Leonhard Euler

1
Leonhard Euler
"Euler" redirects here. For other uses, see Euler (disambiguation).
Leonhard Euler
Portrait by Jakob Emanuel Handmann (1756)
Born 15 April 1707
Basel, Switzerland
Died 18 September 1783 (aged76)
[OS: 7 September 1783]
Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Residence Kingdom of Prussia, Russian Empire
Switzerland
Fields Mathematics and physics
Institutions Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences
Berlin Academy
Alma mater University of Basel
Doctoral advisor Johann Bernoulli
Doctoral students Nicolas Fuss
Johann Hennert
Stepan Rumovsky
Othernotable students Joseph Louis Lagrange
Knownfor See full list
Signature
Notes
He is the father of the mathematician Johann Euler.
He is listed by an academic genealogy as the equivalent to the doctoral advisor of Joseph Louis Lagrange.
Leonhard Euler (/lr/ OY-lr;
[1]
German pronunciation: [l]( ), local pronunciation:[lr]( ); 15 April 1707
18 September 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made important discoveries in fields as
diverse as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical
terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He
is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, and music theory.
[2]
Euler is considered to be the pre-eminent mathematician of the 18th century and one of the greatest mathematicians
to have ever lived. He is also one of the most prolific mathematicians; his collected works fill 6080 quarto volumes.
He spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, Prussia.
Leonhard Euler
2
A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler,
he is the master of us all."
[3][4]
Life
Early years
Old Swiss 10 Franc banknote honoring Euler
Euler was born on 15 April 1707, in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the
Reformed Church, and Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had
two younger sisters named Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon
after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of
Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a
friend of the Bernoulli familyJohann Bernoulli, who was then
regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be the
most important influence on young Leonhard. Euler's early formal
education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he
enrolled at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received his Master of Philosophy with a dissertation that compared
the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann
Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for mathematics. Euler was at this point studying
theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order to become a pastor, but Bernoulli convinced Paul Euler
that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the
propagation of sound with the title De Sono.
[5]
At that time, he was pursuing an (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to
obtain a position at the University of Basel. In 1727, he first entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition;
the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. Pierre Bouguer, a man who became
known as "the father of naval architecture" won, and Euler took second place. Euler later won this annual prize
twelve times.
St. Petersburg
Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy
of Sciences in St Petersburg. On 10 July 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when
Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in
physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but
delayed making the trip to St Petersburg while he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the
University of Basel.
1957 Soviet Union stamp commemorating the
250th birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 years
from the birth of the great mathematician,
academician Leonhard Euler.
Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was promoted
from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a
position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel
Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close collaboration. Euler
mastered Russian and settled into life in St Petersburg. He also took on
an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy.
The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was
intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap
with Western Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to
foreign scholars like Euler. The academy possessed ample financial
Leonhard Euler
3
resources and a comprehensive library drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very few
students were enrolled in the academy in order to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy emphasized
research and offered to its faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions.
The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the progressive policies of her late husband, died on
the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II.
The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused other difficulties
for Euler and his colleagues.
Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and
was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and
hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department.
On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (17071773), a daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from the
Academy Gymnasium. The young couple bought a house by the Neva River. Of their thirteen children, only five
survived childhood.
Berlin
Stamp of the former German Democratic
Republic honoring Euler on the 200th anniversary
of his death. Across the centre it shows his
polyhedral formula, nowadays written as v e
+ f = 2.
Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St.
Petersburg on 19 June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin Academy,
which he had been offered by Frederick the Great of Prussia. He lived
for twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote over 380 articles. In
Berlin, he published the two works for which he would become most
renowned: The Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions
published in 1748, and the Institutiones calculi differentialis, published
in 1755 on differential calculus. In 1755, he was elected a foreign
member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
In addition, Euler was asked to tutor Friederike Charlotte of
Brandenburg-Schwedt, the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau and Frederick's
niece. Euler wrote over 200 letters to her in the early 1760s, which
were later compiled into a best-selling volume entitled Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy
Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics
and mathematics, as well as offering valuable insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book
became more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and was published across Europe and in the United
States. The popularity of the 'Letters' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay
audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.
Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was
partly because of a conflict of personality with Frederick, who came to regard Euler as unsophisticated, especially in
comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in
Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a prominent position within the king's social circle. Euler, a simple
religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the antithesis
of Voltaire. Euler had limited training in rhetoric, and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him
a frequent target of Voltaire's wit. Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering
abilities:
I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise the
water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in Sanssouci.
My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to
the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry!
Leonhard Euler
4
A 1753 portrait by Emanuel Handmann. This
portrayal suggests problems of the right eyelid,
and possible strabismus. The left eye, which here
appears healthy, was later affected by a cataract.
Eyesight deterioration
Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three
years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735, he became almost blind
in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed the painstaking work on
cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy for his
condition. Euler's vision in that eye worsened throughout his stay in
Germany, to the extent that Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops".
Euler later developed a cataract in his left eye, rendering him almost
totally blind a few weeks after its discovery in 1766.Wikipedia:Please
clarify However, his condition appeared to have little effect on his
productivity, as he compensated for it with his mental calculation skills
and exquisite memory. For example, Euler could repeat the Aeneid of
Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and for every page in
the edition he could indicate which line was the first and which the
last. With the aid of his scribes, Euler's productivity on many areas of
study actually increased. He produced on average, one mathematical
paper every week in the year 1775.
Return to Russia
The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the accession to the throne of Catherine the Great, and in 1766
Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. However,
his second stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A fire in St. Petersburg in 1771 cost him his home, and almost
his life. In 1773, he lost his wife Katharina after 40 years of marriage. Three years after his wife's death, Euler
married her half-sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (17231794). This marriage lasted until his death.
In St. Petersburg on 18 September 1783, after a lunch with his family, during a conversation with a fellow
academician Anders Johan Lexell, about the newly discovered planet Uranus and its orbit, Euler suffered a brain
hemorrhage and died a few hours later. A short obituary for the Russian Academy of Sciences was written by Jacob
von Staehlin-Storcksburg and a more detailed eulogy was written and delivered at a memorial meeting by Russian
mathematician Nicolas Fuss, one of Euler's disciples. In the eulogy written for the French Academy by the French
mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, he commented,
il cessa de calculer et de vivre... he ceased to calculate and to live.
He was buried next to Katharina at the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island. In 1785, the Russian
Academy of Sciences put a marble bust of Leonhard Euler on a pedestal next to the Director's seat and, in 1837,
placed a headstone on Euler's grave. To commemorate the 250th anniversary of Euler's birth, the headstone was
moved in 1956, together with his remains, to the 18th-century necropolis at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.
Euler's grave at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery
Leonhard Euler
5
Contributions to mathematics and physics
Part of a series of articles on the
mathematical constant
e
Properties
Natural logarithm
Exponential function
Applications
compound interest
Euler's identity
Euler's formula
half-lives
exponential growth and decay
Defining e
proof that e is irrational
representations of e
LindemannWeierstrass theorem
People
John Napier
Leonhard Euler
Related topics
Schanuel's conjecture
v
t
e
[6]
Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics, such as geometry, infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and
number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in the
history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60
and 80 quarto volumes. Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics.
Euler is the only mathematician to have two numbers named after him: the important Euler's Number in calculus, e,
approximately equal to 2.71828, and the Euler-Mascheroni Constant (gamma) sometimes referred to as just
"Euler's constant", approximately equal to 0.57721. It is not known whether is rational or irrational.
Leonhard Euler
6
Mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated
textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function
f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for
the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter for summations and the
letter i to denote the imaginary unit. The use of the Greek letter to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its
diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him.
Analysis
The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th Century mathematical research, and the
Bernoullisfamily friends of Eulerwere responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their
influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable
by modern standards of mathematical rigour (in particular his reliance on the principle of the generality of algebra),
his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power
series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as
Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. (Indirect proof via
the inverse power series technique was given by Newton and Leibniz between 1670 and 1680.) His daring use of
power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he provided a more elaborate argument in
1741):
A geometric interpretation of Euler's formula
Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in
analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic
functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms
for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of
mathematical applications of logarithms. He also defined the
exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation
to the trigonometric functions. For any real number (taken to be
radians), Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function
satisfies
A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,
called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard P. Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of
addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and .
