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eu)
Radartutorial
Book 3: Antennae Techniques
Preamble:
The name antenna has its seeds in the work of the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi
!uring his e"#eriments with the electromagnetic waves he used a woodenl$ tent #ole along
which was carried a radiating wire This tent #ole means in Italian language l'antenna The
common use of this term in the descri#tion of the e"#eriments of Marconi led to the #o#ular
name antenna for this com#onent #art of transmitter sites
An antenna transmits or receives electromagnetic waves It is a transducer to convert
electromagnetic waves into high%frequenc$ electrical currents and vice versa The
mechanical si&es of the antenna are fractions of the used wavelength There are antennas
with more than hundred meters length using frequencies in long%wave range' and antennas
with a length of few millimeters for microwave ranges This (ook deals s#ecificall$ with
antennae used in radar installations
Table of Contents :
)adartutorial *
+ream(le: *
,earning o(-ectives: *
.unctions of an Antenna /
Antenna 0haracteristics /
Antenna Gain /
Antenna +attern 3
+olari&ation 1
2alf%wave Antenna 3
+ara(olic Antennae 3
Antennae with 0osecant 4quared +attern 5
+hased Arra$ Antenna **
+rinci#le of 6#eration **
,inear Arra$ */
+lanar Arra$ */
.requenc$ 4canning Arra$ */
+hase 4hifter *3
Mono#ulse Antennae *7
Mono#ulse 0once#t *7
0onical 4can *3
Learning objectives:
The learning o(-ectives serve as a #review of the information $ou are e"#ected to learn in the
cha#ter This cha#ter #rovides the (asis for understanding the s#ecific radar antennae 8#on
com#letion of this cha#ter' the student will (e a(le to:
descri(e antenna directivit$ and #ower gain characteristics9
descri(e the focusing action of a (asic #ara(olic antenna9
descri(e the (asic radiation #atterns of the most common #ara(olic reflectors9
descri(e the (asic characteristics of horn radiators9
descri(e the mono#ulse antennae conce#t
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *
.igure /: The di#ole antennas emission diagram is a
slightl$ flattened torus
.igure *: An isotro#ic radiator has got a
(all%sha#ed radiation
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Functions of an Antenna
The antenna is one of the most critical #arts of a radar s$stem It #erforms the following
essential functions:
It transfers the transmitter energ$ to signals in s#ace with the required distri(ution
and efficienc$ This #rocess is a##lied in an identical wa$ on rece#tion
It ensures that the signal has the required #attern in s#ace Generall$ this has to (e
sufficientl$ narrow in a&imuth to #rovide the required a&imuth resolution and
It has to #rovide the required frequenc$ of target #osition u#dates In the case of a
mechanicall$ scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate A high revolution
rate can (e a significant mechanical #ro(lem given that a radar antenna in certain
frequenc$ (ands can have a reflector with immense dimensions and can weigh
several tons
It must measure the #ointing direction with a high degree of accurac$
The antenna structure must maintain the o#erating characteristics under all environmental
conditions )adom=s are generall$ used where relativel$ severe environmental conditions are
e"#erienced
The (asic #erformance of radar can (e shown to (e #ro#ortional to the #roduct of the
antenna area or a#erture and the mean transmitted #ower Investment in the antenna
therefore (rings direct results in terms of s$stem #erformance
Taking into account these functions and the required efficienc$ of a radar antenna' two
arrangements are generall$ a##lied:
the #ara(olic dish antenna and
the arra$ antenna
Antenna Characteristics
Antenna Gain
Inde#endent of the use of a given antenna for transmitting
or receiving' an im#ortant characteristic of this antenna is
the antenna gain
4ome antenna sources radiate energ$ equall$ in all directions )adiation of this t$#e is
known as isotropic radiation :e all know the 4un radiates energ$ in all directions The
energ$ radiated from the 4un measured at an$ fi"ed distance and from an$ angle will (e
a##ro"imatel$ the same Assume that a measuring device is moved around the 4un and
sto##ed at the #oints indicated in the figure to make a measurement of the amount of
radiation At an$ #oint around the circle' the distance from the measuring device to the 4un is
the same The measured radiation will also (e the same The 4un is therefore considered an
isotro#ic radiator
