of this conf$ict.
,# %roblems in the $history wars'
3evera$ pro!$ems can !e found in the conf$icts over 'oguryo. ;ne is the rigidity of empiricism. 1he who$e de!ate is heavi$y
!ased on the empiricist paradigm# emp$oying archaeo$ogica$ and empirica$ evidence. 1he ancient past of
'oguryo/)aogou$i is c$aimed to !e reconstructed through forensic research into fragmentary and partia$ evidence of
archaeo$ogy and history. 1his attempt see"s to derive $egitimacy from empirica$ evidence. Ie have noted# however# that
scho$ars in !oth &hina and 'orea produce ideo$ogica$$y-$aden interpretations of the past that eschew va$ue-neutra$
scientific or <academic= methods. 1heir interpretations are not on$y contradictory# !ut a$so eFua$$y reinforce nationa$ist
c$aims. &$ear$y# the de!ate has deep roots in the po$itica$ agendas to maintain hegemony and $egitimacy over history and
the territory of 'oguryo with its important contemporary territoria$ and po$itica$ imp$ications. Ihi$e each criticises the other
for a!using history for po$itica$ purposes# 'oguryo is sym!o$ica$$y important for the unity and antiFuity of !oth nation-
states. 1he ancient history of 'oguryo has !een used as an ideo$ogica$ prop for !oth# in order to c$aim authority and
authenticity.
A second pro!$em in the dispute is that it projects the modern nation-state onto ancient times# reconstructing ancient
history within the framewor" of nationa$ history. 1he modern concepts of nationa$ territory and nation-state are app$ied
retroactive$y to the ancient period. :im Bie-hyun *5667. finds such projections anachronistic. &ontemporary views of the
ancient past shaped !y present needs are often se$f-serving.
1hird# at the centre of the dispute over 'oguryo history and re$ics is the issue of !oundaries of nationa$ history and
heritage that are drawn different$y in &hina and in 'orea. &hinese history# heritage and cu$ture are defined from the
perspective of its present-day territories and !orders over which the state c$aims sovereignty. 1hus# the history and
heritage of 'oguryo and 2arhae are c$aimed as part of &hinese history. 1his can !e viewed as territoria$isation of history.
;n the other hand# 'orean nationa$ history is defined !y the area where 'oreans sett$ed# differentiating 3e$f and ;ther !y
<!$ood$ine=. ,e!ates on 'oguryo and 2arhae history stem from this difference in criteria !y which the !oundary of nationa$
history is determined. 9or 'oreans# 'oguryo and 2arhae are ec$usive$y their own. @ationa$ist 'orean scho$ars argue that
Fuestions of the historica$ identity of the ancient "ingdom are far more important than contemporary territoria$ rights. /370
1he &hinese @ortheast 2roject is denounced as <a product of a historica$ perception !ased on a territory-centred view=
*Yoon 566E: 1--..
(n these <history wars#= nationa$ history serves as a c$ear-cut dividing $ine !etween <our history= and <theirs=. 1he rigidity of
nationa$ history reproduces the image of the mono$ithic nationa$ <se$f= and <other=# ignoring the mu$tip$icity of
heterogeneous <se$ves=. @ationa$istsA concern for cu$tura$ homogeneity $eads to an ec$usive socia$ c$osure against the
other. 1he otherAs c$aim on <our= history is !randed as stea$ing# manipu$ating# or distorting history# so that <we= need to
correct and protect or rescue <our= history. <(f we forget our history# we are forgetting our roots.= /3E0 (n this
contetua$isation of history# history is read as a mora$ dichotomyN either correct# i.e good history# or distorted# i.e !ad
history. >owever# the interpretation of history needs to !e considered as a process rather than as a static entity in a mora$
judgment.
:ast !ut not $east# Fuestions of gender are ignored in mainstream nationa$ historiography on 'oguryo. @ationa$ heroes are
constructed as mascu$ine: for eamp$e# the ancient historica$ figures $i"e 'ing 'wanggaetAo the )reat and his son 'ing
&hangsu are presented as a source of 'orean nationa$ pride. 1heir conFuests in the @ortheast provinces are attri!uted to
the victory of 'oreaAs viri$e <nationa$ mascu$inity=. According$y# in praising mascu$ine achievement in history# women
!ecome invisi!$e and images of ma$e domination are reinforced.
9igure 8: 'ing 'wanggaetAo the )reat
9igure 16: 1om! of 'ing &hangsu
-# $)istory in between'
+orders can !e understood as something which separates and ec$udes or which !inds and inc$udes the communities
that share it. 1his interstitia$ position of !order$ands serves to constitute the intertwined nature of diverse nationa$# po$itica$
and cu$tura$ identities. >owever# the rigidity of nationa$ history cannot permit an understanding of !orders which
emphasises the variety and permea!i$ity of po$itica$ and cu$tura$ !oundaries. 3e$f-concepts of pure difference !etween
&hineseness and 'oreanness at the present time appear to ec$ude creo$ised and mu$tip$e narratives of history within the
!order regions. 1his is an attempt to <nationa$ise= frontiers. (n the times of the 'oguryo "ingdom# no c$ear !orders divided
the mu$tip$e states and peop$e. +orders !etween 'oguryo and 1ang or 3i$$a# for eamp$e# were f$uid and permea!$e.
