Ben-ene effects
*he nonlead ingredients added to petrol to stop pinging and maintain octane ratings
are 'nown as aromatics. *hey are from a category of organic s$#stance 'nown as
V%"s volatile organic compo$nds. *hese incl$de #en-ene1 tol$ene (methyl
#en-ene)1 dimethyl#en-ene1 (ylene and mesitylene (=1F10 triethyl#en-ene). All are
petrole$m derivatives. 2ome are to(ic1 others are e(tremely to(ic.
Rylene has recently #een ordered removed from all mar'er pens d$e to its e(treme
to(icity. Ben-ene is rated as a carcinogen. *ol$ene in pregnant women has recently
#een shown to ca$se #irth defects. A standard te(t1 2. Ba$m6s 5ntrod$ction to %rganic
"hemistry1 says1 ?<epeated e(pos$re to #en-ene leads to a progressive disease in
which the a#ility of the #one marrow to ma'e new #lood is event$ally destroyedA.
Ben-ene has #een lin'ed to cancer and le$'aemia in n$m#ers of st$dies. As long ago
as =EHH1 the 5talian <ama--ini :o$ndation for %ncology and Environmental 2cience
esta#lished that #en-ene was a powerf$l carcinogen. 5t also fo$nd s$#seB$ently that
all aromatic hydrocar#ons in f$el ca$se increases in malignant t$mo$rs in animals.
Professor "esare !altoni and !orando 2offritti have cond$cted tests on e(pos$re to all
f$el additives. 5n A$g$st =EE; !altoni addressed the "lean Air "onference r$n #y the
"25<% in 2ydney. ,e presented evidence that #en-ene is one of the most dangero$s
ind$strial carcinogens 'nown. ,e stated that the ris's from #en-ene and other
aromatics have #een serio$sly $nderstated in view of the scale of motor vehicle
poll$tion. !ore than ;// million cars worldwide #$rn G// million tonnes of f$el a year.
!altoni said he and other scientists were ?alarmedA at the way the slogan ?No lead1 no
worriesA had generated a ?warpedA sit$ation in which additives in petrol are favored1
not #eca$se they are safe1 #$t #eca$se no real research has #een done on them.
At the same conference1 7r 2imon +olff of the >niversity "ollege1 9ondon 2chool of
!edicine1 e(pressed his concerns on #en-ene. ,e had set o$t to find an e(planation for
tenfold increases in childhood le$'aemia in some pop$lation gro$ps in the >K. ,e
fo$nd that areas most at ris' were newer1 middleclass s$#$r#s and townships with
high levels of car ownership. ,e fo$nd epidemiological evidence that #en-ene1 petrol
vapors and e(ha$st gases can ca$se lymphatic cancer and le$'aemia of the types
common in children. ,e spec$lated that children reB$ire far less e(pos$re to develop
cancer than do ad$lts. *hose in areas of high traffic density and who $sed the car more
were at #igger ris'. +olff also fo$nd that the other >9P aromatic additives also prod$ce
#en-ene $nder com#$stion.
,e concl$ded that Britain6s present plan to c$t #en-ene concentration in air from 0
parts per #illion to = pp# were not eno$gh for children. ,e s$ggested that #en-ene
levels had to #e c$t 0/ or =// times1 not 3$st #y one fifth. *he +orld ,ealth
%rgani-ation and the >2A EPA estimate that for every = pp# #en-ene we can e(pect 4S
cases of myeloid le$'aemia in a pop$lation of one million.
5n the aftermath of the crippling northeastern #lac'o$t in A$g$st1 "ongress has #een
wor'ing feverishly to pass an energy #ill f$ll of s$pposedly #eneficial energy sol$tions
for American citi-ens. B$t #ehind closed doors1 corporations1 lo##yists1 and leadership
in #oth ho$ses have #een wrangling over 3$st how far they can p$sh the envelope of
this #ill to #enefit their oily1 dereg$lationhappy friends.
*hey have pac'ed the #ill with giveaways for the vario$s #ig energy corporations.
*here are s$#sidies for atomic power1 for Big %il1 and the repeal of a cr$cial historic law
that has provided the reg$latory framewor' for electricity companies.
%ne partic$larly egregio$s provision in the #ill wo$ld shield prod$cers of !*BE (methyl
tertiary #$tyl ether) from any legal claims that the chemical is @defective in design or
man$fact$re.@ !*BE is a little'nown to(ic component of gasoline sold in many parts of
the co$ntry.
