Basmachi Movement.

A History
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Basmachi movement (Russian: !"#, Basmachestvo$ or Basmachi
Revolt %as an uprisin& a&ainst Russian 'mperial and (o)iet rule *y the +uslim,
lar&ely Turkic peoples of ,entral -sia.
The mo)ement/s roots lay in the 0102 )iolence that erupted o)er conscription of +uslims *y
the Russian 3mpire for ser)ice in World War '.
415
'n the months follo%in& the 6cto*er 0107
Re)olution, rene%ed )iolence de)eloped into a ma8or uprisin& centered in the Fer&hana
9alley, soon spreadin& across all of (o)iet Turkestan. :uerrilla and con)entional %arfare
lasted for years in )arious re&ions, and the )iolence %as *oth anti;(o)iet and anti;Russian.
-fter ma8or Red -rmy campai&ns and concessions re&ardin& economic
and 'slamic practices in the mid;01<=s, the military fortunes and popular support of the
>asmachi declined.
40=5
-lthou&h resistance flared up a&ain in response to collecti)i?ation,
4005
the (o)ieti?ation of ,entral -sia proceeded apace and the stru&&le ended.
Contents

0 (ummary
< ,haracter of the mo)ement
@ 3conomic and historical *ack&round
A 6ri&ins of the conflict
B The Cokand autonomy and the start of hostilities
2 First phase of the re)olt in the Fer&hana 9alley
7 The >asmachi in Chi)a and >ukhara
D 3n)er Easha and the hei&ht of the >asmachi mo)ement
1 The defeat of the mo)ement
0= 'ntermittent >asmachi operations after the (o)iet )ictory
00 -ftermath
0< 'n popular culture
0@ References
0A Further readin&
Summary
The pattern for resistance to Russian rule %as set *y the ethnic )iolence of the 0102
uprisin&. -fter the>olshe)iks sei?ed po%er in 0107 and the Russian ,i)il War *e&an,
Turkestani +uslim political mo)ements attempted to cooperate %ith the
>olshe)ik Tashkent (o)iet, formin& the Cokand -utonomous :o)ernment in theFer&hana
9alley. The >olshe)iks launched an assault on Cokand and carried out a &eneral
massacre, sparkin& an uprisin& that sei?ed control of Fer&hana and much of Turkestan.
>asmachi mo)ements also eFperienced success in Chi)a and >okhara %hen the
>olshe)iks o)erthre% the +uslim re&imes there.
The fortunes of the decentrali?ed mo)ement fluctuated throu&hout the early 01<=s, *ased
on %hether the (o)iets %ere offerin& reli&ious and economic concessions or %ere
pro)okin& the populace %ith harsh policies. - former Turkish &eneral 3n)er Easha 8oined
the >asmachi and led the mo)ement at its hei&ht. Ge %as killed in *attle, ho%e)er, and
eFtensi)e campai&ns *y )eteran Red -rmy units dealt the >asmachi many defeats. - round
of more serious reli&ious concessions started to %in o)er the %ar;%eary population and the
>asmachi mo)ement e)entually %ithered a%ay.
Character of the movement
The >asmachi mo)ement %as a national li*eration mo)ement
40<5
that sou&ht to end forei&n
rule o)er the ,entral -sian territories then kno%n as Turkestan, and also the protectorates
of Chi)a and >okhara. H>asmachH is a Turkic %ord %hich refers to a *andit or marauder,
such as the *ands of thie)es that preyed on cara)ans in the re&ion.
40@5
The term >asmachi
%as often used in (o)iet sources *ecause of its pe8orati)e meanin&.
40A5
The (o)iets portrayed the mo)ement as *ein& composed of *ri&ands moti)ated *y 'slamic
fundamentalism, %a&in& a counterre)olutionary %ar %ith the support of >ritish a&ents.
40B5
'n
reality, the >asmachi %ere a di)erse and multi;faceted that recei)ed ne&li&i*le forei&n aid.
The >asmachi %ere not )ie%ed fa)ora*ly *y Western Eo%ers, %ho sa% the >asmachi as
potential enemies due to the Ean;Turkist or Ean;'slamist ideolo&ies of some of their
leaders. Go%e)er, some >asmachi &roups recei)ed support from >ritish and Turkish
intelli&ence ser)ices and in order to cut off this outside help, special military detachments of
the Red -rmy masIueraded as >asmachi forces and successfully intercepted supplies.