All other antennae have a gain o##osite the isotro#ic radiator 4ome antennas are highl$
directional9 that is' more energ$ is #ro#agated in certain directions than in others The ratio
(etween the amounts of energ$ #ro#agated in
these directions com#ared to the energ$ that
would (e #ro#agated if the antenna were not
directional is known as its gain :hen a
transmitting antenna with a certain gain is used as
a receiving antenna' it will also have the same
gain for receiving
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< /
.igure 3: Antenna #attern in a #olar%coordinate gra#h
.igure 7: The same antenna #attern in a rectangular%
coordinate gra#h
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Antenna Pattern
Most radiators emit ;radiate< stronger radiation in
one direction than in another A radiator such as
this is referred to as anisotro#ic 2owever' a
standard method allows the #ositions around a
source to (e marked so that one radiation #attern
can easil$ (e com#ared with another
The energ$ radiated from an antenna forms a field
having a definite radiation #attern A radiation
#attern is a wa$ of #lotting the radiated energ$ from
an antenna This energ$ is measured at various
angles at a constant distance from the antenna
The sha#e of this #attern de#ends on the t$#e of
antenna used
To #lot this #attern' two different t$#es of gra#hs'
rectangular%and #olar%coordinate gra#hs are used
The #olar%coordinated gra#h has #roved to (e of
great use in stud$ing radiation #atterns In the
#olar%coordinate gra#h' #oints are located ($ #ro-ection along a rotating a"is ;radius< to an
intersection with one of several concentric' equall$%s#aced circles The #olar%coordinate
gra#h of the measured radiation is shown in .igure 3
The main beam ;or main lobe< is the region around the direction of ma"imum
radiation ;usuall$ the region that is within 3 dB of the #eak of the main (eam< The
main (eam in .igure 3 is north(ound
The sidelobes are smaller (eams that are awa$ from the main (eam These
sidelo(es are usuall$ radiation in undesired directions which can never (e com#letel$
eliminated The sidelobe level is an im#ortant #arameter used to characteri&e
radiation #atterns
6ne sidelo(e is called backlobe This is the #ortion of radiation #attern that is directed
o##osing the main (eam direction
The gra#h in .igure 7 shows the rectangular%
coordinated gra#h for the same source In the
rectangular%coordinate gra#h' #oints are located ($
#ro-ection from a #air of stationar$' #er#endicular
a"es The hori&ontal a"is on the rectangular%
coordinate gra#h corres#onds to the circles on the
#olar%coordinate gra#h The vertical a"is on the
rectangular%coordinate gra#h corres#onds to the
rotating a"is ;radius< on the #olar%coordinate gra#h
The measurement scales in the gra#hs can have
linear as well as logarithmic ste#s
.rom a #lotted antenna #attern $ou can measure
some im#ortant characteristics of an antenna:
the front-to-back ratio, the ratio of #ower gain (etween the front and rear of a
directional antenna ;in .igure 7 the value of the sidelo(e in *5> degrees: 37 !eci(els<
the side lobe ratio' the ma"imum value of the sidelo(es awa$ from the main (eam ;in
.igure 7 the value of the sidelo(e in eg ?3 degrees: /> !eci(els<
.or the anal$sis of an antenna #attern the following sim#lifications and terms are used:
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< 3
.igure 1: Antenna #attern in a rectangular%coordinate
gra#h with narrower scale
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Beam idth
The angular range of the antenna #attern in which at
least half of the ma"imum #ower is still emitted is
descri(ed as a beam with Bordering #oints of this
ma-or lo(e are therefore the #oints at which the field
strength has fallen in the room around 3 dB regarding
the ma"imum field strength This angle is then
descri(ed as (eam width or a#erture angle or half
#ower ;%3 dB< angle % with notation ;also < The
(eamwidth is e"actl$ the angle (etween the / (lack
marked #ower levels in .igure 1 The angle can (e
determined in the hori&ontal #lane ;with notation AZ<
as well as in the vertical #lane ;with notation EL<
A!erture
An isotro#ic radiator dis#erses all energ$ at a surface of a s#here The #ower has a defined
densit$ in a given distance A directive antenna concentrates the energ$ in a smaller area
The #ower densit$ is higher than ($ an isotro#ic radiator The densit$ can (e e"#ressed as
#ower #er area unit too The received #ower can (e com#ared with a related surface This
area is called effective aperture.
