__________

*Corresponding author Email: danielzandonadi@cnph.embrapa.br 73

www.journal-ijeser.com
ISSN: 0976-3708 (print)
IJESER Vol 3(2):73-84, 2012
International Journal of Environmental Science and
Engineering Research (IJESER)
Vermicompost humic
substances: technology
for converting pollution
into plant growth
regulators
Daniel Baslio Zandonadi
1*
, Jader Galba Busato
2

1
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuria
(Embrapa), Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Hortalias,
Rodovia Braslia/Anpolis BR 060, Km 09, 70359-970,
Braslia, DF, Brazil
2
Faculdade de Agronomia e Veterinria,
Universidade de Braslia, 70910-900
Braslia, DF, Brazil


ABSTRACT

The current global increase in human population represents an important environmental challenge with
accompanying demand for consumption of food and goods which in turn results in the generation of tons of wastes.
Food production to meet the need of this teeming populace on one hand, and reduction of ecological footprint on the
other, represent two sides of the same coin that are hard to confront simultaneously. The use of non-renewable
sources of nutrients and oil-based energy in the production of fertilizers, which are used to enhance production,
does not promote sustainable development, since it affects global food security and increases entropy. It has
therefore become necessary to employ alternative ways that improve productivity without causing environment
degradation. The conversion of organic waste into fertilizers through vermicomposting (or earthworm composting)
is one of such alternatives. The use of vermicomposting and its products represents a crucial ecofriendly technology
capable of recycling organic wastes to be used as fertilizers. Through its hormone-like substances, vermicompost,
liquid humus or worm bed leachate stimulates plant growth. Additionally, manipulation of microbial population
present in vermicompost and its products may increase both nutrient content and availability.

Keywords: Organic matter, humus, proton pumps, fertilizer, recycling




1.0 INTRODUCTION

The use of industrially synthetized chemical fertilizer
has been increasing worldwide (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, FAO, 2011a).The
FAO Food Price Index has been increasing since 2002
from 89.9 to 233.3 in 2011, with strong upward
movement since 2010. Although this practice could
increase plant production initially on one hand; it
presents both economic and ecological problems on the
other, which are often difficult to face, particularly in
developing countries (Novotny et al., 2011; Sun et al.,
2012; Sutton et al., 2011). In Brazil, for example,
despite the country`s leadership in many agriculture
sectors, it imports at least 75% of nitrogen, 50% of
phosphorus and 90% of potassium as fertilizers
(Secretariat for Economic Monitoring, Seae, Finance
ministry, 2011). Most of these fertilizers (as
superphosphates and potassium chloride) are produced
using non-renewable resources, with future possibility
of exhaustion of their natural sources. Dumping
millions of tons of high soluble industrial fertilizers
results in excessive nutrient loads on soil threatening
environment, since it causes increase of salinity,
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators
International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER)

eutrophication of underground waters, flux of
greenhouse gases, and depletion of stratospheric ozone
(Hoben et al., 2011; Novotny, 2011).

There are alternatives to reduce fossil energy
synthetic fertilizer inputs in modern agriculture
(Arteaga et al., 2007; Ceotto, 2005; Gutirrez
et al., 2011; Yadav and Garg, 2011). One of such
alternative is the application of organic composts from
manure. In this respect, earthworm compost (also
called vermicompost), animal manure, and domestic
and agriculture organic waste are powerful source of
natural fertilizers (Arteaga et al., 2007; Busato
2012; Gutirrez-Micelli et al., 2011
Fernndez, 2007). This helps to increase soil organic
matter content, which results in (i) nutrients recycling,
(ii) improvement of physical condition of soils, such as
more stable aggregates and higher water holding, (iii)
suitable chemical features such as enhancement of
cation exchange capacity and nutrient availability.
Humic substances are the major components of
stabilized organic matter and are widely spread in
terrestrial and aquatic environments (Stevenson, 1994),
with several functions on ecological systems (Steinberg
et al., 2006).

In agriculture, the benefits of humic substances are far
beyond the improvement of soil`s physical
features. They are known to act as plant growth
regulators with the ability to control seed germination,
root initiation, development and nutrient uptake, plant
height, photosynthesis and energy metabolism. Indeed
these substances have been found to affect many
enzymes activity and regulate gene expression
(Albuzio et al., 1989; Arancon et al., 2003; Canellas
al., 2002; Dell' Agnola and Nardi, 1987; Pinton
1999; Quaggiotti et al., 2004; Trevisan
Vaughan, 1974; Zandonadi et al., 2007).