-lthou&h many fi&hters %ere moti)ated *y calls for 8ihad,
4025
the >asmachi dre% support
from many ideolo&ical camps and ma8or sectors of the population. -t some point or another
the >asmachi attracted the support of Jadid reformers, pan;Turkic ideolo&ues and leftist
Turkestani nationalists.
4075
Eeasants and nomads, lon& opposed to Russian colonial rule,
reacted %ith hostility to anti;'slamic policies and (o)iet reIuisitionin& of food and li)estock.
The fact that >olshe)ism in Turkestan %as dominated *y Russian colonists in
Tashkent
40D5
made Tsarist and (o)iet rule appear identical. The ranks of the >asmachi %ere
filled %ith those left 8o*less *y poor economic conditions, and those %ho felt that they %ere
opposin& an attack on their %ay of life.
4015
The first >asmachi fi&hters %ere *andits, as their
name su&&ests, and they re)erted to *ri&anda&e as the mo)ement fi??led later on.
4<=5
-lthou&h the >asmachi %ere relati)ely united at certain points, the mo)ement suffered
from atomi?ation o)erall. Ri)alry *et%een )arious leaders and more serious ethnic disputes
*et%een Cyr&y? and K?*eks or Turkmen posed ma8or pro*lems to the mo)ement.
Economic and historical background
Russian Turkestan %as ruled from Tashkent as a Crai or :o)ernor;:eneralship. To the east
of Tashkent, the Fer&hana 9alley %as an ethnically di)erse, densely populated re&ion that
%as di)ided *et%een settled farmers (often called (arts$ and nomads (mostly Cyr&y?$.
Knder Russian rule, it %as con)erted to a ma8or cotton;&ro%in& re&ion.
4<05
The resultin&
economic de)elopment *rou&ht some small;scale industry to the re&ion, *ut the nati)e
shop %orkers %ere %orse off than their Russian counterparts, and the ne% %ealth from
cotton %as spread )ery une)enly. 6n the %hole, li)in& standards did not impro)e, and
many farmers *ecame inde*ted.
4<<5
,otton price fiFin& durin& the First World War made matters %orse, and a lar&e, landless
rural proletariat soon de)eloped. +uslim cler&y decried the &am*lin& and alcoholism that
*ecame commonplace, and crime rose considera*ly.
4<@5
+any criminals or&ani?ed into
*ands, formin& the *asis for the early >asmachi mo)ement %hen it *e&an in the Fer&hana
9alley.
4<A5
Origins of the conflict
+a8or )iolence in Russian Turkestan *roke out in 0102, %hen the Tsarist &o)ernment ended
its eFemption of +uslims from military ser)ice. The result %as a &eneral re)olt, centered in
modern;day Ca?akhstan and K?*ekistan, %hich %as only put do%n *y martial la%. Tensions
*et%een ,entral -sians (especially Ca?akhs$ and Russian settlers led to lar&e;scale
massacres on *oth sides. Thousands died, and hundreds of thousands more fled, often
into nei&h*orin& Repu*lic of ,hina.
4<B5
The 0102 re*ellion %as the first anti;Russian incident
on a mass scale in ,entral -sia, and it set the sta&e for nati)e resistance after the fall
of Tsar Licholas '' in the follo%in& year.
4<25
The Kokand autonomy and the start of hostilities
'n the aftermath of the Fe*ruary Re)olution, +uslim political forces *e&an to or&ani?e.
+em*ers of the -ll;Russian +uslim council formed the (hura;i 'slam ('slamic ,ouncil$, a
Jadidist *ody that sou&ht a federated, democratic state %ith autonomy for +uslims.