The effective a#erture of an antenna Ae is the surface #resented to the radiated or received
signal therefore It is a ke$ #arameter' which governs the #erformance of the antenna The
antenna gain is related to the effective area ($ the following relationshi#:
2
4
;
e
e a
A
G A K A

= =
:here: @ wavelength
A
e
@ effective antenna a#erture
A @ #h$sical area of the antenna

a
@ antenna a#erture efficienc$
;*<
The a#erture efficienc$ de#ends on the distri(ution of the illumination across the a#erture If
this is linear then a@ * This high efficienc$ is offset ($ the relativel$ high level of sidelo(es
o(tained with linear illumination Therefore' antennas with more #ractical levels of sidelo(es
have an antenna a#erture efficienc$ less than one ;AeA A<
"ajor and "inor Lobes
The #attern shown in the u##er figures has radiation concentrated in several lo(es The
radiation intensit$ in one lo(e is considera(l$ stronger than in the other The strongest lo(e is
called ma!or lobe9 the others are ;minor< side lobes 4ince the com#le" radiation #atterns
associated with arra$s frequentl$ contain several lo(es of var$ing intensit$' $ou should learn
to use a##ro#riate terminolog$ In general' ma-or lo(es are those in which the greatest
amount of radiation occurs 4ide or minor lo(es are those in which the radiation intensit$ is
least
Front#to#bac$ Ratio
The front-to-back ratio is the ratio of #ower gain (etween the front and rear of a directional
antenna In most cases there is a distinctive (ack lo(e in the antenna #attern diagram
4ometimes $ou=ll doesn=t find a lo(e e"actl$ o##osite to the main (eam In this case' the
front%to%(ack ratio refers to the largest side lo(e in the area of B*> to B3> degrees around the
o##osite direction of the main (eam A high front%to%(ack ratio is desira(le (ecause this
means that a minimum amount of energ$ is radiated in the undesired direction
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< 7
.igure 3: electric field ;(lue< and magnetic field
;red< of a vertical mounted ;#olari&ed< di#ole
.igure C: )ising of circular #olari&ation
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Polari%ation
The radiation field of an antenna is com#osed of
electric and magnetic lines of force These lines of
force are alwa$s at right angles to each other The
electric field determines the direction of #olari&ation of
the wave :hen a single%wire antenna is used to
e"tract energ$ from a #assing radio wave' ma"imum
#icku# will result when the antenna is oriented in the
same direction as the electric field
The oscillations of the electric field ma$ (e oriented in
a single direction ;linear #olari&ation<' or the oscillation
direction of the electric field ma$ rotate as the wave
travels ;circular or elli#tical #olari&ation<
Linear Polari%ation
Derticall$ and hori&ontall$ mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive verticall$ and
hori&ontall$ #olari&ed waves' res#ectivel$ Therefore' changes in #olari&ation cause changes
in the received signal level due to the ina(ilit$ of the antenna to receive #olari&ation changes
Two #lanes of #olari&ation are used mainl$:
In a verticall$ #olari&ed wave' the electric lines of force lie in a vertical direction
In a hori&ontall$ #olari&ed wave' the electric lines of force lie in a hori&ontal direction
The linear #olari&ation can o(viousl$ take all #lanes (ut (esides the hori&ontal #lane and
vertical #lane onl$ the #ositions
:hen a single%wire antenna is used to e"tract energ$ from a #assing radio wave' ma"imum
#icku# will result when the antenna is oriented in the same direction as the electric field
Thus a vertical antenna is used for the efficient rece#tion of verticall$ #olari&ed waves' and a
hori&ontal antenna is used for the rece#tion of hori&ontall$ #olari&ed waves
Circular Polari%ation
0ircular #olari&ation has the electric lines of force
rotating through 33> degrees with ever$ c$cle of rf
energ$ 0ircular #olari&ation arises ($ two E>F #hase
shift income signals and also ($ #lane #olari&ed
antennae moving E>F simultaneousl$ The electric field
was chosen as the reference field since the intensit$ of
the wave is usuall$ measured in terms of the electric
field intensit$ ;volts' millivolts' or microvolts #er meter<
In some cases the orientation of the electric field does
not remain constant Instead' the field rotates as the
wave travels through s#ace 8nder these conditions
(oth hori&ontal and vertical com#onents of the field
e"ist and the wave is said to have an elli#tical
#olari&ation
0ircular #olari&ation can (e right%handed or left%handed A circularl$ #olari&ed wave is
reflected ($ a s#herical raindro# in the o##osite sense of the transmission 6n rece#tion' the
antenna re-ects waves of the o##osite sense of circular #olari&ation there($ minimi&ing the
detection of rain The reflection from the target will have significant com#onents in the
original #olari&ation sense (ecause unlike rain' aircraft are not s#herical The strength of the
target signal is therefore enhanced relative to rain
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< 1
.igure 5: .olded di#ole and
half%wave di#ole
.igure E: )ise of an antenna di#ole
from a dis#ersed oscillating circuit
.igure *>: +ara(olic antenna of the :eather
radar "eteor manufactured ($ Gematronik