Although organic wastes are potentially fertilizers
intrinsically, they are often misplaced contributing to
degradation of ecological system (Novotny
Sun et al., 2012; Sutton et al., 2011). In fact, proper
destination of the increasing waste production around
the planet is one of the challenges identified by United
Nation program on environment (UNEP, 2010).
Inappropriate disposal of solid waste is serious
environmental problem, and this is further aggravated
by the fact that only few countries
adopted separated garbage collection (UN, 2009), thus
contributing to both economic and ecological ha

In some cases the organic waste portion accounts for
over 50% of the total waste generated from municipal
waste, which when properly treated could be used as
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (201
International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER)
eutrophication of underground waters, flux of
greenhouse gases, and depletion of stratospheric ozone
fossil energy-derived
synthetic fertilizer inputs in modern agriculture
., 2007; Ceotto, 2005; Gutirrez-Micelli
, 2011; Yadav and Garg, 2011). One of such
alternative is the application of organic composts from
earthworm compost (also
called vermicompost), animal manure, and domestic
and agriculture organic waste are powerful source of
., 2007; Busato et al.,
., 2011; Ortega and
s helps to increase soil organic
matter content, which results in (i) nutrients recycling,
(ii) improvement of physical condition of soils, such as
more stable aggregates and higher water holding, (iii)
suitable chemical features such as enhancement of
ion exchange capacity and nutrient availability.
Humic substances are the major components of
stabilized organic matter and are widely spread in
terrestrial and aquatic environments (Stevenson, 1994),
with several functions on ecological systems (Steinberg
In agriculture, the benefits of humic substances are far
beyond the improvement of soil`s physical-chemical
features. They are known to act as plant growth
regulators with the ability to control seed germination,
ment and nutrient uptake, plant
height, photosynthesis and energy metabolism. Indeed
these substances have been found to affect many
enzymes activity and regulate gene expression
., 2003; Canellas et
ola and Nardi, 1987; Pinton et al.,
., 2004; Trevisan et al., 2011;
, 2007).
Although organic wastes are potentially fertilizers
intrinsically, they are often misplaced contributing to
cological system (Novotny et al., 2010;
, 2011). In fact, proper
destination of the increasing waste production around
the planet is one of the challenges identified by United
Nation program on environment (UNEP, 2010).
Inappropriate disposal of solid waste is serious
environmental problem, and this is further aggravated
have officially
separated garbage collection (UN, 2009), thus
contributing to both economic and ecological harms.
portion accounts for
over 50% of the total waste generated from municipal
waste, which when properly treated could be used as
fertilizers. Agriculture sector alone produces more than
160 million tons of waste which is
(OECD, 2008).

Accordingly, farming pollution has been affecting the
environment and human health negatively (Aneja
2008).

Figure 1: Plant growth measurements.
(v:v) worm-bed leachatefrom vegetable waste (gray
control treatments (white bars). Six days after germinated,
lettuce seedlings were treated or not with 10% worm
leachate for one week. Data represent means from
representative experiment of three independent experiments
standard deviation (n=12 in each experiment).
designated with asterisks indicate a significant difference
with respect to the control at P<0.01 (**) and
test).

Human activity seems to be unsustainable since it
requires more than the total of all natural
earth (Imhoff et al., 2004; Lovelock, 2003).
area of land required to sustain
known as ecological footprint, which reflects the
impact on the earth of resource use, generation of
waste and the use of services prov
den Bergh and Verbruggen, 1999).
of agriculture for instance may result in a shift of the
low-entropy input (Georgescu-Roegen, 1999).

The services of ecological systems are critical to the
functioning of the life and are economically estimated
to be in the range of US $ 16
(Costanza et al., 1997). Carbon sequestration by plants
and soil, natural biological control of pests and weed
and soil conservation are examples of ecosystems
services that ensure food production. Nevertheless,
/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

74
fertilizers. Agriculture sector alone produces more than
160 million tons of waste which is not properly used
Accordingly, farming pollution has been affecting the
environment and human health negatively (Aneja et al.,