4<75
+ore
conser)ati)e reli&ious scholars formed the Klema Jemyeti (>oard of Mearned +en$, more
concerned %ith safe&uardin& 'slamic institutions and (haria la%. To&ether, these +uslim
nationalists formed a coalition, *ut it fell apart after the 6cto*er Re)olution, %hen the
Jadids lent their support to the >olshe)iks %ho had sei?ed po%er. The Tashkent (o)iet of
(oldiers/ and Workers/ Neputies, an or&ani?ation dominated *y Russian rail%ay %orkers
and colonial proletarians, re8ected +uslim participation in &o)ernment. (tun& *y this
apparent reaffirmation of colonial rule, the (hura;i 'slam reunited %ith Klema Jemyeti to
form the Cokand -utonomous :o)ernment. This %as to *e the nucleus of an
autonomous
4<D5
state in Turkestan, &o)erned *y (haria la%.
4<15
The Tashkent (o)iet initially reco&ni?ed the authority of Cokand, *ut restricted its
8urisdiction to the +uslim old section of Tashkent, and demanded the final say in re&ional
affairs. -fter )iolent riots in Tashkent, relations *roke do%n, and despite the leftist leanin&s
of many of its mem*ers, Cokand ali&ned itself %ith the Whites.
4@=5
Eolitically and militarily
%eak, the +uslim &o)ernment *e&an lookin& around for protection. To this end, a *and of
armed ro**ers led *y 'r&ash >ay %ere amnestied and recruited to defend Cokand.
4@05
This
force, ho%e)er, %as una*le to resist an attack on Cokand *y the forces of the Tashkent
(o)iet. Red -rmy soldiers and-rmenian Nashnaks thorou&hly pilla&ed Cokand, carryin&
out %hat %as descri*ed as a Hpo&rom,H
4@<5
in %hich as many as 0A,=== people died.
4@@5
This
massacre, alon& %ith the eFecution of many Fer&hana peasants %ho %ere suspected of
hoardin& cotton and food, incensed the +uslim population. 'r&ash >ay took up arms
a&ainst the (o)iets, declarin& himself H(upreme Meader of the 'slamic -rmyH, and the
>asmachi re*ellion started in earnest.
4@A5
+ean%hile, (o)iet troops temporarily deposed 3mir (ayeed -lim Chan of >okhara in fa)or
of the leftist Ooun& >okharans faction led *y Fai?ullah Cho8ae). Russian troops %ere
repulsed *y the populace after a period of lootin&, and the 3mir retained his throne for the
moment.
4@B5
'n the Chanate of Chi)a, >asmachi leader Junaid Chan o)erthre% the Russian
puppet and suppressed the moderni?in& mo)ement of the leftist Ooun& Chi)ans.
4@25
First phase of the revolt in the Ferghana Valley
'r&ash/s claims to leadership of an army of the faithful %on reco&nition *y the cler&y of the
Fer&hana 9alley, and he soon controlled a si?a*le fi&htin& force.
Widespread nationali?ation campai&ns carried out from Tashkent had caused economic
collapse, and the Fer&hana 9alley faced famine in a*sence of &rain imports. -ll these
factors dro)e people to 8oin the >asmachi. The Tashkent (o)iet %as una*le to contain the
insur&ency, and the end of 010D decentrali?ed *ands of fi&hters, totalin& rou&hly <=,===,
controlled Fer&hana and the countryside surroundin& Tashkent. 'r&ash faced ri)al
commanders such as +adamin >ay, %ho %as supported *y more moderate +uslim
factions, *ut he secured formal, nominal leadership of the mo)ement at a council in +arch
0101.
4@@5
With Tashkent in a )ulnera*le military position, the >olshe)iks left Russian settlers to
or&ani?e their o%n defense. This often in)ol)ed *rutal reprisals for >asmachi attacks *y
(o)iet forces and Russian farmers *oth.
4@A5
The harsh policies of War ,ommunism,
ho%e)er, caused the peasants army to sour on the Tashkent (o)iet. 'n +ay 0101, +adamin
>ay formed an alliance %ith the settlers, entailin& a non;a&&ression pact and a coalition
army. The ne% allies made plans for esta*lishin& a 8oint Russian;+uslim state, %ith po%er
sharin& arran&ements and cultural ri&hts for *oth &roups.
4@754@D5
Nisputes o)er the 'slamic
orientation of the >asmachi led to the *reak;up of the alliance, ho%e)er, and *oth +adamin
and the settlers suffered defeats at the hands of the +uslim 9ol&a Tatar Red >ri&ade.
