Global Warming

Global warming is the unequivocal and continuing rise in the average temperature of Earth's climate
system. Since 1971 9!" of the warming has occurred in the oceans. #espite the oceans' dominant
role in energy storage the term $global warming$ is also used to refer to increases in average
temperature of the air and sea at Earth's surface. Since the early %!th century the global air and sea
surface temperature has increased about !.& '( )1.* '+, with about two-thirds of the increase
occurring since 19&!. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's
surface than any preceding decade since 1&.!.
Scientific understanding of the cause of global warming has been increasing. /n its fourth assessment
)01* %!!7, of the relevant scientific literature the /ntergovernmental 2anel on (limate (hange )/2((,
reported that scientists were more than 9!" certain that most of global warming was being caused by
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities. /n %!1! that finding was
recogni3ed by the national science academies of all ma4or industriali3ed nations. 0ffirming these
findings in %!15 the /2(( stated that the largest driver of global warming is carbon dio6ide )(7%,
emissions from fossil fuel combustion cement production and land use changes such as deforestation.
/ts %!15 report states
Human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the
global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some
climate extremes. This evidence for human influence has grown since AR4. It is extremely liely !"#$
%&&'( that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid$)&th
century. $ I*++ AR# ,-% .ummary for *olicymaers
(limate model pro4ections were summari3ed in the %!!7 +ourth 0ssessment 1eport )01*, by the
/ntergovernmental 2anel on (limate (hange )/2((,. 8hey indicated that during the %1st century the
global surface temperature is li9ely to rise a further 1.1 to %.9 '( )%.! to ..% '+, for their lowest
emissions scenario and %.* to :.* '( )*.5 to 11.. '+, for their highest. 8he ranges of these estimates
arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.
+uture climate change and associated impacts will vary from region to region around the globe. 8he
effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and
pattern of precipitation as well as a probable e6pansion of subtropical deserts. ;arming is e6pected to
be strongest in the 0rctic with the continuing retreat of glaciers permafrost and sea ice. 7ther li9ely
effects of the warming include more frequent e6treme weather events including heat waves droughts
and heavy rainfall< ocean acidification< and species e6tinctions due to shifting temperature regimes.
Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the
loss of habitat from inundation.
2roposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction adaptation to
its effects building systems resilient to its effects and possible future climate engineering. =ost
countries are parties to the >nited ?ations +ramewor9 (onvention on (limate (hange )>?+(((,
whose ultimate ob4ective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic )i.e. human-induced, climate change.
2arties to the >?+((( have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and to assist in adaptation to global warming. 2arties to the >?+((( have agreed that deep
cuts in emissions are required and that future global warming should be limited to below %.! '( )5.: '+,
relative to the pre-industrial level. 1eports published in %!11 by the >nited ?ations Environment
2rogramme and the /nternational Energy 0gency suggest that efforts as of the early %1st century to
reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet the >?+((('s % '( target.
Emissions of greenhouse gases grew %.%" per year between %!!! and %!1! compared with 1.5" per
year from 197! to %!!!.
Hurricanes
0 hurricane is a huge storm@ /t can be up to :!! miles across and have strong winds spiraling inward
and upward at speeds of 7. to %!! mph. Each hurricane usually lasts for over a wee9 moving 1!-%!
miles per hour over the open ocean. Aurricanes gather heat and energy through contact with warm
ocean waters. Evaporation from the seawater increases their power. Aurricanes rotate in a counter-
cloc9wise direction around an $eye$ in the ?orthern Aemisphere and cloc9wise direction in the
Southern Aemisphere. 8he center of the storm or $eye$ is the calmest part. /t has only light winds and
fair weather. ;hen they come onto land the heavy rain strong winds and large waves can
Aow do hurricanes formB
Aurricanes only form over really warm ocean water of &!'+ or warmer. 8he atmosphere )the air, must
cool off very quic9ly the higher you go. 0lso the wind must be blowing in the same direction and at the
same speed to force air upward from the ocean surface. ;inds flow outward above the storm allowing
the air below to rise. Aurricanes typically form between . to 1. degrees latitude north and south of the
equator. 8he (oriolis +orce is needed to create the spin in the hurricane and it becomes too wea9 near
the equator so hurricanes can never form there.
;hat is storm surgeB
Storm surges are frequently the most devastating element of a hurricane. 0s a hurricaneCs winds spiral
around and around the storm they push water into a mound at the stormCs center. 8his mound of water
becomes dangerous when the storm reaches land because it causes flooding along the coast. 8he
water piles up unable to escape anywhere but on land as the storm carries it landward. 0 hurricane will
cause more storm surge in areas where the ocean floor slopes gradually. 8his causes ma4or flooding.