Plant growth measurements. Effect of 10%
bed leachatefrom vegetable waste (gray bars) and
control treatments (white bars). Six days after germinated,
lettuce seedlings were treated or not with 10% worm-bed
leachate for one week. Data represent means from
representative experiment of three independent experiments
=12 in each experiment). Columns
indicate a significant difference
<0.01 (**) andP<0.001(***)(t
Human activity seems to be unsustainable since it
requires more than the total of all natural resources of
, 2004; Lovelock, 2003). The total
human activities is
known as ecological footprint, which reflects the
impact on the earth of resource use, generation of
waste and the use of services provided by nature (van
High mechanization
for instance may result in a shift of the
Roegen, 1999).
The services of ecological systems are critical to the
d are economically estimated
54 trillion per year
(Costanza et al., 1997). Carbon sequestration by plants
and soil, natural biological control of pests and weed
and soil conservation are examples of ecosystems
sure food production. Nevertheless,
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER) 75

these services remain undervalued in the current
agriculture practices. One of the eco-technologies that
are neglected nowadays is the earthworm composting
(or vermicomposting). Earthworms are able to restore
ecosystem services such as soil fertility, nutrient
cycling, water infiltration, and physical conditions
(Boyer and Wratten, 2010; Snyder and Hendrix, 2008),
ensuring a genuine sustainable agriculture. Due to its
eco-friendly characteristic vermicomposting is
beneficial for agricultural land management through
reduction of erosion, salinity and drought problems. In
addition, it enhances both humic substances content in
soil and improves plant yield. The role of
vermicomposting in addressing the challenge of the
growing human population and its associated
environmental problems is underscored by the fact that
the technology supports both food production and
organic waste management. Changing the view of what
is perceived as waste is perhaps a difficult task to
accomplish, but there is no better time to start than
now.

2.0 POLLUTANTS OR FERTILIZERS?

Over the years, the biochemical equilibrium in natural
environment conditions has been disturbed by
agriculture, industrial and urban activities prompting
scientists caution on the threat of increased flux of
nutrients in the environment (Bakelaar and Odum,
1978; Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Singh and Sekhon,
1979; Tilman et al., 2001). The degree of waste
generation vary by sector with construction,
manufacturing, and municipal waste representing the
bigger source of waste worldwide while agriculture
sector is the fifth waste producer(~160 million
tons)(OECD, 2008). When not disposed in a proper
manner, the organic part of waste produced by all these
sectors contributes to ecological system degradation
due to bioaccumulation of xenobiotic sand nutrient
loads that cause eutrophication (Steinberg et al., 2006;
Sutton et al., 2011). Also, environmental pollution
caused by mismanagements in rural areas is an
increasing problem not only in developing countries
but also in North America and Europe (FAO, 2010). In
2009 world nutrients consumption reached 105 million
tons of Nitrogen Fertilizers (N total nutrients); 38
million tonnes of Phosphate Fertilizers (P
2
O
5
total
nutrients) and 21 million tonnes of Potash Fertilizers
(K
2
O total nutrients) (FAO, 2011b).

Despite these astonishing values, the extent of
pollution caused by fertilizers in agriculture has not
been focused appropriately. Asian countries such as
China and India dump more than 70 million tonnes of
fertilizer as N, P
2
O
5
and K
2
O per year (FAO, 2011b).
In Latin America, Brazil merges as a great consumer of
the highly soluble NPK fertilizers thus compromising
sustainable agricultural practice (Leonardos, 2000;
Seae, 2011).

The overload of nutrients such as nitrogen harms the
environment and the economy: In Europe, the excess of
nitrogen dumped on environment costs the European
Union around 70-320 billion per year (Sutton et al.,
2011). In addition, the use of chemical fertilizer has
been substituting animal manure, resulting in
inappropriate dumping of animal manure rich in
nutrients (Edwards and Daniel, 1992; Novotny et al.,
2010; Sun et al., 2012; Sutton et al., 2011). In China
among the causes of pollution are the excessive inputs
of synthetic fertilizers and the rapid expansion of
intensive livestock with inappropriate waste
management (Sun et al., 2012). The demand for
nitrogen, phosphate and potash fertilizers has been
growing in the last years and is expected to grow
annually until 2014 (FAO, 2010). Since food
production and use of fertilizer are tightly linked in the
current agriculture, the projected demand and supply
for fertilizer confirm the future problems both farmers
and consumers will continues to face, particularly with
respect to price of fertilizers. The volatility in
agricultural markets revealed between 2006-2007
resulted in record prices and may continuously threaten
food security.