4@15
The inha*itants of the Fer&hana 9alley %ere eFhausted after the punishin& %inter of
0101;<=, and the +adamin >ay defected to the (o)iet side in +arch.
4A=5
+ean%hile, famine
relief reached the re&ion under the more li*eral Le% 3conomic Eolicy, %hile land reform
and amnesty placated Fer&hana residents. -s a result, the >asmachi mo)ement lost
control of most populated areas and shrank o)erall.
The pacification of Fer&hana did not last lon&. Nurin& the summer of 01<= the (o)iets felt
secure enou&h to reIuisition food and mo*ili?e +uslim conscripts. The result %as a
rene%ed uprisin& and ne% >asmachi &roups proliferated, fueled *y reli&ious slo&ans.
4A05
Rene%ed conflict %ould see the >asmachi mo)ement spread across Turkestan.
The Basmachi in Khiva and Bukhara
'n January 01<=, the Red -rmy captured Chi)a and set up a Ooun& Chi)an pro)isional
&o)ernment. Junaid Chan fled into the desert %ith his follo%ers, and the >asmachi
mo)ement in the Ch%ore?m re&ion %as *orn.
4A<5
>efore the end of the year, the (o)iets
deposed the Ooun& Chi)ans &o)ernment, and the +uslim nationalists fled to 8oin Junaid,
stren&thenin& his forces considera*ly.
4A@5
'n -u&ust of that year, the 3mir of >okhara %as finally deposed. From eFile in -f&hanistan,
the 3mir directed the >okhara >asmachi mo)ement, supported *y the an&ry populace and
cler&y. Fi&hters operatin& on *ehalf of the 3mir %ere under the command of '*rahim >ay, a
tri*al leader.
4AA5
>asmachi forces operated %ith success in *oth Chi)a and >okhara for an
eFtended period. The insur&ency also *e&an spreadin& to Ca?akhstan, as %ell as
the Ta8ik and Turkmen lands.
4AB5
Enver asha and the height of the Basmachi
movement
'n Lo)em*er 01<0, :eneral Psmail 3n)er, former Turkish %ar minister, arri)ed in >okhara in
order to assist the (o)iet %ar effort. 'nstead of doin& so, he defected and *ecame the
sin&le most important >asmachi leader, centrali?in& and re)itali?in& the mo)ement.
4AA5
3n)er
Easha intended to create a pan;Turkic confederation encompassin& all of ,entral -sia, as
%ell as -natolia and ,hinese lands.
4AA5
Gis call for 8ihad attracted much support, and he
mana&ed to transform the >asmachi &uerillas into a formida*le army of 02,=== men. >y
early 01<<, a considera*le part of the >ukharan Eeople/s (o)iet Repu*lic, includin&
(amarkand and Nushan*e, %as under >asmachi control. +ean%hile, Nun&an +uslim
+a&a?a +asanchi formed the Nun&an ,a)alry Re&iment to fi&ht for the (o)iets a&ainst the
>asmachi.
4A25
The defeat of the movement
Lo% fearin& the total loss of Turkestan, the (o)iet authorities once a&ain adopted a dou*le
strate&y to crush the re*ellion: political reconciliation and cultural concessions alon& %ith
o)er%helmin& military po%er. Reli&ious concessions reinstated (haria la%,
%hile Coran schools and %aIf lands %ere restored.
4A75
+osco% sou&ht to indi&eni?e the fi&ht
%ith the creation of a )olunteer militia composed of +uslim peasants, called the Red (ticks,
and it is estimated that 0B;<B percent of (o)iet troops in this re&ion %ere +uslim.
475
The
(o)iets primarily relied on thousands of re&ular Red -rmy troops, )eterans of the ,i)il War,
no% *olstered *y air support. The strate&y of concessions %ith airstrikes %as successful,
and %hen in +ay 01<< 3n)er Easha re8ected a peace offer and issued an ultimatum
demandin& that all Red -rmy troops *e %ithdra%n from Turkestan %ithin fifteen days,
+osco% %as %ell prepared for a confrontation. 'n June 01<< (o)iet units led *y :eneral
Cakurin defeated the >asmachi forces in the >attle of Cafrun. The Red -rmy *e&an to dri)e
the re*els east%ards, retakin& considera*le territory. 3n)er himself %as killed in a failed
last;ditch ca)alry char&e on -u&ust A, 01<<, near >ald?huan in present;day Ta8ikistan$. Gis
successor, (elim Easha, continued the stru&&le *ut finally fled to -f&hanistan in 01<@.