In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever". In
total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll.
[]
De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.
In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and
introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex
limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis. He also invented the calculus of variations
including its best-known result, the EulerLagrange equation.
Leonhard Euler
7
Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two
disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground
for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and
the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of
the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are
distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.
Number theory
Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St. Petersburg
Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler
developed some of Fermat's ideas, and disproved some of his conjectures.
Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the
primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime
numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.
Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made
distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function (n), the number of
positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function, he
generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the
theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler also conjectured the law of
quadratic reciprocity. The concept is regarded as a fundamental theorem of number theory, and his ideas paved the
way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss.
By 1772 Euler had proved that 2
31
1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained the largest
known prime until 1867.
[7]
Graph theory
Map of Knigsberg in Euler's time showing the
actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting
the river Pregel and the bridges.
In 1735, Euler presented a solution to the problem known as the Seven
Bridges of Knigsberg. The city of Knigsberg, Prussia was set on the
Pregel River, and included two large islands that were connected to
each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to
decide whether it is possible to follow a path that crosses each bridge
exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not possible: there is
no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem
of graph theory, specifically of planar graph theory.
Euler also discovered the formula VE+F=2 relating the number of
vertices, edges and faces of a convex polyhedron, and hence of a planar
graph. The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler
characteristic for the graph (or other mathematical object), and is
related to the genus of the object. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy and
L'Huillier, is at the origin of topology.
Leonhard Euler
8
Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous
applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, the constants e and ,
continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions,
and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving
the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most
notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the EulerMaclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of
differential equations, in particular introducing the EulerMascheroni constant:
One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the
Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part
of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and
too musical for mathematicians.
Physics and astronomy
Classical
mechanics
Second law of motion
History
Timeline
v
t
e
[8]
Euler helped develop the EulerBernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from
successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to
celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of
his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial
bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed
to the development of accurate longitude tables.
[9]
In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in
the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of
light proposed by Christiaan Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development
of the quantum theory of light.
In 1757 he published an important set of equations for inviscid flow, that are now known as the Euler equations. In
differential form, the equations are:
Leonhard Euler
9
where
is the fluid mass density,
u is the fluid velocity vector, with components u, v, and w,
E = e + ( u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
) is the total energy per unit volume, with e being the internal energy per unit mass
for the fluid,
p is the pressure,
denotes the tensor product, and
0 being the zero vector.
Euler is also well known in structural engineering for his formula giving the critical buckling load of an ideal strut,
which depends only on its length and flexural stiffness:
where
= maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),
= modulus of elasticity,
= area moment of inertia,
= unsupported length of column,
= column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the column, as
follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, = 0.699....
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, = 2.0.
is the effective length of the column.
Leonhard Euler
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Logic
Euler is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768). These diagrams have
become known as Euler diagrams.
Euler's Diagram
An Euler diagram is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and
their relationships. Euler diagrams consist of simple closed curves
(usually circles) in the plane that depict sets. Each Euler curve divides the
plane into two regions or "zones": the interior, which symbolically
represents the elements of the set, and the exterior, which represents all
elements that are not members of the set. The sizes or shapes of the
curves are not important: the significance of the diagram is in how they
overlap. The spatial relationships between the regions bounded by each
curve (overlap, containment or neither) corresponds to set-theoretic
relationships (intersection, subset and disjointness). Curves whose
interior zones do not intersect represent disjoint sets. Two curves whose
interior zones intersect represent sets that have common elements; the
zone inside both curves represents the set of elements common to both sets (the intersection of the sets). A curve that
is contained completely within the interior zone of another represents a subset of it. Euler diagrams were
incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new math movement in the 1960s. Since then, they
have also been adopted by other curriculum fields such as reading.
[10]
Personal philosophy and religious beliefs
Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff.
Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that monadism
and Wolffian science were unable to provide. Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing on his dislike
of the doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's ideas as "heathen and atheistic".
Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an
earlier work, Rettung der Gttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwrfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine
Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers). These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who
believed the Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.
There is a famous legend inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during
Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg academy. The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on
Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's arguments for atheism
were influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman. Diderot was informed
that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was
presented in court. Euler appeared, advanced toward Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction announced this
non-sequitur: "Sir, , hence God existsreply!" Diderot, to whom (says the story) all mathematics was
gibberish, stood dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court. Embarrassed, he asked to leave Russia, a
request that was graciously granted by the Empress. However amusing the anecdote may be, it is apocryphal, given
that Diderot himself did research in mathematics. The legend was apparently first told by Dieudonn Thibault with
significant embellishment by Augustus De Morgan.
Leonhard Euler
11
Commemorations
Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian
postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church
on their Calendar of Saints on 24 Mayhe was a devout Christian (and believer in biblical inerrancy) who wrote
apologetics and argued forcefully against the prominent atheists of his time.
On 15 April 2013, Euler's 306th birthday was celebrated with a Google Doodle.
Selected bibliography
The title page of Euler's Methodus inveniendi
lineas curvas.
Euler has an extensive bibliography. His best-known books include:
Elements of Algebra. This elementary algebra text starts with a
discussion of the nature of numbers and gives a comprehensive
introduction to algebra, including formulae for solutions of
polynomial equations.
Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748). English translation
Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite by John Blanton (Book I,
ISBN 0-387-96824-5, Springer-Verlag 1988; Book II, ISBN
0-387-97132-7, Springer-Verlag 1989).
Two influential textbooks on calculus: Institutiones calculi
differentialis (1755) and Institutionum calculi integralis
(17681770).
Letters to a German Princess (17681772).
Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate
gaudentes, sive solutio problematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu
accepti (1744). The Latin title translates as a method for finding
curved lines enjoying properties of maximum or minimum, or
solution of isoperimetric problems in the broadest accepted
sense.
[11]
A definitive collection of Euler's works, entitled Opera Omnia, has been published since 1911 by the Euler
Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences. A complete chronological list of Euler's works is available at the
following page: The Enestrm Index
[12]
(PDF).
References and notes
[1] The pronunciation is incorrect. "Euler", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, Oxford University Press, 1989 "Euler" (http:/ / www.
merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ Euler), MerriamWebster's Online Dictionary, 2009. "Euler, Leonhard" (http:/ / ahdictionary. com/ word/
search.html?q=Euler,+ Leonhard& submit.x=40& submit. y=16), The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fifth edition,
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2011.
[2] Tentamen novae theoriae musicae ex certissimis harmoniae principiis dilucide expositae, Saint Petersburg, 1739 (http:/ / eulerarchive. maa.
org/ pages/ E033. html).
[3] [3] "Lisez Euler, lisez Euler, c'est notre matre tous."
[4] The quote appeared in Gugliemo Libri's review of a recently published collection of correspondence among eighteenth-century
mathematicians: Gugliemo Libri (January 1846), Book review: "Correspondance mathmatique et physique de quelques clbres gomtres
du XVIIIe sicle, " (Mathematical and physical correspondence of some famous geometers of the eighteenth century, ), Journal des
Savants, page 51. (http:/ / gallica.bnf.fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k57253t/ f52. image. langEN) From page 51: " nous rappellerions que Laplace
lui mme, ne cessait de rpter aux jeunes mathmaticiens ces paroles mmorables que nous avons entendues de sa propre bouche : 'Lisez
Euler, lisez Euler, c'est notre matre tous.' " ( we would recall that Laplace himself, never ceased to repeat to young mathematicians
these memorable words that we heard from his own mouth: 'Read Euler, read Euler, he is our master in everything.)
[5] Euler's Dissertation De Sono : E002. Translated & Annotated by Ian Bruce (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ euler/ e002tr. pdf).
(PDF) . 17centurymaths.com. Retrieved on 14 September 2011.