The population growth and its reflection on industry,
urban and rural space led to a rational and obvious
thinking towards recycling of organic wastes. The
enormous amounts of organic waste derived from these
sectors need to be recycled. Among the alternatives
available, the use of earthworms emerges as a viable
technology, because it allows for recycling several
types of waste into high desirable organic products for
agriculture purpose (Arancon et al., 2003; Arteaga et
al., 2007; Atiyeh et al., 2001; Edwards, 1988;
Edwards, 2004; Garca et al., 2012; Gutirrez-Micelli
et al., 2008; Gutirrez-Micelli et al., 2011; Ortega e
Fernadz, 2007; Yadav et al., 2010; Yadav and Garg,
2011).

Earthworms have long been recognized as ecologically
important for soils management and plant growth
(Edwards, 2004), as farm households use
vermicomposting for decades. This process has been
revisited as an innovative technology through its by-
products such as leachates (Gutirrez-Miceli et al.,
2011). Although this approach has the potential to
confront important environmental problem, it appears
that solving the problems of both pollution from
agricultural sources is still not a priority for some
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International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER) 76

governments. Nevertheless, the use of managed
organic wastes as a replacement for chemical fertilizers
should take place naturally worldwide, since it is
arising as a realistic economic and ecological
alternative for food production.

3.0 THROUGH THE ACTION OF WORMS

Vermicomposting is a viable technology for converting
waste into organic fertilizers (Gutirrez-Miceli et al.,
2011; Yadav and Garg, 2011) endowed with hormone-
like substances (Canellas et al., 2002; DellAgnola and
Nardi, 1987; Muscolo et al., 1998; Zandonadi et al.,
2007; Zandonadi et al., 2010). The chemical
characteristics of vermicompost and its products may
vary in a significant range, depending upon its initial
substrate source (such as manure from cow, chicken,
pig and sheep, or food waste):19.5-51.7% of organic
carbon, 1.3-5.8% of total nitrogen, 0.4-4.5% of total
phosphorous, 0.4-9.2% of total potassium, 5.3-8.6 pH
and 0.12-4.5 dS/m electrical conductivity (Atiyeh et
al., 2000; 2002a; Gutirrez-Miceli et al., 2011; Len-
Anzueto et al., 2001;Yadav and Garg, 2011). Despite
the variation observed, overall the positive effects on
plant growth development are significant. For instance,
earthworm-processed pig manure was reported to have
positive effects on growth and yields of tomato when
mixed with a commercial medium (Atiyeh et al., 2001,
2002b). It has also been reported that combinations of
vermicompost with liquid fertilizers enhanced nitrogen
uptake by tomato plants, showing the potential of
vermicompost as a component of horticultural
bedding(Atiyeh et al., 2001).Vermicompost from
sheep-manure also serve as a soil supplement
increasing tomato yields (Gutirrez-Miceli et al.,
2007).

Strawberries grown in soils treated with 5 or 10 t/ha
food waste and paper waste vermicomposts, showed
enhancement of growth and yield compared to
inorganic fertilizer as control(Arancon et al., 2003).
Atiyeh et al. (2002b) showed that humic acids
extracted from pig manure and food waste
vermicomposts increased tomato and cucumber growth
up to 500 mg of humate per kg. The authors suggested
that plant growth regulators in vermicompost might be
responsible for some of the effects reported. Similar to
hormone action, depending upon the concentration
used, the vermicompost products can inhibit plant
growth. According to Bachman and Metzger (2008),
marigold, tomato, green pepper, and cornower growth
increases by up to 40% when treated with
vermicompost of pig manure. Interestingly, the
increased vigor exhibited was also maintained even
after plants were transplanted into containers without
vermicompost.
Besides the earthworm compost, its leachate drained
during vermicomposting process is a remarkable
natural plant growth promoter due its biochemical
characteristics, which include humic substances
(Figure 1). Leachate from earthworm castings, also
called worm-bed leachate is a by-product yet not fully
studied. Earthworm castings leachate is able to breaks
seed dormancy and stimulates radical growth of jute
(Ayanlaja et al., 2001). The percentage germination of
jute seeds were almost 2-fold higher in the presence of
Hyperiodrilus africanus leachate, and the radical length
growth was enhanced 2.7 times. Gutirrez-Miceli et al.
(2008) also found that vermicompost leachate
stimulates plant development. It was shown that a
formulated liquid fertilizer based on leachate improved
sorghum growth. Leachates from vermicomposting
processes might be exploited as foliar fertilizer for
strawberry (Singh et al., 2008).The authors have
sprayed three leachates collected from
vermicomposting of cow dung, vegetable waste and
mixture of cow dung and vegetable waste at 2 ml
improving marketable fruit yield in 26.5%. Oliva-
Llaven et al. (2010) showed that leachate 20% (v:v)
spray from cow manure vermicompost added with
Glomusfasciculatum and Pseudomonas fluorescens
affected stem diameter, and the soluble solids and pH
of the tomato fruits. Len-Anzueto et al. (2011)
reported that microorganism enrichment
(Glomusmosseae) of similar worm-bed leachate used
by Llaven et al. (2010) had no effect on lemongrass
yield. Nevertheless, leachate increased the essential oil
content, myrcene and shoot dry weigh of lemongrass
leaves. Recently, Gutirrez-Miceli et al.(2011) showed
that vermicompost and worm bed leachate obtained
from sheep manure are valuable fertilizers for organic
radish (Raphanussativus) production.