!*BE is added to gasoline as part of the "lean Air ActWs efforts to reB$ire the $se of
@o(ygenates@ to ma'e gasoline #$rn more cleanly and efficiently. B$t !*BE is only one
8
'ind of o(ygenate and despite man$fact$rersW claims to the contrary1 !*BE has never
#een specifically mandated as a f$el additive. <eleased into the environment from tens
of tho$sands of lea'ing storage tan's and spills1 it is one of the most $#iB$ito$s
poll$tants in the nation.
*here is only one reason that some legislators and their oil and chemical tas'masters
have p$shed so hard for this imm$nity #ailo$t provisionJ !*BE is a defective prod$ct.
7oc$ments prod$ced at a recent trial in "alifornia proved that gasoline man$fact$rers
have long 'nown the cold hard tr$th a#o$t !*BEJ #eca$se of its e(treme water
sol$#ility1 this to(ic chemical spreads in the environment farther and faster than other
components of gasoline1 and it is e(tremely costly to clean $p.
Now companies that ma'e and $se !B*E are see'ing a#sol$tion from cleaning $p the
mess they made. 9aws$its from coast to coast see' to hold them acco$nta#le. *hese
companies sho$ld not #e shielded from foreseea#le negative effects of the prod$cts
they create or employ.
"iti-ens concerned a#o$t the safety of their drin'ing water are o$traged that "ongress
is see'ing to shift tens of #illions of dollars in to(ic clean$p costs from the #iggest oil
companies in the nation to ta(payers and drin'ing water ratepayers. *he !B*E
provision is tantamo$nt to a nationwide1 QF/ #illion ta( hi'e. 5f s$ccessf$l1 this craven
effort wo$ld #e one of the #igger corporate #ailo$ts in American history and a
staggering roll#ac' of the @poll$ters pays@ laws that have cleaned $p contamination
ha-ards in every state in the Nation. 5t wo$ld open a PandoraWs #o( for man$fact$rers
to see' lia#ility imm$nity for a vast array of prod$cts with serio$s environmental or
p$#lic health ris's.
:or over twenty years1 >nited 2tates decisionma'ers and co$rts have agreed that
ind$stries m$st #ear the cost of cleaning $p the environmental pro#lems that they
create. *his is an appropriate remedy for damage ca$sed #y companies that poll$te1
and it deters f$t$re poll$tion ha-ards.
*here is a lot of tal' these days a#o$t @ta'ing responsi#ility@ X which corporatists
masB$erading as conservatives $se to refer only to reg$lar people. ,ere the hypocrisy
of the responsi#ility rhetoric is laid #areJ
*he chemical and oil companies that ma'e and $se !*BE are specifically loo'ing to
escape their responsi#ility. B$t the $s$al conservative responsi#ility chor$s is silent.
!ore than a few mem#ers of "ongress have ta'en a t$rn singing from the
responsi#ility hymnal. 5t6s time for these mem#ers of "ongress to f$lfill their
responsi#ilities #y ref$sing to relieve corporations of theirs.
:ort$nately1 there are some in "ongress willing to ta'e a stand. ,aving seen first hand
the val$e of the poll$ter pays framewor' in helping to clean the fec$lent to(ic mess
made #y General Electric in the ,$dson <iver1 2enator "h$c' 2ch$mer has promised to
fili#$ster if the !*BE provision remains in the #ill. And last wee'1 ;. 2enators signed a
@dear colleag$e@ letter initiated #y 2enator Bar#ara Bo(er as'ing that the energy #ill
conferees remove the !*BE escape from lia#ility protection.
..;. "oncl$sions
L +hat loo'ed to #e the road for cleaner gasoline res$lted in p$#lic health
$pdated considerations showing some concl$sions when the !B*E scandal e(ploded in
the >.2.A. in order to give a F/ #illion dollar imm$nity for poll$ters.
L *he !B*E tro$#lesome p$#lic health effects is a good e(ample of what is going
in the world.
L !ore complicated is the pro#lem of #en-ene and aromatics in general1 posing a
dangero$s health pro#lem for present and f$t$re generations and many governments
9
are ignoring what is happening1 with the e(ception of some of them s$pporting cleaner
f$els li'e "NG.