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.or ma"imum a(sor#tion of energ$ from the electromagnetic fields' the receiving antenna
must (e located in the same #lane of #olari&ation If a wrongl$ #olari&ed antenna is used'
then considera(le losses arise' in #ractice (etween /> and 3> dB
At the a##earance of strong weather%clutter the air traffic controllers #refer to switch on the
circular #olari&ation In this case the hiding effect of the targets ($ the weather%clutter will (e
decreased
&alf#'ave Antenna
A half%wave antenna ;referred to as a di#ole' 2ert&' or dou(let<
consists of two lengths of wire rod' or tu(ing' each *G7 wavelength
long at a certain frequenc$ It is the (asic unit from which man$
com#le" antennas are constructed .or a di#ole' the current is
ma"imum at the center and minimum at the ends Doltage is
minimum at the center and ma"imum at the ends
Hnerg$ ma$ also (e fed to the half%wave antenna ($ dividing the
antenna at its center and connecting the transmission line from the
final transmitter out#ut stage to the two center ends of the halved
antenna 4ince the antenna is now (eing fed at the center ;a #oint
of low voltage and high current<' this t$#e of feed is known as the
center%feed or current%feed method The #oint of feed is im#ortant
in determining the t$#e of transmission line to (e used
4tanding waves of current and voltage similarl$ arise as when a
#arallel oscillating circuit 2owever' o##osite the isotro#ic
radiator with the gain of e"act *' the half%wave antenna alread$
has an gain of a(out *1 while the ma"imum radiation comes
from it in a direction #er#endicular to the antenna a"is
The half%wave di#ole also has arisen from a sim#le oscillating
circuit :e sim#l$ imagine that the condenser #lates of the
oscillating circuit are a#art (ent a little The ca#acit$ is reduced
now' (ut the condenser remains to (e a condenser with that
:hen a getting the condenser #lates a#art further the lines of
force of the electrical field have to cover a (igger and (igger
wa$ The form of the condenser cannot (e recogni&ed an$ more
The lines of force of the electrical field go over into the free
s#ace A half%wave di#ole has arisen which is now (eing fed at
the center
Parabolic Antennae
The #ara(olic dish antenna is the form most frequentl$
used in the radar engineering of installed antenna t$#es
of .igure ** illustrates the #ara(olic antenna A dish
antenna consists of one circular #ara(olic reflector and a
#oint source situated in the focal #oint of this reflector
This #oint source is called I#rimar$ feed or Ifeed
The circular #ara(olic ;#ara(oloid< reflector is
constructed of metal' usuall$ a frame covered ($ metal
mesh at the inner side The width of the slots of the metal
mesh has to (e less than J G *> This metal covering
forms the reflector acting as a mirror for the radar energ$
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< 3
.igure *3: A truncated #ara(oloid
reflector forming a fan (eam
.igure */: .an%(eam antennae #attern
a< lateral view (< frontal view
.igure **: +rinci#le of a #ara(olic reflector
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According to the laws of o#tics and anal$tical geometr$'
for this t$#e of reflector all reflected ra$s will (e #arallel
to the a"is of the #ara(oloid which gives us ideall$ one
single reflected ra$ #arallel to the main a"is with no
sidelo(es The field leaves this feed horn with a
s#herical wave front As each #art of the wave front
reaches the reflecting surface' it is shifted *5> degrees
in #hase and sent outward at angles that cause all #arts
of the field to travel in #arallel #aths
This is an ideali&ed radar antenna and #roduces a #encil
(eam If the reflector has an elli#tical sha#e' then it will
#roduce a fan (eam 4urveillance radars use two
different curvatures in the hori&ontal and vertical #lanes
to achieve the required #encil (eam in a&imuth and the classical cosecant squared fan (eam
in elevation
This ideal case shown in .igure ** figure doesnKt ha##en in the #ractice The real #ara(olic
antennas #attern has a conical form (ecause of irregularities in the #roduction This main
lo(e ma$ var$ in angular width from one or two degrees in some radar sets to *1 to />
degrees in other radars
The radiation #attern of a #ara(olic antenna contains a ma-or lo(e' which is directed along
the a"is of #ro#agation' and several small minor lo(es Der$ narrow (eams are #ossi(le with
this t$#e of reflector as shown in .igure 3 and 7 in a #revious cha#ter
The gain # of an antenna with #ara(olic reflector can (e determined as follows:
2
160
Az El
G

:here:

A$
@ (eamwidth in a&imuth angle

El
@ (eamwidth in elevation angle
;/<
This is an a##ro"imate formula (ut gives a good
indication for most #ur#oses while noting that gain
will (e modified ($ the illumination function
Fan#Beam Antenna
A fan%(eam antenna is a directional antenna
#roducing a main (eam having a narrow (eamwidth
in one dimension and a wider (eamwidth in the other
dimension This #attern can (e o(tained ($
illuminating an as$mmetrical section of the
#ara(oloid' eg ($ a truncated #ara(oloid reflector
4ince the reflector is narrow in the vertical #lane and wide in
the hori&ontal' it #roduces a (eam that is wide in the vertical
#lane and narrow in the hori&ontal
This t$#e of antenna s$stem is generall$ used in height%