0s you watch the storm-surge animations notice the effect that the physical geography of each
coastline has on storm surge. 0lso note the waves on top of the ocean's surface. ;ind waves and
sea-level rise all contribute to storm-surge damage.
;ith technology the way it is there are computer models that allow forecasters to predict the amount of
storm surge that will affect a coastal area. 8hese are called Slosh =odels and ta9e into account a
stormCs strength its path how the ocean shallows and the shape of the land. 8hen it calculates how
much storm surge a hurricane will probably cause.
;hat is the difference between a hurricane and a typhoonB
?othing e6cept geography. 8ropical storms occur in several of the world's oceans and e6cept for their
names they are essentially the same type of storm. /n the 0tlantic 7cean Gulf of =e6ico and the
Eastern 2acific 7cean they are called hurricanes. /n the ;estern 2acific 7cean they are called
typhoons. /n the /ndian 7cean the Day of Dengal and 0ustralia these types of storms are called
cyclones.
Tornado
0 tornado is a violent rotating column of air e6tending from a thunderstorm to the ground. 8he most
violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of up to 5!! mph. 8hey can
destroy large buildings uproot trees and hurl vehicles hundreds of yards. 8hey can also drive straw into
trees. #amage paths can be in e6cess of one mile wide to .! miles long. /n an average year 1!!!
tornadoes are reported nationwide.
Aow do tornadoes formB
=ost tornadoes form from thunderstorms. Eou need warm moist air from the Gulf of =e6ico and cool
dry air from (anada. ;hen these two air masses meet they create instability in the atmosphere. 0
change in wind direction and an increase in wind speed with increasing height creates an invisible
hori3ontal spinning effect in the lower atmosphere. 1ising air within the updraft tilts the rotating air from
hori3ontal to vertical. 0n area of rotation %-: miles wide now e6tends through much of the storm. =ost
strong and violent tornadoes form within this area of strong rotation.
;hat are some other factors for tornadoes to formB
Several conditions are required for the development of tornadoes and the thunderstorm clouds with
which most tornadoes are associated. 0bundant low level moisture is necessary to contribute to the
development of a thunderstorm and a $trigger$ )perhaps a cold front or other low level 3one of
converging winds, is needed to lift the moist air aloft. 7nce the air begins to rise and becomes
saturated it will continue rising to great heights to produce a thunderstorm cloud if the atmosphere is
unstable. 0n unstable atmosphere is one where the temperature decreases rapidly with height.
0tmospheric instability can also occur when dry air overlays moist air near the earth's surface. +inally
tornadoes usually form in areas where winds at all levels of the atmosphere are not only strong but
also turn with height in a cloc9wise or veering direction.
Earthquake
0n earthqua9e )also 9nown as a qua9e tremor or temblor, is the result of a sudden release of energy in
the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. 8he seismicity seismism or seismic activity of an area
refers to the frequency type and si3e of earthqua9es e6perienced over a period of time.
Earthqua9es are measured using observations from seismometers. 8he moment magnitude is the most
common scale on which earthqua9es larger than appro6imately . are reported for the entire globe. 8he
more numerous earthqua9es smaller than magnitude . reported by national seismological
observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale also referred to as the 1ichter scale.
8hese two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. =agnitude 5 or lower earthqua9es
are mostly almost imperceptible or wea9 and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage
over larger areas depending on their depth. 8he largest earthqua9es in historic times have been of
magnitude slightly over 9 although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. 8he most recent large
earthqua9e of magnitude 9.! or larger was a 9.! magnitude earthqua9e in Fapan in %!11 )as of =arch
%!1*, and it was the largest Fapanese earthqua9e since records began. /ntensity of sha9ing is
measured on the modified =ercalli scale. 8he shallower an earthqua9e the more damage to structures
it causes all else being equal.
0t the Earth's surface earthqua9es manifest themselves by sha9ing and sometimes displacement of
the ground. ;hen the epicenter of a large earthqua9e is located offshore the seabed may be displaced
sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthqua9es can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic
activity.