L Nat$ral gas ("NG) for internal com#$stion engines is not to(ic and does not
reB$ire any aggregates.
555. +,A* 9%%KE7 *% BE *,E <%A7 *% !%<E E::5"5EN* ENG5NE2 +5*, *,E
75E2E9 "8"9E AN7 +,A* 52 G%5NG N%+O
*he answer was given in one of the milestones in the history of f$els #y the :indings of
the "alifornian 2cientific <eview Panel on *,E <EP%<* %N 75E2E9 ER,A>2* as
adopted at the PanelVs April ..1 =EE41 !eeting
E(pos$re related concl$sions
=. 7iesel e(ha$st is a comple( mi(t$re of gases and fine particles emitted #y a diesel
f$eled internal com#$stion engine.
.. *he gaseo$s fraction is composed of typical com#$stion gases s$ch as nitrogen1
o(ygen1 car#on dio(ide1 and water vapor. ,owever1 as a res$lt of incomplete
com#$stion1 the gaseo$s fraction also contains air poll$tants s$ch as car#on mono(ide1
s$lf$r o(ides1 nitrogen o(ides1 volatile organics1 al'enes1 aromatic hydrocar#ons1 and
aldehydes1 s$ch as formaldehyde and =1F#$tadiene and lowmolec$lar weight
polycyclic aromatic hydrocar#ons (PA,) and PA,derivatives.
F. %ne of the main characteristics of diesel e(ha$st is the release of particles at a
mar'edly greater rate than from gasolinef$eled vehicles1 on an eB$ivalent f$el energy
#asis. *he particles are mainly aggregates of spherical car#on particles coated with
inorganic and organic s$#stances. *he inorganic fraction primarily consists of small
solid car#on (or elemental car#on) particles ranging from /./= to /./4 microns in
diameter. *he organic fraction consists of sol$#le organic compo$nds s$ch as
aldehydes1 al'anes and al'enes1 and highmolec$lar weight PA, and PA,derivatives1
s$ch as nitroPA,s. !any of these PA,s and PA,derivatives1 especially nitroPA,s1
have #een fo$nd to #e potent m$tagens and carcinogens.
NitroPA, compo$nds can also #e formed d$ring transport thro$gh the atmosphere #y
reactions of adsor#ed PA, with nitric acid and #y gasphase radicalinitiated reactions
in the presence of o(ides of nitrogen.
;. 7iesel e(ha$st incl$des over ;/ s$#stances that are listed #y the >nited 2tates
Environmental Protection Agency (>.2. EPA) as ha-ardo$s air poll$tants and #y the
A<B as to(ic air contaminants. :ifteen of these s$#stances are listed #y the
5nternational Agency for <esearch on "ancer (5A<") as carcinogenic to h$mans1 or as
a pro#a#le or possi#le h$man carcinogen. 2ome of these s$#stances areJacetaldehydeY
antimony compo$ndsY arsenicY #en-eneY #erylli$m compo$ndsY #is(.ethylhe(yl)
phthalateY dio(ins and di#en-of$ransY formaldehydeY inorganic leadY merc$ry
compo$ndsY nic'elY P%! (incl$ding PA,s)Y and styrene.
0. Almost all of the diesel particle mass is in the fine particle range of =/ microns or
less
in diameter (P! ). Appro(imately E; percent of the mass of these particles are less
than ..0 microns in diameter. Beca$se of their small si-e1 these particles can #e
inhaled and a portion will event$ally #ecome trapped within the small airways and
alveolar regions of the l$ng.
G. *he estimated pop$lationweighted average o$tdoor diesel e(ha$st P!
concentration
10
in "alifornia for =EE0 is ... microgram per c$#ic meter ( gZm ). 2everal independent
st$dies have reported similar o$tdoor air diesel e(ha$st P! concentrations. *he
=EE0 estimated average indoor e(pos$re concentration is appro(imately =.0 gZm .
H. *he pop$lation timeweighted average total air e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particle
concentrations across all environments (incl$ding o$tdoors) is estimated to #e =.0
gZm in =EE0. *his total e(pos$re estimate may $nderestimate many "alifornians6
act$al total e(pos$re #eca$se it e(cl$des elevated e(pos$res near roadways1 railroad
trac's1 and inside vehicles. Nearso$rce e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st may #e as m$ch
as five times higher than the =EE0 pop$lation timeweighted average total air
e(pos$re. 5t also e(cl$des other ro$tes of e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st1 s$ch as
ingestion and dermal a#sorption.