finding equi#ment ;if the reflector is rotated E> degrees<
4ince the reflector is narrow in the hori&ontal #lane and wide
in the vertical' it #roduces a (eam that is wide in the hori&ontal
#lane and narrow in the vertical In sha#e' the (eam of height%
finding radar is a hori&ontal fan (eam #attern as shown in
.igure *7 The hornfeed isn=t mounted in the middle of the
antenna (ut more sideward=s like as a commercial satellite
receiver=s dish antenna This kind of feeding is known as an
offset antenna
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< C
.igure *7: T$#ical antenna of a height%
finder using an offset antenna forming
a fan (eam
.igure *1: Dertical #ro-ection of the radiation #attern of an antenna with cosecant
squared characteristic' the (lue gra#h shows the theoreticall$ form' the red gra#h
e measured one in #ractice
.igure *3: !ifferent deformations to achieve a cosecant
squared #attern
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(ffset Antenna
6ne #ro(lem associated with feedhorns is the shadow
introduced ($ the feedhorn if it is in the #ath of the (eam The
shadow is a dead s#ot directl$ in front of the feedhorn
Lormall$ the feed horn constitutes an o(struction for the ra$s
coming from the reflector at a #ara(olic antenna
To solve this #ro(lem the feedhorn can (e offset from center
In an offset feed' the feed is outside the #ath of the wave so
there is no #attern deterioration due to a#erture (locking The
horn faces u#wards relative to the a"is of the #ara(ola and the
lower half of the #ara(ola is removed The net effect is that the
#ara(ola is shallower with a larger focal length The feed horn
is therefore situated further from the reflector and requires
greater directivit$ to avoid s#ill over of energ$ This design
therefore requires larger horns and is generall$ more difficult
and e"#ensive to construct
Antennae 'ith Cosecant )*uared Pattern
Antennae with cosecant
squared #attern are s#ecial
designed for air%surveillance
radar sets These #ermit an
ada#ted distri(ution of the
radiation in the (eam and
causing a more ideal s#ace
scanning
The cosecant squared #attern
is a means of achieving more
uniform signal strength at the
in#ut of the receiver as a target
moves with a constant height
within the (eam
There are a cou#le of variation
#ossi(ilities' to get a cosecant
squared #attern in #ractice:
deformation of a
#ara(olic reflector
a stacked (eam ($ more horns feeding
a #ara(olic reflector
In the #ractice a cosecant squared #attern can
(e achieved ($ a deformation of a #ara(olic
reflector A radiator is in the focal #oint of a
#ara(olic reflector and #roduces a relativel$
shar#l$ (undled radiation lo(e since the ra$s
leave the reflector #arallel in the ideal case
To get the cosecant squared #attern' a #art of
the radiated energ$ must (e turned u# A
#ossi(ilit$ consists in lower (ending of the to# of the reflector The #art of the ra$s which falls
to the less (ent area ;in the to#< is reflected u# now A #ossi(le method analogousl$ for this
one is' to (end the lower #art of the reflector more intense
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< 5
.igure *C: Inverse cosecant squared coverage diagram
.igure *5: +rinci#le of a stacked (eam 0osecant squared
antenna
.igure *E: An arrangement of twelve feed horns at the antenna of the radar set
A4) E*> achieves a stacked (eam cosecant squared #attern
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The lo(e of the radiator is weaker to the margin too therefore the margins of the reflector are
hit weaker as the center B$ the fact that the ra$s turned u# donKt have a large #ower densit$'
the ma"imum range in the higher elevation is limited with that
+nverse Cosecant )*uared Pattern
4urface Movement )adars and Dessel
Traffic 4$stems use antennas designed to
#rovide inverse cosecant squared
coverage and direct energ$ #referentiall$
towards the surface giving constant gain
for targets on the surface
The coverage diagram shows the antenna
#attern of a vessel radar with an inverse
cosecant squared antenna #atter The
antenna is designed to #referentiall$ radiate (elow >F ;the hori&on line< to #rovide constant
detection for targets a##roaching on sea surface
)tac$ed Beam Cosecant )*uared Antenna
A cosecant squared #attern can (e achieved
($ two or more horns feeding a #ara(olic
reflector
Hver$ feed horn alread$ emits directionall$ If
one distri(utes the transmit #ower unevenl$
on the single radiating elements' then the
antenna #attern a##roaches a cosecant
squared #attern
At use of several receiving channels a height
allocation also can (e carried out The targets
can (e assigned to (eams with defined
elevation there
The cosecant squared #attern isnKt restricted to #ara(olic reflectors This can (e reali&ed also
with other kind of antennae At an antenna arra$ with Magi% antennae the #attern is achieved
($ interference of the direct wave with this at the earthKs surface reflected quotas

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< E
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Proof
The term 0osecant sounds ver$ much like a mathematical triangular function This is rightN
2owever' what does this term have to do with our antennaO
The height 2 and the range ) define the elevation
angle %