- >asmachi presence remained in the Fer&hana 9alley until 01<A, and fi&hters there %ere
led *y Curshirmat, %ho had rene%ed the re)olt in 01<=. >ritish intelli&ence reported
4AD5
that
Curshirmat possessed forces of B,===;2,=== men. -fter years of %ar, ho%e)er, popular
support for the >asmachi cause %as dryin& up. Eeasants %anted to return to %ork,
especially no% that (o)iet policies had made Turkestan li)a*le a&ain. Curshirmat/s forces
shrank to around <,===, many resortin& to *anditry,
4AD5
and he soon fled to -f&hanistan.
4<=5
Turkestan %as at this point eFhausted *y %ar. <==,=== people had fled Ta8ik lands,
lea)in& t%o;thirds of ara*le land a*andoned. Messer de)astation could *e o*ser)ed in
Fer&hana.
4<=5
!ntermittent Basmachi operations after the Soviet
victory
-fter the >asmachi mo)ement %as destroyed as a political and military force, the fi&hters
that remained hid in mountainous areas and conducted a &uerrilla %ar. The >asmachi
uprisin& had died out in most parts of ,entral -sia *y 01<2. Go%e)er, skirmishes and
occasional fi&htin& alon& the *order %ith -f&hanistan continued until the early 01@=s.
Junaid Chan threatened Chi)a in 01<2, *ut %as finally eFiled in 01<D.
4<=5
T%o prominent
commanders, Fai?al +aksum and '*rahim >ay, continued to operate out of -f&hanistan and
conducted a num*er of raids into the Ta8ik (o)iet (ocialist Repu*lic in 01<1. '*rahim >ay
led a *rief resur&ence of the mo)ement %hen collecti)i?ation fueled resistance and
succeeded in delayin& the policy until 01@0 in Turkmenistan, *ut he %as soon cau&ht and
eFecuted. The mo)ement then lar&ely died out.
4A154B=5
'n Cyr&y?stan, the last stron&holds of
the >asmachi %ere destroyed *y 01@A.
"ftermath
'ndi&enous leaders *e&an to cooperate %ith (o)iet authorities and lar&e num*ers of
,entral -sians 8oined the (o)iet ,ommunist Earty under Menin and (talin/sindi&eni?ation
policy. +any &ained hi&h positions in the &o)ernments of the K?*ek, Ta8ik, Cyr&y?, Ca?akh
and Turkmen (o)iet (ocialist Repu*lics, formed out of the Turkestani -utonomous (o)iet
(ocialist Repu*lic in 01<A. Nurin& the (o)ieti?ation of ,entral -sia, 'slam *ecame the focus
of antireli&ious campai&ns. The &o)ernment closed most mosIues, repressin& 'slamic
clerics and tar&etin& sym*ols of 'slamic identity such as the )eil. K?*eks %ho remained
practicin& +uslims %ere deemed nationalist and often tar&eted for imprisonment or
eFecution. (talinist collecti)i?ation and industriali?ation proceeded as else%here in the
(o)iet Knion.
!n popular culture
The re*ellion featured in se)eral HRed WesternsH, such as White Sun of the Desert, The
Seventh Bullet and The Bodyguard.
