Im(Z
t
)
1
2fC
i
(1)
Also in the case when the insulator lmis applied, the informa-
tion about the tissue impedance Z
t
can be nevertheless obtained
fromthe estimation of Z
tot
and the knowledge of C
i
.
2.2. Analog front-end
The sensors need to be properly excited and sensor output sig-
nals have to be suitably conditioned before transmission; these
tasks are performed by the electronic circuits implemented in the
Fig. 3. The equivalent model of the impedance sensor when the electrodes are
covered with insulating lms.
V
cc
PPG
R
D
R
C
V
PPG
V
C
C
HP
R
HP
C
LP
R
LP1
R
LP2
OA
C
ST
R
HP
R
ST
Q
Prescaler
C
t
(C
tot
)
ST
V
ST
V
PPG
V
BT
V
Car
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. (a) The polarization and rst conditioning electronics for the PPG sensor. (b)
The impedance measurement and modulation circuits.
analog front-end. The PPGsensor, as illustratedbefore, is composed
of a photodiode and a phototransistor; a simple polarization circuit
is realized by means of the two resistors R
D
and R
C
, as in Fig. 4(a).
The heart beat waveform V
C
from the optical sensor has very low
amplitude and it is rather noisy. The maximumamplitude of V
C
is
on the order of fewmillivolts and it has a DC offset. Altering stage,
composed of a rst order high-pass lter (R
HP
and C
HP
) is used to
remove the DC offset, whereas an amplifying stage, composed of
an active rst order low-pass lter (OA, R
LP1
, R
LP1
, and C
LP
, cut fre-
quency of about 5Hz), has been used to preprocess V
C
, obtaining
the V
PPG
signal.
The circuit dedicated to the tissue impedance estimation, by
means of the implemented electrodes, takes advantage of the fact
that the earlobe impedance can be approximated as a pure capac-
itive component, when the operating frequency is over a certain
value (about 20kHz). This consideration will be better detailed
in Section 3. Therefore, the measurement of Z
t
(or Z
tot
, in case of
insulating lm) merely becomes the estimation of the capacitive
component C
t
(C
tot
), thus a simple rst conditioning electronics can
be implemented. As stated before, a commercial Bluetooth device
able to transmit an audio signal will be used. For that reason, a
single signal in the voice bandwidth carrying both the informa-
tion related to the PPG and impedance sensor need to be provided
to the Transmission unit. In [1], a simple method based on signal
modulation with a constant-frequency and square waveform car-
rier has been used to shift the PPG signal in the audio bandwidth,
thus making it suitable for transmission with the adopted Blue-
tooth device. In this work, a similar approach has been followed;
in fact, information about the tissue capacitance has been coded in
the modulating carrier frequency. In this way, a sort of combina-
tion between a pulse-frequency modulation and pulse-amplitude
modulation is obtained and information related to both sensors is
combined to create a single audio signal.
An oscillator circuit based on a Schmidt Trigger logic gate is
used to generate the tissue-capacitance-dependent square wave-
formV
ST
, as showninFig. 4(b). Theoscillator operates at afrequency
greater than 20kHz, in order to consider valid the aforementioned
approximation of target impedance as a pure capacitive compo-
nent; this frequency value is however out of the useful audio
bandwidth. Thus, V
ST
is not appropriate to be directly used as the
modulation carrier, but it needs to be processed by a Prescaler, to
reducethefrequencyintotheaudioband. Eventually, thePPGsignal
modulation is performed by means of a chopper circuit, consisting
150 A. Depari et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 202 (2013) 147154
of the MOS transistor Q controlled by the square waveform V
Car
.
Resuming, the obtainedsingle signal V
BT
, whichis inthe audio band
and thus can be directly acquired by the Transmission unit, carries
the information about the PPG sensor in the amplitude and data
related to the target capacitance in the frequency.