4. 7iesel engine e(ha$st contains small car#onaceo$s particles and a large n$m#er of
chemicals that are adsor#ed onto these particles or present as vapors. *hese particles
have #een the s$#3ect of many st$dies #eca$se of their adverse effects on h$man
health and the environment. A recent st$dy cond$cted for the ,ealth Effects 5nstit$te
showed that1 despite a s$#stantial red$ction in the weight of the total partic$late
matter1 the total n$m#er of particles from a =EE=model engine was =0 to F0 times
greater than the n$m#er of particles from a =E44 engine when #oth engines were
operated witho$t emission control devices. *his s$ggests that more fine particles1 a
potential health concern1 co$ld #e formed as a res$lt of new technologies. :$rther
st$dy is needed since the e(tent of these findings only meas$red e(ha$st from two
engines and engine technologies.
E. *he ma3or so$rces of diesel e(ha$st in am#ient o$tdoor air are estimated to emit
appro(imately .H1/// tons per year in =EE0. %nroad mo#ile so$rces (heavyd$ty
tr$c's1 #$ses1 lightd$ty cars and tr$c's) contri#$te the ma3ority of total diesel
e(ha$st P! emissions in "alifornia. %ther mo#ile so$rces (mo#ile eB$ipment1 ships1
trains1 and #oats) and stationary so$rces contri#$te the remaining emissions.
=/. 2ignificant progress has #een made as a res$lt of federal and state reg$lations that
have addressed partic$late matter levels from diesel engines. Emissions of onroad
mo#ile so$rce diesel e(ha$st P! in "alifornia are e(pected to decline #y appro(imately
40 percent from =EE/ to ./=/ as a res$lt of mo#ile so$rce reg$lations already adopted
#y the A<B.
==. *he res$lts of a st$dy f$nded #y the A<B at the >niversity of "alifornia1 <iverside1
indicate that the diesel e(ha$st from the new f$el tested contained the same to(ic air
contaminants as the old f$el1 altho$gh their concentrations and other components may
differ. :$rther research wo$ld #e helpf$l to B$antify the amo$nts of specific compo$nds
emitted from a variety of engine technologies1 operating cycles1 and f$el to
characteri-e #etter any differences #etween old and new f$els and technologies.
5. +hat was the well 'nown health effects associated with diesel e(ha$st $ntil
=EE4O
=.. A n$m#er of adverse shortterm health effects have #een associated with
e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st. %cc$pational e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st particles have
#een associated with significant crossshift decreases in l$ng f$nction. 5ncreased
co$gh1 la#ored #reathing1 chest tightness1 and whee-ing have #een associated with
e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st in #$s garage wor'ers. A significant increase in airway
resistance and increases in eye and nasal irritation were o#served in h$man vol$nteers
following oneho$r cham#er e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st. 5n ac$te or s$#chronic animal
st$dies1 e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particles ind$ced inflammatory airway changes1
l$ng f$nction changes1 and increased the animals6 s$scepti#ility to infection.
=F. A n$m#er of adverse longterm non cancer effects have #een associated with
e(pos$re
11
to diesel e(ha$st. %cc$pational st$dies have shown that there may #e a greater
incidence of co$gh1 phlegm and chronic #ronchitis among those e(posed to diesel
e(ha$st than among those not e(posed. <ed$ctions in p$lmonary f$nction have also
#een reported following occ$pational e(pos$res in chronic st$dies. <ed$ced p$lmonary
f$nction was noted in mon'eys d$ring longterm e(pos$re. ,istopathological changes
in the l$ng of diesele(posed test animals reflect inflammation of the l$ng tiss$e.
*hese changes incl$de dosedependent proliferations of type 55 epithelial cells1 mar'ed
infiltration of macrophages1 plasma cells and fi#ro#lasts into the alveolar septa1
thic'ening of the alveolar walls1 alveolar proteinosis1 and focal fi#rosis.