#eferences
0. Jump up ^ 'n January 01<=, led military operations a&ainst *asmachis and
(o)iet troops
<. Jump up ^ Cuomintan& troops %ere in)ol)ed in fi&htin& a&ainst *asmachis only
in Qin8ian&Ero)ince
@. Jump up ^ Eersian troops had fou&ht a&ainst Junaid Chan and his little later
only on the territory of Eersia
A. Jump up ^ -f&hans participated in hostilities a&ainst *asmachis only in northern
-f&hanistan
B. Jump up ^ 'n Knion %ith him and >ey +adamin counter;re)olutionary ro**er
*ands %ith July 0=, 0101 to January 01<=
2. Jump up ^ (upporters of Ga*i*ullah had fou&ht in alliance %ith such films only
in northern -f&hanistan
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Moscow's Muslim Challenge: Soviet Central Asia, +ichael
Ry%kin, pa&e @B
D. Jump up ^ Cri)oshee), :ri&ori (3d.$, Soviet Casualties and Combat osses in
the Twentieth Century, p.A@, Mondon: :reenhill >ooks, 0117
1. Jump up ^ 9ictor (polniko), H'mpact of -f&hanistan/s War on the Former (o)iet
Repu*lics of ,entral -sia,H in Gafee? +alik, ed, ,entral -sia: 'ts (trate&ic 'mportance
and Future Erospects (Le% Oork: (t. +artin/s Eress, 011A$, 0=0.
0=. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge: Soviet Central
Asia (-rmonk: +. 3. (harpe, 'nc, 011=$, A0.
00. Jump up ^ +artha >. 6lcott, HThe >asmachi or Freemen/s Re)olt in Turkestan,
010D;<A,HSoviet Studies, 9ol. @@, Lo. @ (Jul., 01D0$, @20.
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pa&e A@.
0@. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, @@.
0A. Jump up ^ >asmachis ; 6Fford 'slamic (tudies 6nline
0B. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, H3conomic >ases of the >asmachi +o)ement in the
Fer&hana 9alley,H in -ndreas Cappelerm :erhard (imon, 3d%ard -ll%orth, ed, Muslim
Communities !eemerge: "istorical #ers$ectives on %ationality& #olitics& and
'$$osition in the (ormer Soviet )nion and *ugoslavia (Nurham: Nuke Kni)ersity
Eress, 011A$, <77.
02. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <1@
07. Jump up ^ +artha >. 6lcott, HThe >asmachi or Freemen/s Re)olt in Turkestan,
010D;<A,HSoviet Studies, 9ol. @@, Lo. @ (Jul., 01D0$, <B<.
0D. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <D1.
01. Jump up ^ Fa?al;Kr;Rahim Chan +ar%at, The >asmachi +o)ement in (o)iet
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01DB$, 0B0.
<=. R Jump up to:
a

b

c

d
+ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, A<.
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(erghana ,alley, <D=.
<<. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <D<.
<@. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <DA.
<A. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <DB.
<B. Jump up ^ ,atherin 3)tuho), Richard (tites, A "istory of !ussia: #eo$les&
egends& +vents& (orces (>oston: Gou&hton +ifflin ,ompany, <==A$, <2B
<2. Jump up ^ Gafee? +alik, Central Asia, 0=0.
<7. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, 3conomic >ases of the >asmachi +o)ement in the
Fer&hana 9alley, 0D2.
<D. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <1=.
<1. Jump up ^ +artha >. 6lcott, The Basmachi or (reemen's !evolt in Tur-estan,
010D;<A, @BA.
@=. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, <<.
@0. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <1=.
@<. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <10.
@@. R Jump up to:
a

b
+artha >. 6lcott, The Basmachi or (reemen's !evolt in
Tur-estan, 010D;<A, @BB.
@A. R Jump up to:
a

b
Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement
in the (erghana ,alley, <1@.
@B. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, @<.
@2. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, <A.
@7. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <1B.
@D. Jump up ^ +artha >. 6lcott, The Basmachi or (reemen's !evolt in Tur-estan,
010D;<A, @B2.
@1. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, @A.
A=. Jump up ^ Richard Moren?, +conomic Bases of the Basmachi Movement in the
(erghana ,alley, <12.
A0. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, @B.
A<. Jump up ^ Fa?al;Kr;Rahim Chan +ar%at, The Basmachi Movement in Soviet
Central Asia, 02=.
A@. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, @2.
AA. R Jump up to:
a

b

c
+artha >. 6lcott, The >asmachi or Freemen/s Re)olt in
Turkestan, 010D;<A, @BD.
AB. Jump up ^ +ichael Ry%kin, Moscow's Muslim Challenge, @2.
A2. Jump up ^ Joseph M. Wiec?ynski (011A$. The Modern encyclo$edia of !ussian
and Soviet history& ,olume ./. -cademic 'nternational Eress. p. 0<B. '(>L =;D7B21;
=2A;B. Retrie)ed <=00;=0;=0.