2.3. Transmission unit
Modernpersonal devices, like smartphones andtablets, are usu-
allyequippedwithdifferent communicationinterfaces, for instance
USB, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. In comparison with other technologies,
Bluetooth has several advantages, such as simple communication
stack, safe communication channel, and availability of low-cost
and low-power devices [19]. For these reasons, Bluetooth is typ-
ically employed to provide communication with add-on devices,
like earphones, headsets, game devices and many more. Lately, a
new release of Bluetooth standard is available, the so called Blue-
tooth Low Energy (BLE) [15], which is also known with the name
Bluetooth Smart. Typically this protocol is adopted for the devel-
opment of sensors network [16], where the power consumption
is one of the main design parameters, like in medical and tness
appliances [17]. Nevertheless, despite its lowpower consumption,
comparable to other very lowpower technology like IEEE 802.15.a
[18], this solution cannot be employed in the proposed approach,
since a prole for the continuous transmission of data streamis not
available. In addition, only high-end devices are equipped with BLE
at present time, limiting its compatibility, which is one of the main
advantages of the proposed approach.
There are several Bluetooth proles available for data as well as
audio communication; however, not all of them are implemented
by the operating systems adopted in smartphones and tablets. For
instance, Android supports some of the proles (data and audio)
provided by the standard, whereas iOS implements other proles
(HFP 1.5, PBAP, A2DP, AVRCP, PAN, HID) not compatible with the
previous ones.
The audio Hands-Free Prole (HFP) has been selected for the
transmission of the sensor signal, because it is supported by the
most of the devices on the market (included Android, iOS sys-
tems and Windows Phone 8) and due to the easy recovery of the
transmitted sensor data at applicationlevel. The Hands-Free Prole
denes how a headset (Hands-Free Unit) can be interfaced with
an audio gateway device (e.g., smartphone, tablet, and more),
for transmitting or receiving audio signals. The monaural audio
channel is transmitted over the Synchronous Connection-Oriented
(SCO) link using Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation
(CVSD) or a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). It should be noted
that only one audio connection per time is supported between
the Hands-Free unit and the audio gateway; if data from multi-
ple sensors need to be transmitted, it is necessary to combine the
information to forma single analog signal.
Among the available commercial devices operating with the
Hands-Free prole, a low-cost earphone, the Essential Headset
fromCellular Line, has been used. The earphone circuit has been
modied by introducing an electronic switch; this allows the user
to select data to transmit to the end-device, that is the sensor sig-
nal provided by the analog front-end or the integrated microphone
signal. Hence, the modied earphone can be used for monitoring
purposes as well as like a traditional earphone. Thus, the proposed
measurement systemcould be easily integrated in headsets avail-
able on the market.
3. Systemexperimental characterization
An HP 4194A impedance analyser has been used to test the tis-
sue impedance estimation feature. In Fig. 5, the magnitude and the
0.00E+00
1.25E+02
2.50E+02
3.75E+02
5.00E+02
20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0
Frequency (Hz)
Z
t
M
a
g
(
k
)
-80
-40
0
20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0
Frequency (Hz)
Z
t
P
h
a
s
e
(
D
e
g
)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5. The magnitude (a) and phase (b) of the earlobe impedance Zt measured
with the proposed sensor (without insulating lm) and acquired with an impedance
analyser.
phase of the earlobe impedance measured with the sensor applied
to a person in normal conditions are shown. In this case, the elec-
trodes have been applied without the insulating lm, therefore the
graphs are related to the actual tissue impedance Z
t
. It should be
noticed that when the frequency increases, the impedance phase
decreases towards 90
Im(Z
t
)
1
2fC
i
= j
1
2fC
t
+
1
2fC
i
= j
1
2fC
tot
(3)
1
C
tot
=
1
C
t
+
1
C
i
(4)
In Fig. 6, the acquisition of Z
tot
performed with the impedance
analyser is shown. It is worth noting that the behaviour starts to
be substantially capacitive at operating frequencies lower than in
the previous case; this is due to the predominance of the capacitive
effect C
i
of the insulator.