=;. 2t$dies have shown that diesel e(ha$st particles can ind$ce imm$nological
reactions
and locali-ed inflammatory responses in h$mans1 as well as acting as an ad3$vant for
pollen allergy. 5ntranasal challenge with diesel e(ha$sts particles in h$man vol$nteers
res$lted in increased nasal 5gE anti#ody prod$ction and a significant increase in m<NA
for proinflammatory cyto'ines. "oe(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st particles and ragweed
pollen res$lted in a nasal 5gE response greater than that following pollen or diesel
e(ha$st particles alone. Effects of intratracheal1 intranasal1 and inhalation e(pos$res of
la#oratory animals are s$pportive of the findings in h$mans. *hese effects incl$de
eosinophilic infiltration into #ronchi and #ronchioles1 elevated 5gE response1 increased
m$c$s secretion and respiratory resistance1 and airway constriction.
=0. Based on the animal st$dies1 the >.2. EPA determined a chronic inhalation
<eference
"oncentration val$e of 0 gZm for noncancer effects of diesel e(ha$st. *his estimate
ta'es into consideration persons who may #e more sensitive than others to the effects
of diesel e(ha$st. *he report s$pports the recommendation of 0 gZm as the F
"alifornia <eference E(pos$re 9evel (<E9) (*a#le =). 5t sho$ld #e noted that this <E9
may need to #e lowered f$rther as more data emerge on potential adverse non cancer
effects from diesel e(ha$st.
=G. 7iesel e(ha$st contains genoto(ic compo$nds in #oth the vapor phase and the
particle phase. 7iesel e(ha$st particles or e(tracts of diesel e(ha$st particles are
m$tagenic in #acteria and in mammalian cell systems1 and can ind$ce chromosomal
a#errations1
ane$ploidy1 and sister chromatid e(change in rodents and in h$man cells in vitro.
7iesel e(ha$st particles ind$ced $nsched$led 7NA synthesis in vitro in mammalian
cells. 7NA add$cts have #een isolated from calf thym$s 7NA in vitro following
treatment with diesel e(ha$st particle e(tracts. 7NA add$cts have #een shown to
increase following inhalation e(pos$re of rodents and mon'eys to whole diesel
e(ha$st. Elevated levels of 7NA add$cts have #een associated with occ$pational
e(pos$re to diesel e(ha$st. <es$lts of inhalation #ioassays in the rat1 and with lesser
certainty in mice1 have demonstrated the carcinogenicity of diesel e(ha$st in test
animals1 altho$gh the mechanisms #y which diesel e(ha$st ind$ces l$ng t$mors in
animals remains $ncertain.
=H. %ver F/ h$man epidemiological st$dies have investigated the potential
carcinogenicity
of diesel e(ha$st. *hese st$dies1 on average1 fo$nd that longterm occ$pational
e(pos$res to diesel e(ha$st were associated with a ;/ percent increase in the relative
ris' of l$ng cancer. *he l$ng cancer findings are consistent and the association is
$nli'ely to #e d$e to chance. *hese epidemiological st$dies strongly s$ggest a ca$sal
relationship #etween occ$pational diesel e(ha$st e(pos$re and l$ng cancer.
=4. %ther agencies or scientific #odies have eval$ated the health effects of diesel
e(ha$st.
*he National 5nstit$te of %cc$pational 2afety and ,ealth first recommended in =E44
that whole diesel e(ha$st #e regarded as a potential occ$pational carcinogen #ased
12
$pon animal and h$man evidence. *he 5nternational Agency for <esearch on "ancer
(5A<") concl$ded that diesel engine e(ha$st is pro#a#ly carcinogenic to h$mans and
classified diesel e(ha$st in Gro$p .A. Based $pon the 5A<" findings1 in =EE/1 the 2tate
of "alifornia $nder the 2afe 7rin'ing +ater and *o(ic Enforcement Act of =E4G
(Proposition G0) identified diesel e(ha$st as a chemical @'nown to the 2tate to ca$se
cancer.@ *he >.2. EPA has proposed a concl$sion similar to 5A<" in their draft
doc$ments. *he =EE4 draft >.2. EPA doc$ment concl$ded similarly that there was
s$fficient animal evidence of carcinogenicity and that the h$man evidence was limited.
=E. *here are data from h$man epidemiological st$dies of occ$pationally e(posed
pop$lations which are $sef$l for B$antitative ris' assessment. *he estimated range of
l$ng cancer ris' ($pper E0M confidence interval) #ased on h$man epidemiological data
is =.F ( =/ to ..; ( =/ ( gZm ) (*a#le .). After considering the res$lts of the ; F F
= metaanalysis of h$man st$dies1 as well as the detailed analysis of railroad wor'ers1
the 2<P concl$des that F ( =/ ( gZm ) is a reasona#le estimate of $nit ris' e(pressed
; F = in terms of diesel partic$late. *h$s this $nit ris' val$e was derived from two
separate approaches which yield similar res$lts. A comparison of estimates of ris' can
#e fo$nd in *a#le F.