Leonhard Euler
12
[6] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:E_(mathematical_constant)& action=edit
[7] Caldwell, Chris. The largest known prime by year (http:/ / primes. utm. edu/ notes/ by_year. html)
[8] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Classical_mechanics& action=edit
[9] Youschkevitch, A P; Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 19701990).
[10] Strategies for Reading Comprehension Venn Diagrams (http:/ / www. readingquest. org/ strat/ venn. html)
[11] E65 Methodus... entry at Euler Archives (http:/ / math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ pages/ E065. html). Math.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 14
September 2011.
[12] http:/ / www.math. dartmouth.edu/ ~euler/ docs/ translations/ enestrom/ Enestrom_Index. pdf
Further reading
Lexikon der Naturwissenschaftler, (2000), Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
Bogoliubov, Nikola Nikolaevich; Mikhalov, G. K.; Yushkevich, Adolph Pavlovich (2007). Euler and Modern
Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Ta9bz1wv79AC). Translated by Robert Burns. Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN978-0-88385-564-5.
Bradley, Robert E.; D'Antonio, Lawrence A.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007). Euler at 300: An Appreciation
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tK_KRmTf9nUC). Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN978-0-88385-565-2.
Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica
23 (2): 121166. doi: 10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1006/ hmat. 1996. 0015).
Demidov, S. S. (2005). "Treatise on the differential calculus" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC& pg=PA191). In Grattan-Guinness, Ivor. Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics
16401940 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC). Elsevier. pp.1918.
ISBN978-0-08-045744-4.
Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=uKOVNvGOkhQC). Mathematical Association of America. ISBN978-0-88385-328-3.
Dunham, William (2007). The Genius of Euler: Reflections on his Life and Work (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=A6by_UpQikIC). Mathematical Association of America. ISBN978-0-88385-558-4.
Fraser, Craig G. Leonhard Euler's 1744 book on the calculus of variations (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC& pg=PA168). In Grattan-Guinness 2005, pp.16880
Gladyshev, Georgi P. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's methods and ideas live on in the thermodynamic hierarchical
theory of biological evolution" (http:/ / ceser. in/ ceserp/ index. php/ ijamas/ article/ view/ 1014). International
Journal of Applied Mathematics & Statistics (IJAMAS) 11 (N07). Special Issue on Leonhard Paul Euler's:
Mathematical Topics and Applications (M. T. A.).
Gautschi, Walter (2008). "Leonhard Euler: his life, the man, and his works" (http:/ / www. cs. purdue. edu/
homes/ wxg/ EulerLect. pdf). SIAM Review 50 (1): 333. Bibcode: 2008SIAMR..50....3G (http:/ / adsabs.
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Heimpell, Hermann, Theodor Heuss, Benno Reifenberg (editors). 1956. Die groen Deutschen, volume 2, Berlin:
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Krus, D. J. (November 2001). "Is the normal distribution due to Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions, and
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Nahin, Paul J. (2006). Dr. Euler's Fabulous Formula: Cures Many Mathematical Ills (http:/ / books. google. com/
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du Pasquier, Louis-Gustave (2008). Leonhard Euler And His Friends. Translated by John S.D. Glaus.
CreateSpace. ISBN1-4348-3327-5.
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Reich, Karin. 'Introduction' to analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC& pg=PA181). In
Grattan-Guinness 2005, pp.18190
Richeson, David S. (2011). Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=KUYLhOVkaV4C). Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-12677-7.
Sandifer, C. Edward (2007). The Early Mathematics of Leonhard Euler (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=CvBxLr_0uBQC). Mathematical Association of America. ISBN978-0-88385-559-1.
Sandifer, C. Edward (2007). How Euler Did It (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sohHs7ExOsYC).
Mathematical Association of America. ISBN978-0-88385-563-8.
Simmons, J. (1996). The giant book of scientists: The 100 greatest minds of all time. Sydney: The Book
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Singh, Simon (1997). Fermat's Last Theorem. New York: Fourth Estate. ISBN1-85702-669-1.
Thiele, Rdiger (2005). "The mathematics and science of Leonhard Euler" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=3ZTedZtwYMoC& pg=PA81+ ). In Kinyon, Michael; van Brummelen, Glen. Mathematics and the
Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures. Springer. pp.81140. ISBN978-0-387-25284-1.