&u$tura$ and historica$ hy!ridity !etween 'oguryo and the >an# Iei and Bin dynasties# which contro$$ed the neigh!ouring
regions of :iaoning and 3handong provinces# as we$$ as !etween 'oguryo and 3i$$a# needs to !e mapped onto the
cartography of 'oguryo. (n fact# in his wor" on 4anchuria *1-77-1815.# which over$aps 'oguryoAs territory# %$$iot
underscores that 4anchuria was incorporated once and for a$$ into the $arger &hinese geo-!ody with the Bapanese defeat
of 187E. Yet he argues that the distinctive identity of !oth peop$e and region from the &hinese <core=# particu$ar$y since the
seventeenth century# remains part of the contemporary scene. *%$$iot 5666: -3E--76. According$y# &hinaAs recent
refocused attention on the @ortheast !order regions and efforts to integrate the regions with the rest of the nationa$
territory are not irre$evant to understanding the distinctive and comp$e identity of the 4anchu home$and as an interstitia$
community from the <core=# a region whose history shaped in comp$e ways the outcomes of mu$tip$e peop$es inc$uding
'oreans# &hinese# 4ongo$s# and 4us$ims.
1he history of a !order$and is invaria!$y one in which identities converge# coeist# and sometimes conf$ict. 3uch identities#
which are invaria!$y in f$u# cannot !e appropriated !y a sing$e nation-state. (n this sense# the Fuestion of who owns the
historica$ $egacy of 'oguryo is !eside the point. (t is instead worth trying to understand how 'orean nationa$s and &hinese
nationa$s today ma"e sense of the peop$e and cu$tures that !$ended to shape 'oguryo in ancient times. 1he history of the
!order region !etween @orth 'orea and &hina needs to !e eamined as that of an intercu$tura$ site of hy!ridity# !oth
within and !eyond the !oundaries of the modern nation-state# rather than as the ec$usive nationa$ history of one nation.
(n prioritising differences as opposed to interaction and creo$isation is hard$y uniFue to &hina and the two 'oreas. %ach
nation in %ast Asia has armed itse$f with a narrative stressing the uniFueness and achievements of its nationa$ history.
>owever# uni$atera$ c$aims $ead to confrontation instead of co-operation# and a negation of <history in !etween=. ?ather
than pursuing one-nation centred nationa$ist approaches to history# high$ighting the interactive nature of history in %ast
Asia cou$d contri!ute to a dia$ogue in history and archaeo$ogy that wou$d overcome inter-nationa$ antagonisms and pave
the way toward a more harmonious and interactive %ast Asia.
:onson A7. is a research fellow at the East Asian 3nstitute, the 4niversity of 8eip<ig, #ermany. ,he has been conducting
research on Korean -comfort women0 and =apanese soldiers during the Asia>/acific 6ar. 7er current research centres on
historical debates in Korea and =apan since the ?@*2s. ,he can be contacted at ahnAuni>leip<ig.de.
This article is based on research supported by the B6 Bol$swagen! Coundation. This is a revised and expanded version
of an article that appeared in the 3nternationale ,chulbuchforschung 3nternational Textboo$ Desearch! 1& 122E!, #eorg>
Ec$ert>3nstitute for 3nternational Textboo$ Desearch ed., 7annoverF Berlag 7ahnsche 'uchhandlung. +any than$s to
+ar$ ,elden and +ichael ,hin for comments on earlier drafts of this article. /osted at =apan Cocus on Cebruary @, 122).
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Notes
/10 (t can a$so !e written <)oguryeo= in 'orean.
/50 9or eamp$e 3un Binji# <#uanyu gaogouli guishu wenti de jige <hengyi jiaodian= *;n 3ome &ontested (ssues
&oncerning the 2ro!$em of )aogou$iAs Affi$iation .# (ongbei min<ushi yanjiu *3tudy on the >istory of @ortheast
@ationa$ities.# Mo$.1# HhengGhou: Gheng<hou guji chubanshe * HhengGhou c$assics pu!$ishing house..
/30 Denmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi *>istory ,epartment of 2eop$eAs %ducation 2ress.# Ghongguo lishi *&hinese >istory.
((# +eijing: Denmin jiaoyu chubanshe *2eop$eAs %ducation 2ress.# 5667# p.1-. 1he most important tri!es of 4ohe were the
3umo# +oduo# Anchegu# 9unie# >aoshi# >eishui# and +aishan.
/70 Chugan Chosun *Iee"$y &hosun. @o. 1755# 3eptem!er 5-# 5663.