In order not to lose sensitivity in the measurement of the target
impedance, it is important to accurately select the material for the
insulator lm; inparticular, estimatedvalues withthe realizedsen-
sor prototype are C
i
10pF and C
t
1pF with operating frequency
of about 100kHz.
A TCZT8020-PAER device produced by Vishay semiconductor
has been adopted as the PPG sensor [20]. The main characteris-
tics are: 950nm beam wavelength, 60mA nominal current and
A. Depari et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 202 (2013) 147154 151
-120
-80
-40
0
20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0
Frequency (Hz)
Z
t
o
t
P
h
a
s
e
(
D
e
g
)
0
40000
80000
120000
160000
20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0
Frequency (Hz)
Z
t
o
t
M
a
g
(
k
)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. The magnitude (a) and phase (b) of the earlobe impedance Ztot measured
with the proposed sensor (with insulating lm) and acquired with an impedance
analyser.
1.25V forward voltage of infrared led, 250A current required
by the phototransistor. A digital scope acquisition of the non-
ltered sensor output (V
C
of Fig. 4(a)) is shown in Fig. 7; the
signal is rather noisy, even though the heart beat is already distin-
guishable. A digital scope acquisition of the obtained PPG ltered
signal (V
PPG
of Fig. 4(a)) is shown in Fig. 8. From V
PPG
, informa-
tion about beat rate, steepness of systole phase, its amplitude
and period, localization of Dicrotic notch and the presence of the
diastole phase can be easily obtained. A low-power operational
amplier (Texas Instruments LM358, with supply current of about
5A, at 3.3V) has been used for the active lter implementa-
tion.
The oscillation frequency of the Schmidt Trigger circuit of
Fig. 4(b) has been tuned between 70kHz and 100kHz, to operate
inside the optimal response bandwidth of the tissue impedance.
The Prescaler has been implemented by using an 8-bit digital
counter, lowering the oscillator output V
ST
frequency of a factor of
256; the nal frequency value is between about 270Hz and 400Hz,
in accordance with the required band for the audio signal to be
transmitted [1]. A detail of V
PPG
and modulated PPG signal (V
BT
of
Fig. 4(b)) is showninFig. 9. For this stage, a 74HC14Schmidt Trigger
integrated circuit and a 74HC393 counter, both fromTexas Instru-
ments and powered at 3.3V, have been used. The modulation is
achieved by a simple 2N7002 N-MOS transistor.
All the components have been selected in order to reduce size
and power consumption, thus obtaining a compact and low-power
device, suitable for battery-powered operations. Globally, the sys-
tem requires less than 45mA at 3.3V, almost equally distributed
betweenthe Bluetoothearphone andthe analog front-end. The ear-
phone battery has a capacity of 50mAh, thus the cycle battery life
of the overall systemis approximately 70min.
To validate the proposed approach and to provide an example
of application for a portable device, a demonstrative App has been
developedfor anAndroidsmartphone. The Apptasks are toacquire,
store, elaborate, and show the sensor signals. Data acquisition is
simplied by the use of the Bluetooth interface functions provided
by the smartphone operating system; then, raw data are saved
as audio les (wave format) in the smartphone memory, for an
optional off-line post elaboration. The processing of data includes
the demodulation of the acquired audio signal, in order to extract
informationof the PPGsignal shape andto the carrier period, which
is related to the tissue impedance. Moreover, a simple evaluation
of the heart beat rate is performed. Obtained data are then visual-
ized on the smartphone screen, as illustrated by a screenshot of the
developed App in Fig. 10.
Fig. 7. Digital scope acquisition of the non-ltered PPG sensor output (V
C
of Fig. 4(a)).
152 A. Depari et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 202 (2013) 147154
Fig. 8. Digital scope acquisition of the ltered PPG sensor output (V
PPG
of Fig. 4(a)).
Inorder tovalidate the elaborationimplementedby the App, the
same operations performed by the smartphone have been repro-
duced in Matlab environment and off-line applied to the stored
data les. Fig. 11 shows a complete acquisition, where the red and
blue lines represent the PPG signal and the period of the carrier
(related to the sensor impedance), respectively. Data acquisition
has been performed before and during a sport activity; varia-
tions of heart beat rate as well as of the tissue impedance can
be recognized, thus demonstrating the validity of the proposed
approach.