/n its most general sense the word earthqua9e is used to describe any seismic event G whether
natural or caused by humans G that generates seismic waves. Earthqua9es are caused mostly by
rupture of geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity landslides mine blasts
and nuclear tests. 0n earthqua9e's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. 8he epicenter
is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
/nduced seismicity
;hile most earthqua9es are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic plates human activity can
also produce earthqua9es. +our main activities contribute to this phenomenonH storing large amounts of
water behind a dam )and possibly building an e6tremely heavy building, drilling and in4ecting liquid into
wells and by coal mining and oil drilling. 2erhaps the best 9nown e6ample is the %!!& Sichuan
earthqua9e in (hina's Sichuan 2rovince in =ay< this tremor resulted in :9%%7 fatalities and is the 19th
deadliest earthqua9e of all time. 8he Iipingpu #am is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the
fault 1:.! feet ).!5 m, away< this pressure probably increased the power of the earthqua9e and
accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. 8he greatest earthqua9e in 0ustralia's history is also
claimed to be induced by humanity through coal mining. 8he city of ?ewcastle was built over a large
sector of coal mining areas. 8he earthqua9e has been reported to be spawned from a fault that
reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of roc9 removed in the mining process.
Effects of earthqua9es
8he effects of earthqua9es include but are not limited to the followingH
- Sha9ing and ground rupture
Sha9ing and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthqua9es principally resulting in more
or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. 8he severity of the local effects depends
on the comple6 combination of the earthqua9e magnitude the distance from the epicenter and the
local geological and geomorphological conditions which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. 8he
ground-sha9ing is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological geomorphological and geostructural features can induce high levels of
sha9ing on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthqua9es. 8his effect is called site or local
amplification. /t is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft
superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focali3ation owing to typical geometrical setting of the
deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible brea9ing and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault
which may be of the order of several metres in the case of ma4or earthqua9es. Ground rupture is a
ma4or ris9 for large engineering structures such as dams bridges and nuclear power stations and
requires careful mapping of e6isting faults to identify any which are li9ely to brea9 the ground surface
within the life of the structure.
- Jandslides and avalanches
Earthqua9es along with severe storms volcanic activity coastal wave attac9 and wildfires can
produce slope instability leading to landslides a ma4or geological ha3ard. Jandslide danger may persist
while emergency personnel are attempting rescue.
- +ires
Earthqua9es can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. /n the event of water mains
rupturing and a loss of pressure it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has
started. +or e6ample more deaths in the 19!: San +rancisco earthqua9e were caused by fire than by
the earthqua9e itself.
- Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when because of the sha9ing water-saturated granular material )such as
sand, temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause
rigid structures li9e buildings and bridges to tilt or sin9 into the liquefied deposits. +or e6ample in the
19:* 0las9a earthqua9e soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sin9 into the ground eventually
collapsing upon themselves.
- 8sunami
8sunamis are long-wavelength long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of
large volumes of water. /n the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 1!!
9ilometers ):% mi, and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel
:!!-&!! 9ilometers per hour )575K*97 miles per hour, depending on water depth. Jarge waves
produced by an earthqua9e or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of
minutes. 8sunamis can also travel thousands of 9ilometers across open ocean and wrea9 destruction
on far shores hours after the earthqua9e that generated them.
7rdinarily subduction earthqua9es under magnitude 7.. on the 1ichter scale do not cause tsunamis
although some instances of this have been recorded. =ost destructive tsunamis are caused by
earthqua9es of magnitude 7.. or more.
- +loods
0 flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. +loods occur usually when the volume
of water within a body of water such as a river or la9e e6ceeds the total capacity of the formation and
as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. Aowever floods
may be secondary effects of earthqua9es if dams are damaged. Earthqua9es may cause landslips to
dam rivers which collapse and cause floods.
- Auman impacts
0n earthqua9e may cause in4ury and loss of life road and bridge damage general property damage
and collapse or destabili3ation )potentially leading to future collapse, of buildings. 8he aftermath may
bring disease lac9 of basic necessities and higher insurance premiums.
Greenhouse Effect
/f it were not for greenhouse gases trapping heat in the atmosphere the Earth would be a very cold
place. Greenhouse gases 9eep the Earth warm through a process called the greenhouse effect. 8he
Earth gets energy from the sun in the form of sunlight. 8he Earth's surface absorbs some of this energy
and heats up. 8hat's why the surface of a road can feel hot even after the sun has gone downG
because it has absorbed a lot of energy from the sun. 8he Earth cools down by giving off a different
form of energy called infrared radiation. Dut before all this radiation can escape to outer space
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of it which ma9es the atmosphere warmer. 0s the
atmosphere gets warmer it ma9es the Earth's surface warmer too.