/E0 <)aogou$i ro$e in &hinese history traced=# &hina ,ai$y# Bune 57# 5663N
/-0 Ku$sa p;yonch;an wiwonhoe * @ationa$ (nstitute of 'orean >istory.# Kodung ha$gyo $u$sa *@ationa$ >istory for >igh
3choo$.# 3eou$: Kyoyu$ injo$ chawonbu *4inistry of %ducation and >uman ?esources ,eve$opment.# 5665# pp. E3 K E7.
/70 Luoted in < &hina# 'orea ,ispute Ancient 'ingdom=&hina# 'orea ,ispute Ancient 'ingdomN *accessed 15 ,ecem!er#
566E..
/80 Approimate$y 566#666-366#666 @orth 'orean refugees current$y reside i$$ega$$y in northeastern &hina. < &hina shoc"
for 3outh 'orea# Asia 1imes ;n$ine# 3eptem!er 11 # 5667N *accessed ,ecem!er 15# 566E..
/80 1he toponym 4anchuria is associated with ?ussian and especia$$y Bapanese designs on the Asian main$and#
represented most notorious$y !y the 1835 esta!$ishment of the Bapanese puppet state of < 4anchu"uo=. < @ortheast &hina
or simp$y <the @ortheast= are therefore the preferred terms# and among &hinese scho$ars are the on$y accepta!$e
references *>osoya 1886: 16E# cited in %$$iot 5666: -67..
/160 2osted !y 4ar" +yington# Banuary 1# 5667N *accessed 9e!ruary 3# 5667..
/110 ,onga ($!o*,onga ,ai$y.# 3eptem!er 7# 5667N *accessed ;cto!er 18# 5667..
/150 Chosun ilbo *&hosun ,ai$y.# Banuary 8# 5667.
/130 =oongang (aily# Banuary 15# 5667N Korea 7erald# Banuary 7# 5667.
/170 <)aogou$i ro$e in &hinese history traced=# &hina ,ai$y# Bune 57# 5663N 0 accessed Bu$y 13# 5667. #
/1E0 <3eou$ 2rotests +eijingDs ,istortion of 'oguryo# 'orea 1imes# Bu$y 17# 5667N 0 accessed August 1-# 5667.#
/1-0 Korea 7erald# Banuary 7# 5667.
/170 1anAgun is the mythica$ progenitor of the 'orean peop$e.
/180 Korea 7erald# Banuary 7# 5667N Chosun ilbo# Banuary 8# 5667.
/180 Korea 7erald# Banuary 8# 5667.
/560 =oongang (aily# Banuary 15# 5667.
/510 2osted !y %. 'im Banuary 53# 5667N *accessed Apri$ 1E# 5667..
/550 <'ic"ing Cp the ,ust of >istory=# Iashington 2ost# Banuary 55# 5667N*accessed 4ay 7# 5667..
/530 Dodong ,hinmun *:a!our @ewspaper.# @ovem!er 57# 5663 cited in 'im 1ong-hyung# < @orth 'orea denounces
&hinaDs c$aim on )oguryeo *accessed Apri$ 1E# 5667..
/570 7angu$ ilbo *>angu" ,ai$y. Apri$ 57# 5667.
/5E0 <Koguryo chaedan, Tongbuga yo$sa chaedane t;onghap *'oguryo ?esearch foundation# merged into %ast Asian
>istory 9oundation= :onhap .ews Yonhap @ews# ;cto!er 56# 566EN *accessed Banuary 7# 566-..
/5-0 <1he forgotten g$ory of 'oguryo# 'orea Ie! Iee"$y# 3eptem!er 17# 5663N . *accessed ,ecem!er 51# 566E..
/570 <'oguryo 1om!s# @o. 1681# (&;4;3# mars 5667# p.-6N *accessed ,ecem!er 58# 566E..
/580 (igital Chosun# Apri$ 18# 5667.
/580< &apita$ &ities and 1om!s of the Ancient 'oguryo 'ingdom# &hina=# C@%3&; 5667N *accessed Banuary E# 566-..
/360 Asia p;yonghwawa yo$sa $yoyu$ yondae *&oa$ition for 2eace and >istory %ducation in Asia.# 2ress ?e$ease#
< Koguryosa chi$;igi, ijebut;o shijagida *2rotecting 'oguryo >istory# (t 3tarts 9rom @ow.=# Bu$y 5# 5667.
/310 <'oguryo 1om!s=# @o. 1681# (&;4;3# 4ars 5667# p.-1N *accessed ,ecem!er 58# 566E..
/350 <Chungu$nae Koguryo yujo$ hweson simga$= *3erious 2ro!$ems with ,amaged 'oguryo >eritage# Yonhap @ews#
,ecem!er 15# 566EN *accessed ,ecem!er 55# 566E..
/330 2eop$eDs ,ai$y ;n$ine ,ecem!er 57# 5663N *accessed Bune 11# 5667..
/370 =oongang (aily# Banuary 15# 5667.
/3E0 < :ost 'ingdom# 4odern 3pat# Boongang ,ai$y# Banuary 15# 5667N *accessed 4ay 7# 5667..
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