:e remem(er what is written there on the #revious
#age:
&'he cosecant s(uared pattern is a means of achievin) a
uniform si)nal stren)th at the input of the receiver as a tar)et
moves with a constant hei)ht within the beam.*
If we convert the formula according to the range and
using the trigonometric relation mentioned a(ove
alread$ a##ears the term 0osecant P furthermore
:hat there still was with the &...uniform si)nal
stren)th...*
:e can derive this connection from the radar
equation:
If the echo has a uniform signal strength at the in#ut
of the receiver than the range is de#endent on the
square of the antenna gain in the fourth #ower
linearl$
:e can shorten the #owers arithmeticall$
:e re#lace the range ($ the formula with the u##er
0osecant%formula now According to definition
mentioned a(ove the height also shall (e constant
That means' we can shorten the height too without
changing the de#endence
4o we get the mathematical descri(ing of an
antenna with a cosecant squared #atternN
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *>
.igure />: electronic (eam%deflection'
u##er case: Boresight' lower case: !eflected
.igure /*: electronic (eam%deflection ($ a #hased arra$' left: Boresight' right: !eflection
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Phased Arra, Antenna
Princi!le of (!eration
A #hased arra$ antenna is com#osed of lots of radiating
elements each with a #hase shifter Beams are formed ($
shifting the #hase of the signal emitted from each radiating
element' to #rovide constructiveGdestructive interference so
as to steer the (eams in the desired direction
In .igure /> ;u##er case<' (oth radiating elements are fed
with the same #hase The signal is am#lified ($
constructive interference in the main direction The (eam
shar#ness is im#roved ($ the destructive interference
In .igure /> ;lower case<' the signal is emitted ($ the lower
radiating element with a #hase shift of *> degrees earlier
than of the u##er radiating element Because of this the
main direction of the emitted sum%signal is moved
u#wards
;Lote: )adiating elements have (een used without reflector in
the figure Therefore the (ack lo(e of the shown antenna diagrams is -ust as large as the main lo(e<
The main (eam alwa$s #oints in the direction of the increasing #hase shift :ell' if the signal
to (e radiated is delivered through an electronic #hase shifter giving a continuous #hase shift
now' the (eam direction will (e electronicall$ ad-usta(le 2owever' this cannot (e e"tended
unlimitedl$ The highest value' which can (e achieved for the .ield of Diew ;.6D< of a
#hased arra$ antenna' is */>F ;3>F left and 3>F right< :ith the sine theorem the necessar$
#hase moving can (e calculated
Ar(itrar$ antenna constructions can (e used as a s#otlight in an antenna field .or a #hased
arra$ antenna is decisive that the single radiating elements are steered for with a regular
#hase moving and the main direction of the (eam therefore is changed Hg the antenna of
the German air%defense radar ))+%**C consists of *157 radiating elements
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< **
.igure //: linear arra$ of a #hased%arra$
antenna' each row of radiating element needs
an own #hase shifter
.igure /3: +lanar arra$ of a #hased%arra$
antenna' each radiating element needs an own
#hase shifter
.igure /7: .requenc$ scanning arra$
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Linear Arra,
These antennae consist of lines whose elements are
steered a(out a common #hase shifter A num(er of
verticall$ a(out each other mounted linear arra$s form a
flat antenna
H"am#les given:
+recision a##roach radar +A)%5> ;hori&ontall$
electronic (eam deflection<
Air%defense radar ))+%**C ;verticall$ electronic
(eam deflection<
,arge Dertical A#erture ;,DA< Antenna ;fi"ed
(eam direction<
This kind of the #hased%arra$ antenna is commonl$ used' if the (eam%deflection is required
in a single #lane onl$ (ecause a turn of the com#lete antenna is an$wa$ carried out
Planar Arra,
These antenna arra$s com#letel$ consist of singles
radiating elements and each of it gets an own
com#uter%controlled #hase shifter The elements are
ordered in a matri" arra$ The #lanar arrangement of
all elements forms the com#lete #hased%arra$ antenna
Advantage: )a$ deflection in two #lanes
#ossi(le
!isadvantage: com#licated arrangement and
more electronicall$ controlled #hase shifter
needed
H"am#les given: AL%.+4%51 and Thomson Master%A
The #rocessor arranging the (eam deflection needs high
#rocessing #ower The #hase shifters are controlled via a
serial (us%s$stem often Additional own controlled
attenuator one #er radiating element can com#ose
various (eam sha#es If the radar set is mounted at a
moving #latform' the #rocessor must take in account for
(eam deflection calculating the #itch and roll of the
#latform too
Fre*uenc, )canning Arra,
.requenc$ scanning is a s#ecial case of the #hased arra$
antenna where the main (eam steering occurs ($ the
frequenc$ scanning of the e"citer The (eam steering is a
function of the transmitted frequenc$ This t$#e of antenna
is called a frequenc$ scanning arra$ The normal
arrangement is to feed the different radiating elements
from one folded waveguide The frequenc$ scanning arra$
is a s#ecial case of serial feeding t$#e of a #hased arra$