"A Tribute to Leohnard Euler 17071783". Mathematics Magazine 56 (5). November 1983.
External links
LeonhardEuler.com (http:/ / www. leonhardeuler. com/ )
Weisstein, Eric W., Euler, Leonhard (17071783) (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ Euler. html)
from ScienceWorld.
Encyclopdia Britannica article (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9033216/ Leonhard-Euler)
Leonhard Euler (http:/ / www. genealogy. ams. org/ id. php?id=38586) at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
How Euler did it (http:/ / www. maa. org/ news/ howeulerdidit. html) contains columns explaining how Euler
solved various problems
Euler Archive (http:/ / www. eulerarchive. org/ )
Leonhard Euler uvres compltes (http:/ / portail. mathdoc. fr/ cgi-bin/ oetoc?id=OE_EULER_1_2)
Gallica-Math
Euler Committee of the Swiss Academy of Sciences (http:/ / www. leonhard-euler. ch/ )
References for Leonhard Euler (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ References/ Euler. html)
Euler Tercentenary 2007 (http:/ / www. euler-2007. ch/ en/ index. htm)
The Euler Society (http:/ / www. eulersociety. org/ )
Euler Family Tree (http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ historica/ family-tree. html)
Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia (http:/ / friedrich. uni-trier. de/ oeuvres/ 20/
219/ )
"Euler 300th anniversary lecture" (http:/ / www. gresham. ac. uk/ event. asp?PageId=45& EventId=518), given
by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 9 May 2007 (can download as video or audio files)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Leonhard Euler" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/
Biographies/ Euler. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
Euler Quartic Conjecture (http:/ / euler413. narod. ru/ )
Article Sources and Contributors
14
Article Sources and Contributors
Leonhard Euler Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616958736 Contributors: 16@r, 2001:db8, 42moxies, 4twenty42o, 90 Auto, A Man In Black, A Novick, A. di M.,
A.amitkumar, AED, AHMartin, Abel Cavai, Abhijitsathe, Abrech, Adashiel, Adiano137, AdultSwim, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajraddatz, Akerchner, Akriasas, Aktron, Al tally, Alan Liefting,
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Andy M. Wang, Aniten21, Anomalocaris, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Aprock, Aquatics, Arbor to SJ, ArchonMagnus, Argo Navis, Arjun01, Arthur Rubin, Arundhati
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Bjarmason, crasez l'infme, dipus sic, , ., , , 1512 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Leonhard Euler 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Funck77, Haham hanuka, Herbythyme,
Plindenbaum, Rd232, Serge Lachinov, Shakko, Soerfm, 9 anonymous edits
File:Euler's signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler's_signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: derivative work: Pbroks13 (talk)
Euler's_signature.png: Leonhard Euler
File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Jianhui67, Mobius, Tehdog, 3
anonymous edits
Image:Euler-10 Swiss Franc banknote (front).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler-10_Swiss_Franc_banknote_(front).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Pascal.Tesson
Image:Euler-USSR-1957-stamp.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler-USSR-1957-stamp.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Butko, Pascal.Tesson, 2
anonymous edits
Image:Euler GDR stamp.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler_GDR_stamp.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Deutsche Post der DDR
Image:Leonhard Euler.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonhard_Euler.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Wars
Image:Euler Grave at Alexander Nevsky Monastry.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler_Grave_at_Alexander_Nevsky_Monastry.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Berteun, IgorMagic, Kaganer, Knakts, Man vyi, Mikkalai, Soerfm, Verica Atrebatum, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Euler's formula.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler's_formula.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Originally created by gunther
using xfig, recreated in Inkscape by Wereon, italics fixed by lasindi.
Image:Konigsberg bridges.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Konigsberg_bridges.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bogdan Giuc
File:Euler Diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Euler_Diagram.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Stannered
Image:Methodus inveniendi - Leonhard Euler - 1744.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Methodus_inveniendi_-_Leonhard_Euler_-_1744.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Unknown, assumed that Euler himself didn't draw this.
License
15
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/