The authors investigated the effect of different
concentrations of vermicompost and its leachate on
many growth parameters of R. sativus and concluded
that 10% to 15% seems to be the optimum
concentration range to be used. Lettuce seedlings
treated with vegetable worm-bed leachate at 10% (v:v)
enhances primary root length, lateral root length, lateral
root number, root area and leaf area (Figure 1 and
Figure 2). The leachate utilized seems to act similar to
humic substances isolated from vermicompost
endowed with auxin molecules (Canellas et al., 2002;
Rodda et al., 2006; Zandonadi et al., 2007; Zandonadi
et al., 2010). As mentioned before, despite of
differences in both initial substrate and chemical
characteristics, earthworm process improves quality of
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators
International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER)

different organic waste, resulting in increased yield of
various plants types and recycling of
not verified whether leachate from the worms
phytohormones or biochemically active substances
capable of stimulating plant growth directly.
Nevertheless, there is a possible role of humic
substances present in the leachates as plant growth
regulators. Once this is confirmed, it would be
interesting to understand the mechanisms associated
with plant growth stimulated by worm
Due to the great potential of vermicomposting and its
derived-products on plant development, more works on
this technology is required.

4.0 VERMICOMPOST-DERIVED SUBSTANCES
MODIFY PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY

Knowledge on the growth regulating effect of humus
dates back to the discovery of Darwin in which he
described, the manner in which hypocotyl and other
organs break through the ground by being
the dark-coloured vegetable mould and
acids produced by earthworms
observed by Darwin (1880, 1881).
Darwin observed both the action of endogenous plant
hormone auxin during seedling growth and

Figure 2: Vermicompost and its by-products enhance plant growth.
Earthworms process organic wastes from vegetables. Through earthworm composting, two main products are generated:
vermicompost and leachate or liquid humus. The leachate is drained during the process
humus may be obtained by alkaline extraction or water extraction as farm holders are used to do, especially organic farmers.
worm-bed leachate and liquid humus are enriched with humic substances, phytohormones and n
regulate plant growth. The growth measurements of the lettuce seedlings treated with the worm
and the control (plant on the left) it is shown in Figure 1.
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (201
International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER)
different organic waste, resulting in increased yield of
various plants types and recycling of waste. It is still
not verified whether leachate from the worms contains
or biochemically active substances
timulating plant growth directly.
Nevertheless, there is a possible role of humic
substances present in the leachates as plant growth
this is confirmed, it would be
interesting to understand the mechanisms associated
mulated by worm-bed leachates.
Due to the great potential of vermicomposting and its
products on plant development, more works on
DERIVED SUBSTANCES
MODIFY PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY
regulating effect of humus
dates back to the discovery of Darwin in which he
the manner in which hypocotyl and other
organs break through the ground by being arched and
mould and the humus-
were detailed
observed by Darwin (1880, 1881). Interestingly,
Darwin observed both the action of endogenous plant
hormone auxin during seedling growth and the effect
of the environmental produced
derived from natural earthworm com
between the hormone-like effect of earthworm casts
and the power of movements in plants were
established by the next century (DellAgnola and
Nardi, 1987; Nielson, 1965; Tomati
Despite the substantial data on effects
plant hormones, external signals of environment were
previously described as plant growth regulators
(Bottmoley, 1917).