A7. Jump up ^ +artha >. 6lcott, The Basmachi or (reemen's !evolt in Tur-estan,
010D;<A, @B7.
AD. R Jump up to:
a

b
OSlma? Tuhna?, H-n 6ttoman Warrior -*road: 3n)er EaUa as
an 3Fpatriate.H Middle +astern Studies @B, no. A (0111$, pp. A7;@=
A1. Jump up ^ Ritter, William ( (011=$. HRe)olt in the +ountains: Fu?ail +aksum
and the 6ccupation of :arm, (prin& 01<1H. Journal of ,ontemporary Gistory <B:
BA7.doi:0=.0077V==<<==1A1==<B==A=D.
B=. Jump up ^ Ritter, William ( (01DB$. HThe Final Ehase in the MiIuidation of -nti;
(o)iet Resistance in Tad?hikistan: '*rahim >ek and the >asmachi, 01<A;@0H. (o)iet
(tudies @7 (A$.
Further reading
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1F3A> ^ _[`[abb]: M-E M-+>3RT -cademic Eu*lishin&, <=0A. ^ 2= . ^ '(>L
17D;@;2B1;0@D0@;@.
c. dZ[Z]#": G31128C5< /H/I J3B8 A K4<BC<L MN55 5 O8N8P128C<> dshkent
(012<$
.e. fZ]\]: ?81:8@<12A3 Tashkent (01DA$
gb#" hXib\j: G 9348P G3123@C3L ?DP84Q> (W#"!i k# "#k#\]]\l
#![Zm]\b#" nY$ Nushan*e (01DA$
Gasan >. Eaksoy, RBASMAC"SR: Tur-ish %ational iberation Movement /H/I;
/HTUs& +odern 3ncyclopedia of Reli&ions in Russia and the (o)iet Knion (FM:
-cademic 'nternational Eress$ 0110, 9ol. A, pp. Bo<=.
-leFander +arshall: HTurkfront: Frun?e and the Ne)elopment of (o)iet ,ounter;
insur&ency in ,entral -siaH in Tom 3)erett;Geath (3d.$ RCentral Asia> As$ects of
TransitionR& Routled&e,ur?on, Mondon, <==@p '(>L =;7==7;=1B2;D (cloth$ '(>L =;
7==7;=1B7;2 (p*k.$
Fa?al;ur;Rahim Chan +ar%at: The Basmachi movement in Soviet Central Asia: A
study in $olitical develo$ment>, Eesha%ar, 3m8ay >ooks 'nternational (01DB$
+arco >uttino: H3thnicitq et politiIue dans la &uerre ci)ile: r propos du
/*asmasest)o/ au Fer&anaH, /4,ahiers du monde russe et so)ietiIue& ,ol> TV& %o> /;.&
W/HHXY
+arie >roFup: The >asmachi. Central Asian Survey, 9ol. < (01D@$, Lo. 0, pp. B7o
D0.
+ustafa ,hokay: HThe >asmachi +o)ement in TurkestanH, The Asiatic
!eview 9ol.QQ'9 (01<D$
(ir 6laf ,aroe: Soviet +m$ire: The Tur-s of Central Asia and Stalinism <nd ed.,
Mondon, +acmillan (0127$ '(>L =;@0<;7A71B;=
:lenda Fraser: H>asmachi (parts ' and ''$H, Central Asian Survey, 9ol. 2 (01D7$, Lo.
0, pp. 0o7@, and Lo.<, pp. 7oA<.
>aymir?a Gayit: Basmatschi> %ationaler Zam$f Tur-estans in den [ahren /H/X bis
/HT\> Ctln, Nreisam;9erla& (011@$
+. Golds%orth: H(o)iet ,entral -sia, 0107;01A=H, (o)iet (tudies, 9ol. @ (01B<$, Lo.
@, pp. <BDo<77.
+artha >. 6lcott: HThe >asmachi or Freemen/s Re)olt in Turkestan 010D;
<AH, (o)iet (tudies, 9ol. @@ (01D0$, Lo. @, pp. @B<o@21.