antenna and is (ased on a #articular #ro#ert$ of wave
#ro#agation in waveguides The #hase difference
(etween two radiating elements is nQ33>F at the normal
frequenc$
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< */
.igure /1: 0ircuit (oard with a #hase shifter
wiring with switched detour lines
.igure /3: :iring of the #hase shifters dela$ lines
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B$ changing the frequenc$' changes the angle s (etween the a"is of the main (eam and the
normal on the arra$ antenna 2eight information is generated using the following #hiloso#h$:
If the transmitted frequenc$ rises then the (eam travels u# the face of the antenna9
If the transmitted frequenc$ falls then the (eam travels down the face of the antenna
As frequenc$ is varied' the (eam a"is will change' and scanning can (e accom#lished in
elevation The radar set is designed so that it kee#s track of the frequencies as the$ are
transmitted and then detects and converts the returned frequencies into 3! dis#la$ data
Lote that frequenc$ scanning reduces the value of using frequenc$ change as a means of
achieving other valua(le effects ;(enefits of #ulse com#ression<
Phase )hifter
+hase shifters switching different detour lines are faster
than regulators In the #icture a 7 (its%switching #hase
shifter which is used in a radar unit is shown !ifferent
detour lines are switched to the signal wa$ It is created
therefore *3 different #hase angles (etween >F and
33C1F in ste#s with a distance of //1F
The inductivities ;the thin meander wires as low#ass
filters< also can (e recogni&ed in the switching voltage
su##lies for the altogether /7 #in diodes
4ince this #hase shifter module works (oth for the
transmitting wa$ and for the rece#tion wa$' (ranching (etween these two #aths are attached
with #in diode switches on the ceramic stra# at the entrance and e"it of the module
The same data word must (e used for the rece#tion time and for the transmitting moment It
is eas$ to understand: This one radiator' transmitting the latest #hase shift' first receives the
echo%signal Its #hase shifter must have the largest detour line for diagram forming in a
decided direction The same detour line is needed for a summation of the received energ$
and the video%#ulse
The #hase shifter routes the
microwave signal that is su##lied to
each radiating element through
ca(les of var$ing length The ca(les
dela$ the wave' there($ shifting the
relative #hase of the out#ut The
illustration shows the three (asic
dela$s each #hase shifter can
introduce The switches are fast #in
diode switches A central com#uter
calculates the #ro#er #hase dela$
for each of the radiating elements
and switches in the a##ro#riate
com(ination of #hase%shifters
#athwa$s
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *3
.igure /C: +rinci#le of mono#ulse antennae
.igure /5: estimating of the angular #osition at classic
radar sets with high hit rate
.igure /E: using a mono#ulse antenna the radar data
#rocessor can calculate the targets #osition into the
(eam
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"ono!ulse Antennae
8nder this conce#t antennae are
com(ined which are (uilt u# as an
antenna arra$ and which get a s#ecial
method in the feeding: The single antenna
elements arenKt alwa$s together switched
in #haseN .or different #ur#oses various
sums and differences can (e formed from
the received energ$
In #rimar$ radar sets using a mono#ulse
antenna all antenna elements are fed in
#hase and the radiation #atterns are
summari&ed 0ertain grou#s are onl$ summari&ed in the rece#tion time and their sums or
differences feed own receive channels All signals are then com#ared as a video #rocessor
function and their difference is used to estimate the a&imuth of the target more e"actl$
Therefore it can o#erate at a much lower rate of hits #er scan
In secondar$ radar sets using a mono#ulse antenna a #ulse grou# is transmitted on the sum
channel and an additional #ulse in the difference channel :ell' the mono#ulse antenna is
used for side lobe suppression there
These two e"am#les #oint: A mono#ulse antenna isnKt an own (asic antenna model A
mono#ulse antenna can (e constructed as a grou# of logarithmic #eriodical antennae' a
collection of sim#le di#ole radiators or #atch antenna fields
"ono!ulse Conce!t
Mono#ulse radars find their origin in tracking
s$stems 4ince the late *EC>s' the #rinci#le of
mono#ulse has (een ada#ted to suit +4) and 44)
s$stems and is in common o#erational use world%
wide toda$
A target will (e seen ($ radar from the moment it
enters the main antenna (eam or from the moment
it is illuminated ($ the transmitted radar antenna
(eam 4earch radar alwa$s makes an error in the determination of the direction of the target
(ecause it makes the assum#tion that the target is situated in the direction of the a"is of the
main (eam of the antenna This error is of the order of the (eam width of the main antenna
(eam
A crude wa$ of determining angular #osition of a target is to move the antenna #ast the
target direction and note the #ointing direction that gives the ma"imum echo am#litude
8nfortunatel$' the estimated a&imuth #osition will
(e effected ($ thermal noise errors and target
fluctuation errors ;scintillation< The target
fluctuation error is due to the cross%section