In fact, even before Frits Went (1926) classifies auxin
as a phytohormone, Bottmoley had coined the word
auximones, derived from the Greek prefix
means growth) to name humic acids capable of
improving plant growth. Although there is progress in
understanding the mode of action of the many
phytohormones, there are still relatively few studies on
natural environmental-derived humic substances.
Plants sense and respond to endogenous and
environmental signals to ensure optimal growth and
development using hormones as chemical messengers
(Swarup et al. 2002). Auxins are hormones involved in
several plant phenomena, such as cell elongation and
rooting. Plants have a complex perception system for
environmental changes.

products enhance plant growth.
Earthworms process organic wastes from vegetables. Through earthworm composting, two main products are generated:
vermicompost and leachate or liquid humus. The leachate is drained during the process without human interference. Liquid
humus may be obtained by alkaline extraction or water extraction as farm holders are used to do, especially organic farmers.
bed leachate and liquid humus are enriched with humic substances, phytohormones and nutrients capable to enhance and
regulate plant growth. The growth measurements of the lettuce seedlings treated with the worm-bed leachate (plant on the right)
and the control (plant on the left) it is shown in Figure 1.
/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

77
humic substances
derived from natural earthworm composting. The link
like effect of earthworm casts
and the power of movements in plants were
established by the next century (DellAgnola and
Nardi, 1987; Nielson, 1965; Tomati et al., 1988).
on effects of endogenous
plant hormones, external signals of environment were
previously described as plant growth regulators
In fact, even before Frits Went (1926) classifies auxin
as a phytohormone, Bottmoley had coined the word
, derived from the Greek prefix aux (which
means growth) to name humic acids capable of
improving plant growth. Although there is progress in
understanding the mode of action of the many known
, there are still relatively few studies on
derived humic substances.
Plants sense and respond to endogenous and
environmental signals to ensure optimal growth and
pment using hormones as chemical messengers
. 2002). Auxins are hormones involved in
several plant phenomena, such as cell elongation and
Plants have a complex perception system for

Earthworms process organic wastes from vegetables. Through earthworm composting, two main products are generated:
without human interference. Liquid
humus may be obtained by alkaline extraction or water extraction as farm holders are used to do, especially organic farmers. Both
utrients capable to enhance and
bed leachate (plant on the right)
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER) 78

Among several plant responses, root development,
mainly lateral root growth, has been successfully
utilized as marker for environmental effects on plant
(Malamy and Ryan, 2001).In order to react to the
constant environmental changes and at the same time
keep ideal metabolic condition for development, plants
need to tightly regulate the interaction of plant proton
pumps (Gaxiola et al., 2007).

Humic substances are the major components of
stabilized organic matter, widely spread in terrestrial
and aquatic environments (Stevenson, 1994) with
several functions on ecological systems (Steinberg et
al., 2006). Although several studies and
experimentation with these carbon-rich substances
exist, only recently is there some understanding on the
structure of humic substances (Piccolo, 2002; Sutton
and Sposito, 2005). They comprise molecular
structures relatively small where molecules are held
together by weak interaction forces, resulting in
supramolecular structure (Piccolo and Conte, 1999,
Piccolo, 2002). It is suggested that some components
of soil solution, such as organic acids may break this
supramolecular structure releasing several compounds
(Conte et al., 2007).The role of humic substances is
sustaining life arises from their importance in organic
carbon biochemistry and influence on atmospheric
CO
2
, pollutants fate, and both plant and
microorganisms growth (Piccolo, 1996; Piccolo et al.
2004; Steinberg et al., 2006).

The relationship between plant survival and auxin
content as well as organic matter in certain
environments is of great importance (ODonnell, 1973;
Whitehead, 1963). This was demonstrated by several
research groups over the last three decades based on
the hormonal activity of humic substances in plants
(Canellas et al., 2002; Muscolo et al., 2007; Vaughan e
Malcolm, 1985; Mora et al., 2012; Zandonadi et al.,
2007; Zandonadi et al., 2010). Both root initiation and
expansion (ODonnell, 1973; Schnitzer e Poapst, 1967;
Vaughan, 1974), typical characteristics controlled by
auxins, were reported to be influenced by humic
substances as well.

Reports about the effects of humic substances on plant
cell division and expansion (Schnitzer and Poapst,
1967; Vaughan, 1974) and the emerging plant acid
growth theory related to auxin action (Hager et al.,
1971; Rayle and Cleland, 1970) were released
simultaneously. Similarly to auxin effects observed
earlier (Fras et al., 1996), humic substances affect
enzyme activity, protein expression (Canellas et al.,
2002; Faanha et al., 2002;) and mRNA levels
(Quaggiotti et al., 2004; Elena et al., 2009) of plasma
membrane proton ATPase (PM H
+
-ATPase).This
enzyme plays a crucial role on nutrient uptake and root
growth, as confirmed by its abundance in root tissue
(for a complete review, see Palmgren, 2001).