./. Based on availa#le scientific information1 a level of diesel e(ha$st e(pos$re #elow
which no carcinogenic effects are anticipated has not #een identified.
.=. Based on availa#le scientific evidence1 as well as the res$lts of the ris' assessment1
we concl$de that diesel e(ha$st #e identified as a *o(ic Air "ontaminant.
... As with other s$#stances eval$ated #y this Panel and after reviewing the field of
p$#lished peer reviewed research st$dies on diesel e(ha$st1 additional research is
appropriate to clarify f$rther the health effects of diesel e(ha$st. *his research may
have significance for estimating the $nit ris' val$e.
.F. *he Panel1 after caref$l review of the :e#r$ary =EE4 draft 2<P version of the A<B
report1 Proposed 5dentification of 7iesel E(ha$st as a *o(ic Air "ontaminant1 as well as
the scientific proced$res and methods $sed to s$pport the data1 the data itself1 and the
concl$sions and assessments on which the <eport is #ased1 finds this report with the
changes specified d$ring o$r %cto#er =G1 =EEH1 meeting and as a res$lt of comments
made at the !arch ==1 =EE41 meeting1 is #ased $pon so$nd scientific 'nowledge1
methods1 and practices and represents a complete and #alanced assessment of o$r
c$rrent scientific $nderstandingA.
"oncl$sion
2ince =EE4 new worldwide r$ling is trying to solve this intricate matter1 #$t millions of
diesel engines are spitting their partic$late matter in the way the findings of the
"alifornian 2cientific Panel <eview made p$#lic.
55. +hatVs new a#o$t $ltrafine particles health effect $ntil .//;O
An e(planation a#o$t its potential incidence in p$#lic health1 are given in a paper
iss$ed #y the <achel organi-ation ([.H;)1 which main concepts followJ
%ne of the most important characteristics of $ltrafine particles (particles with an
average diameter of =// nanometers (/.= micrometers) or less)1 is their h$ge s$rface
tovol$me ratio. *he smaller something is1 the larger its s$rface area is1 in comparison
to its vol$me. Beca$se $ltrafine particles are so small1 they have an enormo$s s$rface
area1 relative to their vol$me.
>nfort$nately1 the large s$rface area of tiny particles also ma'es them dangero$s for
at least two reasonsJ first1 the large s$rfaces alone promote the reaction of o(ygen
with h$man (or animal) tiss$e1 creating free radicals.
13
@:ree radicals are atoms or gro$ps of atoms with an odd ($npaired) n$m#er of
electrons and can #e formed when o(ygen interacts with certain molec$les. %nce
formed these highly reactive radicals can start a chain reaction1 li'e dominoes. *heir
chief danger comes from the damage they can do when they react with important
cell$lar components s$ch as 7NA1 or the cell mem#rane Tthe cell6s o$ter casingU. "ells
may f$nction poorly or die if this occ$rs1@ e(plains 7r. !ar' Cen'ins at <ice >niversity.
5n s$m1 the large s$rface of $ltrafine particles offers an ideal place which o(ygen
reactions can occ$r in the airways and l$ngs1 res$lting in the formation of free radicals
with s$#seB$ent cell damage or cell death1 followed #y inflammation.
*he second danger from $ltrafine particles arises when they float freely in the air1
where their large s$rface area provides a stic'y place where metals and hydrocar#ons
attach themselves. *he smaller the si-e of the particle1 the larger the load of metals
and hydrocar#ons it can carry (larger1 relative to the particle6s vol$me).