changing of the target during the time%on%target of
the antenna which gives a distortion of the
envelo#e of the reflected #ulse train
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *7
.igure 3>: +rinci#le of a mono#ulse s$stem
.igure 3*: The antenna is divided into four quadrants
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(ne received echo is sufficientl,-
Mono#ulse gives much (etter target a&imuth measurements than the estimating of the
angular #osition shown in .igure /E It can o#erate at a much lower interrogation rate to
(enefit others in the environment Mono#ulse s$stems usuall$ contain enhanced #rocessing
to give (etter qualit$ target code information A single #ulse is sufficientl$ for mono#ulse
(earing measurement ;hence the use of the term mono#ulse<
The elements in linear antenna arra$ are divided
into two halves These two se#arate antennae
arra$s are #laced s$mmetricall$ in the focal #lane
on each side of the a"is of the radar antenna ;this
often called (oresight a"is< In transmission ;T"<
mode' (oth antennae arra$s will (e fed in #hase
and the radiation #attern is re#resented ($ the ice
(lue area' which is called the R or 4um Pdiagram'
as shown in the .igure 3> as (lue gra#h and (lue
#attern
In rece#tion ;)"< mode an additional receiving wa$
is #ossi(le .rom the received signals of (oth
se#arate antenna arra$s' it is #ossi(le to calculate
+ ;like the transmitted 4um %diagram< and the
difference ,A$' the so called !elta a&imuth%
diagram The antenna #attern is given ($ the red
and green area on the same figure Both signals
are then com#ared as a re#l$ #rocessor function
and their difference is used to estimate the a&imuth
of the target more e"actl$
The angle (etween the a"is of the antenna
;(oresight a"is< and the direction of the target is also known as 6BA%value ;6ff%Boresight
Angle<
The elevation angle is also measured at 3! radars as a third coordinate :ell' the #rocedure
is used twice now 2ere the antenna is derived in addition in an u##er half and a lower half
The second difference channel ;,El< is called I!elta Hlevation now
The Mono#ulse antenna is divided u# into four quadrants now:
The following signals are formed from the received signals of these four quadrants:
4um % signal + S; I ? II ? III ? ID <T
!ifference % signal ,A$ S; I ? ID < % ; II ? III <T
!ifference % signal ,El S; I ? II < % ; III ? ID <T
The
Au"iliar$ 4ignal U
also shall to com#lete the #icture (e mentioned'
although this one isnKt tied to the mono#ulse
antenna This channel to the com#ensation of side
lo(es alwa$s has #racticall$ its own small antenna
and has a ver$ wide antenna diagram and also
serves for the reconnaissance of active -amming
All these signals need an own receiver channel
:ell' modern 3!% radar sets have at least four #arallel receiver% channels
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *1
.igure 3>: At conical scan the antenna traces a cone
#attern around its central a"is 8sed in tracking radars
conical scan with target a&imuth and elevation (eing taken
from the mechanical #osition of the antenna
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Conical )can
4ome older tracking radar uses the conical
scanning #rinci#le
Mou can generate a conical scan #attern' as
shown in figure *' ($ using a rotating feed
driven ($ a motor in the housing at the rear of
the dish The a"is of the radar lo(e is made to
swee# out a cone in s#ace9 the a#e" of this
cone is' of course' at the radar transmitter
antenna or reflector
At an$ given distance from the antenna' the #ath of the lo(e a"is is a circle :ithin the useful
range of the (eam' the inner edge of the lo(e alwa$s overla#s the a"is of scan Low assume
that we use a conicall$ scanned (eam for target tracking If the target is on the scan a"is' the
strength of the reflected signals remains constant ;or changes graduall$ as the range
changes< But if the target is slightl$ off the a"is' the am#litude of the reflected signals will
change at the scan rate .or e"am#le' if the target is to the left of the scan a"is' as shown in
the .igure 3* the reflected signals will (e of ma"imum strength as the lo(e swee#s through
the left #art of its cone9 the signals will quickl$ decrease to a minimum as the lo(e swee#s
through the right #art Information on the instantaneous #osition of the (eam' relative to the
scan a"is' and on the strength of the reflected signals is fed to a com#uter 4uch a com#uter
in the radar s$stem is referred to as the angle%tracking or angle%servo circuit ;also angle%error
detector< If the target moves off the scan a"is' the com#uter instantl$ determines the
direction and amount of antenna movement required to continue tracking The com#uter
out#ut is used to control servomechanisms that move the antenna In this wa$' the target is
tracked accuratel$ and automaticall$
0ommonl$ used conical scan #attern include 0onical 4can on )eceive 6nl$ ;a((reviated to
064)6< in which a conical scan #attern is used while the radar is in receive mode onl$
Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt GA. ;)td< *3
.igure 3*: +rinci#le of conical scan: if the target isn=t in the (oresight direction'
then a ma"imum of (ackscattered #ower will (e received in direction of the
eccentric moving The antenna must follow in this direction now