The acid growth theory mechanism based on IAA-
induced cell wall loosening is also related to the H
+
-
ATPase activation and the consequent decrease of
apoplastic pH (Hager, 2003). It has been proposed that
humic substances enhance root growth, in a way
similar to auxin by modulating not only the plasma
membrane (Canellas et al. 2002; Quaggiotti et al.,
2004) but also the tonoplast proton pumps (Zandonadi
et al., 2007). A complementary view of the acid growth
mechanism was suggested in which a concerted
activation of the plasma membrane and tonoplastproton
pumps plays a key role in the root cell expansion
process mediated by environment-derived molecules
endowed with auxinic activity, such as that exhibited
by humic substances (Zandonadi et al., 2007).

Due to the chemical complexity of humic substances
and the intricate hormonal interaction during plant
development, it is difficult to establish specifically how
much of the activity observed is due to auxin only or
interactions with other plant signals (Zandonadi et al.,
2010; Mora et al., 2012). In spite of this uncertainty,
the plant proton pumps regulation seems to be a well
established parameter related to plant root development
(Gaxiola et al., 2007; Li et al., 2005; Zandonadi et al.,
2007) and nutrients uptake (Pinton et al., 1999;
Varanini et al., 1993; Yang et al., 2007). These
enzymes are the key for understanding of both
endogenous phyto hormones and environmental humic
substances activity during plant growth.

5.0 VERMICOMPOST BIOENGINEERING

Associated with traditional processes for recycling of
organic waste through composting and
vermicomposting, there is the possibility of enrichment
of these materials by the addition of specific
microorganisms and low soluble mineral materials,
transforming the initial organic residues in an excellent
product for sustainable crop yield improvement.
Although organic matter possesses high and diverse
populations of native microorganisms, many works
have shown that modifying this microbial community
can improve the quality of the organic fertilizers
(Padmavathiamma et al., 2008). Nitrogen fixing and
phosphate solubilizing bacteria have been successfully
tested and are considered as prospective bio-fertilizers,
increasing the availability of nutrients and the
production of plant growth substances. Among the
bacteria used for this purpose are Pseudomonas,
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER) 79

Bacillus, Rhizobium, Burkholderia, Achromobacter,
Agrobacterium, Rhizobium, Microccocus, Aereobacter,
Herbaspirillum, Azobacter, Flavobacterium and
Erwinia(Aslantas et al., 2007; Busato et al., 2012;
Rodrigues and Fraga, 1999; Rodriguez et al., 2000;
Verma et al., 2001;Yu et al., 2012).

The use of phosphate associated with organic matter
recycled by vermicomposting process and
microorganisms is especially important in tropical
regions, where the weathering stage of soils favor the
transformation of soluble phosphate in others
phosphate forms that may be inaccessible for plants.
This phenomenon has been known for many decades
and is mainly caused by strong sorption of phosphate to
Al-and Fe-hydroxides and oxides. As a consequence,
large amounts of soluble phosphate fertilizers have
been applied to soils to increase the levels of
phosphate. Phosphorus is mostly obtained from mined
rock phosphate (RP) which is transformed in soluble
fertilizers by the use of sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
However, due to high demand and the fact that RP is a
non-renewable resource, it is possible that phosphate
reserves could be exhausted in few decades (Cordell et
al., 2009). Microbial activity and biochemical
substances formed during the stabilization of organic
matter not eliminate the dependence for RP. However,
organic matter decomposition can increase the
availability of RP without the use of strong industrial
acids as well as reduce the amount applied on soils.

The combined use of organic wastes, earthworms and
microorganisms may increase the availability of soil
phosphorous due to: reduction of the strong bond
energy between the phosphate and the oxidic matrix of
soils by mechanisms such as the coating of the oxides
surface, reducing the attraction of phosphate (Afif et
al., 1995; Schwertmann et al., 1986) and production of
organic acids and enzymes (Albrecht et al., 2010;
Dalton et al., 1952; Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1977; Le
Bayon and Binet, 2006; Kumar and Narula, 1999;
Pramanik et al., 2007; Quiquampoix and Mousain,
2005; Scervino et al., 2010). Vermicomposting is an
efficient vehicle and support medium, allowing a
significant survival of microorganisms used in the
process (Busato et al., 2012; Gutirrez-Miceli et al.,
2008). Therefore this technology may benefit the
development of new low-cost fertilizers that may
reduce the use of RP, thus increasing the lifetime of the
reserves of phosphorous.