Fig. 9. Digital scope acquisition of the ltered (V
PPG
of Fig. 4(a)) and modulated (VBT of Fig. 4(b)) PPG sensor output.
A. Depari et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 202 (2013) 147154 153
Fig. 10. Screenshot of the demo App implemented for an Android smartphone.
Fig. 11. Off-line elaboration of an acquired le during a test of the system.
4. Conclusions
Non-invasive and real-time measurement of physical parame-
ters requires a simple, portable and lowcost systemable to collect
the information without interfering with athletic training. A sys-
tem composed of a Bluetooth earphone equipped with a PPG and
tissue impedance sensors, to be applied on the earlobe of the ath-
lete, has been proposed. Thanks to an effective processing of the
sensor data, an audio signal, suitable to be transmitted with Blue-
tooth earphones operating with the standard Hands-Free prole,
can be obtained. Therefore, a broad range of portable devices, such
as smartphones and tablets, can be used to acquire the sensor sig-
nal, for real-time processing, data visualization, and user interface.
Data obtained from the estimation of the heart beat rate and the
earlobe impedance can be used to provide to the athlete real-time
information concerning the response of the body to the fatigue,
thus allowing themto adjust his activity, avoiding health risks and
to improve his performance. The multi-sensor prototype described
andcharacterizedinthepaper, alongwithademoapplicationfor an
Android smartphone, have demonstrated the feasibility of the pro-
posed approach, monitoring the cardiac signal and the variations
of human tissue impedance due to physical effort.
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Biographies
Alessandro Depari was born in Italy, in 1976. He received the Laurea degree in
Electronics Engineering and the Ph.D. degree in Electronic Instrumentation from
the University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy, in 2002 and 2006, respectively. Since 2007,
he has been an Assistant Professor (Researcher) with the Department of Informa-
tion Engineering, University of Brescia. He is co-author of more than 50 scientic
papers publishedoninternational journals andconferenceproceedings. His research
interests are in the areas of signal conditioning and processing for chemical sensors,
particularly resonant and resistive sensors for articial olfactory systems, the devel-
opment of sensor networks for distributedmeasurement, andthe designof methods
and digital electronic circuits for numeric measurement instrumentation.
154 A. Depari et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 202 (2013) 147154
Alessandra Flammini was born in Brescia, Italy, in 1960. She received the M.Sc.
degree (with honours) in physics fromthe University of Rome, Rome, Italy, in 1985.
From1985 to 1995, she was involved with industrial research and development on
digital drive control. Currently, she is with the Department of Information Engineer-
ing, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy, where she was a Researcher from 1995 to
2002 and has been an Associate Professor since 2002. She teaches several courses
about measurements in industrial environments and digital electronic systems. Her
main research activity includes embedded systems, measurement instrumentation,
sensor signal processing, smart sensors, wired and wireless sensor networking, syn-
chronization and smart grids.
Stefano Rinaldi was born in Seriate, Italy, in 1982. He received the degree with
honours in electronics engineering in 2006 and the Ph.D. degree in electronic
instrumentation in 2010 from the University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy. His main
research activities are focused on performance analysis of industrial network,
wireless sensor network, smart sensors, real-time Ethernet, eldbus applications,
synchronization methods, FPGA SoC design, and Linux-embedded software devel-
opment.
Angelo Vezzoli was born in Chiari in 1983. He graduated in Electronics Engineering
at University of Brescia in 2010 with a thesis titled triassial accelerometer with USB
communication. In 2010 he held research grant at University of Brescia on a project
of development of hybrid network: wired and wireless. Currently, he studies for
Ph.D. course in Electronic Sensors and Instrumentation at University of Brescia. The
main themes of his researches are about smart metering, protocols and systems of
communication on smart metering scenario.