+hat do we 'now a#o$t health effects of $ltrafine particlesO
2cientists have 'nown for more than a decade that fine and $ltrafine particles in the air
create ha-e and 'ill large n$m#ers of h$mans. :ines and $ltrafines are prod$ced #y
fossilf$el power plants1 incinerators1 cement 'ilns1 and diesel engines1 among other
so$rces. As early as =EE=1 7r. Coel 2chwart- of >.2. Environmental Protection Agency
(now at ,arvard) estimated that fine particles were 'illing G/1/// people each year in
the >.2. *hat shoc'ing estimate has since #een confirmed and reconfirmed and is now
widely ccepted. :ine particles are defined as those with a diameter of =/1///
nanometers (=/ micrometers) or less. >ltrafines are =// times smaller than fines.TGU
*oday1 researchers are e(amining the properties of $ltrafines and there seems to #e
little do$#t that they are the ma3or 'illers in ha-e. 2t$dies in 9os Angeles1 "alifornia
reveal that $ltrafines are =/ to 0/ times as damaging to l$ng tiss$e1 compared to
larger fine particles.
2ince =EE=1 scientists have #een wondering whether fine and $ltrafine particles ca$se
harm #eca$se of their si-e alone1 or #eca$se they carry metals and hydrocar#ons deep
into the l$ng. <esearchers today #elieve that1 in the case of $ltrafines1 the answer is
#oth.
>.2. Environmental Protection Agency refers to fines as P! =/ (short for @partic$late
matter =/ micrometers or less in diameter@). By =EEG1 EPA #ecame convinced that P!
..0 (particles with diameters of ..0 micrometers T.0// nanometersU or less) were far
more dangero$s than P! =/1 and the agency proposed r$les to control P! ..0 air
poll$tion. "orporations immediately s$ed in co$rt to @get government off o$r #ac's@
and to f$lfill their fid$ciary d$ty to shareholders #y every legal means1 even tho$gh
that d$ty in this instance entails 'illing tens of tho$sands of anonymo$s citi-ens each
year. 5n .//=1 after a 0year co$rt #attle1 EPA won in the >.2. 2$preme "o$rt1 #$t the
agency1 chastened #y corporate enco$nters1 has shelved its plan for controlling P! ..0
air poll$tion. !eanwhile1 new st$dies are piling $p showing that nano particles
($ltrafines1 which in EPA terminology wo$ld #e P! /.=) are #y far the most dangero$s
of all.
*he pict$re contin$es to develop1 #$t c$rrent research shows that nano particles in the
l$ng ca$se the formation of free radicals1 which in t$rn1 ca$se l$ng disease1 and
cardiovasc$lar disease. :$rthermore1 nano particles carry metals and carcinogenic
hydrocar#ons deep into the l$ng1 where they e(acer#ate asthma and other serio$s
#reathing pro#lems. 5n addition1 nano particles com#ined with metals can pass directly
into the #rain where they promote the formation of wa(y amyloid plaB$es1 which are
the signat$re feat$re of Al-heimer6s disease. 5n :resno1 "alif.1 Kent E. Pin'erton at
>niv. of "alif. 7avis fo$nd from a$topsies that @o$twardly ro#$st people ro$tinely
har#or damage in their l$ngs6 small airways1 setting the stage for respiratory and
cardiovasc$lar disease.@ *he #ronchioles were scarred with fi#rosis and an a#normal
thic'ening1 apparently ca$sed #y @the ravages of free radicals.@ 2$#seB$ent e(pos$re
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of rats to $ltrafine particles at levels fo$nd in :resno on a #ad day revealed many dead
cells in the rats6 l$ngs1 large n$m#ers of inflammatory cells (ne$trophils)1 and
destr$ction of macrophages which are cells that promote health #y actively
removing foreign material from the l$ngs. 5n other words1 $ltrafines 'ill off the l$ng6s
nat$ral defenses1 and then create their own $niB$e form of damage1 promoting free
radicals1 cell death1 inflammation and event$ally cardiovasc$lar disease.
Pin'erton6s findings were confirmed #y a st$dy of the l$ngs of nonsmo'ing women in
!e(ico "ity and in Vanco$ver1 British "ol$m#ia1 which revealed e(tensive l$ng damage
from e(pos$re to dirty !e(ico "ity air1 #$t not clean Vanco$ver air. *he small airways
of the !e(ican women @were very a#normal1@ with fi#rosis and thic'ening.
<esearcher Ken 7onaldson at the >niversity of Edin#oro$gh in 2cotland has st$died
particles of p$re titani$m dio(ide and p$re car#on. At =/ micrometers diameter1 they
ca$se no damage to rat l$ngs. B$t when they are cr$shed into $ltrafines @they #ecome
highly inflammogenic to the l$ngs1@ he told 2cience News. 5n other words1 car#on nano
particles1 witho$t any poll$tants attached (no metals1 no hydrocar#ons)1 ca$se l$ng
damage #y themselves. *heir si-e alone is harmf$l.