The vast majority of RP is ineffective in releasing
sufficient P when applied to soils (Kpomblekou and
Tabatabai, 2003). The use of strong acids is therefore
required to increase the solubility of hard minerals such
as apatite, hydroxyapatite and oxyapatite transforming
in fertilizer as is case with superphosphates. Besides
the possibility of exhaustion of the reserves mentioned
above, the application of acid makes the commercial
fertilizer extremely expensive and, thus, inaccessible to
numerous farmers, mainly in poor countries. On the
other hand, vermicomposting associated to
microorganisms is not expansive and its production is
an easy process that can be accessible to a good
number of farmers, when oriented through proper
agricultural extension service.

Results highlighting the success of this process are not
scarce. For example, Mohammady Aria et al. (2010)
observed that vermicomposting inoculated with
Thiobacillus and sulphur had a positive effect on the
conversion of hard RP into water-soluble-P. Sulfur
oxidation associated with the microbial activity
increased the availability of phosphorus from hard RP
due to the oxidation process, resulting in the natural
formation of sulfuric acid. Kumar and Singh (2001)
showed that enriching vermicompost with 1% of
Mussoorie RP and Pseudomonas striata improved
almost twice the availability of P. Similarly, a bacterial
suspension containing Burkholderia silvatlantica,
Burkholderia spp. and Herbaspirillum seropedicae
applied to vermicomposting process with a low dose of
Arax RP (1 g kg
-1
) promoted an increase of 106% in
the water soluble-P (Busato et al., 2012).

It is important to state that some diazotrophic bacteria
are not only capable of solubilizing phosphate but also
to enhance N
2
fixation (Busato et al., 2012; Kumar and
Singh, 2001). In general, fertilizers with nitrogen are
produced by the so called the HaberBosch process,
through industrial fixation reaction of nitrogen and
hydrogen gases, over an enriched iron or ruthenium
catalyst, which is used to industrially produce ammonia
(Chagas, 2007). This fossil fuel dependent-process
requires high temperature and pressure, which makes
the production of ammonia expensive. N
2
-fixing and P-
solubilizing bacteria during maturation of
vermicompost increases nitrogen by18% compared to
uninoculated vermicompost (Busato et al., 2012).
Kumar and Singh (2001) observed almost 2-fold
nitrogen after 75 days using vermicomposting
inoculated with Azotobacter chroococcum. In both
works, the nitrogen increasing was probably due to the
release of nitrogenous products by earthworm
metabolism via their cast, urine and mucoproteins
(Padmavathiamma et al., 2008). It is possible that
mucus secreted from the gut epithelium provides an
energy source that stimulate biological N fixation in
quantities that are significant for both earthworm
metabolism and plant growth (Lee, 1985).
Vermicompost humic substances: technology for converting pollution into plant growth regulators/ IJESER (2012) Vol3(2)73-84

International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering Research (IJESER) 80

These are some of the many results available that lend
credence to the idea that low-cost natural fertilizer may
be prepared using eco-friendly vermicomposting
technology.

6.0 CONCLUSIONS

Challenges on new agriculture will not be trespassed
without innovation and eco-friendly technologies.
Perhaps the time has come to face the current
unsustainable agricultural problems with the earliest
knowledge on organic matter of importance to
environment and to plant growth and food production.

The earthworm composting is one of the appropriate
technologies that serve as both effective waste
management strategy as well as good source of
fertilizer for farm households. Vermicompost from
several substrates sources enhances soil organic matter
improving water retention, soil structure, and carbon
stock. There are compelling evidences that humic
substances isolated from vermicompost act as plant
growth regulators. Unlike chemical synthetic
fertilizers, these substances express the hormone-like
activity by mechanisms that are associated with several
enzymes activation, especially the key enzymes for
plant growth and nutrients uptake: plant proton pumps.
Moreover, recycling organic wastes reduces the need
for chemical fertilizers and consequently the pollution
caused by its dumping on soil.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of
the National Counsel of Technological and Scientific
Development (CNP) and Dr. Abdulrazak B Ibrahim
for revision of the manuscript.

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