5t is now 'nown that the deadly effects of fine and $ltrafine particles aren6t restricted
to the l$ng1 #$t occ$r in the cardiovasc$lar system and #rain. <ena$d Vincent and
colleag$es at ,ealth "anada (the "anadian eB$ivalent of the >.2. National 5nstit$tes of
,ealth) clarified the mechanism of cardiovasc$lar damage #y e(posing healthy
vol$nteers to high levels of fine particles the levels yo$ might find in a city with dirty
air.
Vincent fo$nd that e(pos$re to $ltrafine particles do$#les the concentration of a small
protein (called endothelin) in the #lood stream. Endothelin increases #lood press$re.
*he spi'e in endothelin levels can #e tolerated #y a healthy s$#3ect1 #$t may 'ill a
person who is already s$ffering from atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).TGU
5mportantly1 the spi'e in endothelin concentration only occ$rs when s$#3ects are
e(posed to fine and $ltrafine particles that have metals or hydrocar#ons attached to
them. 5f the particles are p$rified #efore the h$mans are e(posed to them1 they have
no effect on endothelin levels. *h$s it seems to #e the com#ination of $ltrafine
particles and metals andZor hydrocar#ons that increases endothelin.
%ther researchers have also #een e(amining the effects of fine and $ltrafine particles
on cardiovasc$lar health. 2cientists at the ,arvard 2chool of P$#lic ,ealth e(posed
dogs to fine and $ltrafine particles1 then sim$lated heart attac's in the dogs #y $sing a
s$rgicallyimplanted #alloon to temporarily sh$t off a coronary artery. 7ogs that had
#een #reathing $ltrafines co$ld not compensate for the #loc'ed artery which may
help e(plain why h$mans who have heart attac's on a #adair day are more li'ely to
die than people having heart attac's where the air is cleaner.
"ardiovasc$lar disease and heart attac's are not the only concern arising from
e(pos$re to fine and $ltrafine particles in the air. A >niversity of North "arolina
research team wor'ing with dogs living in !e(ico "ity has shown that e(pos$re to
$ltrafine air poll$tion ca$ses #rain damage. 9ilian "alderonGarcide$nas fo$nd that
$ltrafine particles carry metals s$ch as vanadi$m and nic'el into the dogs6 #rains
thro$gh their noses. *he fine particles #rea' down the #arriers that normally prevent
contaminants passing into the #rain.
7ogs are often $sed as models for the st$dy of cognitive impairments that accompany
old age in h$mans. 2ome dogs aged =/ and over develop the wa(y plaB$es that are
characteristic of Al-heimer6s disease. "alderonGarcide$nas6s st$dy of .// dogs in
!e(ico "ity reveals that the animals #reathing $ltrafine particles develop wa(y #eta
amyloid plaB$es in the #rain #efore they are a year old.
"alderonGarcide$nas told science writer Canet <aloff that her findings are @definitely
worrisome@ #eca$se she has e(amined the noses of h$mans in !e(ico "ity and fo$nd
evidence of a #rea'down of nasal tiss$e1 similar to that fo$nd in dogs.TGU
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>.2. EPA researchers and colleag$es in Germany have fo$nd that metals attached to
fine and $ltrafine particles greatly e(acer#ate asthma. :irst they e(amined children in
a German city where the air is contaminated with fine and $ltrafine particles mi(ed
with metals. "ompared to children living in a r$ral German town where the air is
relatively clean1 the $r#an children showed strongly allergic reactions. *he researchers
then e(posed mice to the two 'inds of air that the children were #reathing. *hey
reported that mice e(posed to metalcontaminated $ltrafine particles developed strong
allergic and asthmatic reactions in their airways.
>sing isolated l$ng cells1 researchers fo$nd that $ltrafine particles from 9os Angeles air
(a) carry far more to(ic com#$stion #yprod$cts per $nit weight than do larger particles
(no s$rprise #eca$se of s$rfacetovol$me ratio)Y and (#) enter cells and settle in the
mitochondria1 which are the cells6 so$rce of power. >ltrafine particles t$rn the
mitochondria into @f$nctionless #ags1@ researcher Andre Nel told 2cience News1 'illing
the cells they were powering.
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