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Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
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In power system stability studies, turbine-generator
rotor is assumed to be made up of a single mass
! Accounts for oscillation of entire rotor
! Frequency in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz
In reality, a steam turbine-generator rotor has a very
complex structure consisting of several predominant
masses (rotors of turbine sections, generator, and
exciter) connected by shafts of finite stiffness
! When perturbed, torsional oscillations result
between different sections of turbine-generator rotor
Torsional oscillations in the subsynchronous range
could, under certain conditions, interact with the
electrical system in an adverse manner:
! Subsynchronous resonance with series capacitor
compensated lines
! Torsional interaction with power system controls
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Figure 15.3 shows the torsional characteristics of a
555 MVA, 3600 RPM fossil-fuel-fired generating unit
with a static exciter
Since rotor has five masses, there are five modes of
oscillation:
! 1.67 Hz mode represents oscillation of the entire
rotor against the power system. All five masses
participate equally in this mode. This is the mode
normally considered in rotor angle stability studies.
! 16.3 Hz mode is the first torsional mode. Has one
polarity reversal in the mode shape, with the rotors
of generator and LP
A
oscillating against rotors of
LP
B
, IP and HP sections.
! 24.1 Hz is the second torsional mode. Its mode
shape has two polarity reversals.
! 30.3 Hz and 44.0 Hz torsional modes have three and
four polarity reversals, respectively
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Figure 15.3 Rotor natural frequencies and mode shapes of a 555 MVA,
3,600 r/min steam turbine generator
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Torsional oscillations are inherently lightly damped
Normally, not affected by generating unit or network
controls
However, there have been several instances of
instability of torsional modes due to interactions with
! Generator excitation controls
! Prime-mover controls
! Controls of nearby HVDC converters
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Torsional mode destabilization by excitation control was first
observed in 1969 while applying PSS at Lambton GS in Ontario,
Canada
! PSS using speed signal at generator end of shaft excited
lowest torsional mode
! PSS transfer function designed to provide nearly zero phase
shift at system mode frequency of 1.6 Hz and produce pure
damping torque
! At torsional frequency of 16 Hz, PSS results in 135 phase lag
and hence, negative damping
Problem solved by using torsional filter and sensing speed
between the two LP turbine sections
! Close to the "node" of 16 Hz torsional mode
! Other torsional modes also have very low amplitude
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Examine effect of PSS on torsional stability of a 889
MVA, 1,800 RPM generating unit with a tandem
compound turbine and static exciter
Each double flow LP turbine section is represented by
two masses:
Objective is to examine the system performance with
different forms of PSS
Figure E15.1 Shaft system representation
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Delta-omega stabilizer with shaft speed (-a) as input
signal with speed measured at
! the generator end
! at coupling B
! coupling C
! both couplings B and C
Excitation system model
Results shown in Table E15.1
Figure E15.3 Thyristor exciter with delta-omega stabilizer
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Speed signal at generator end causes instability or
decreased damping of torsional modes while damping
system mode
Sensing at B adversely affects 23 Hz torsional mode
Sensing at C adversely affects 9 Hz torsional mode
No single speed sensing location suitable for all
torsional modes
Combination of B and C best for torsional modes
System mode is insensitive to sensing location;
depends only on gain
Exciter mode is heavily damped in all cases
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K
STAB
Speed
Sensing
Location
Torsional Modes
System
Mode
Exciter Mode
9 Hz 17 Hz 23 Hz 24 Hz
0.0 - -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 +0.23j5.7 -
9.5 Generator +0.31j57.6 +0.20j106.0 +0.24j146.4 -0.06j151.3 -0.73j5.0 -13.7j13.1
9.5 Coupl-B -0.25j55.3 -0.17j105.6 -0.01j146.2 -0.19j151.2 -0.75j5.0 -16.713.9
19.0 Coupl-B -0.47j54.3 -0.28j105.5 +0.07j146.3 -0.20j151.2 -1.20j4.2 -14.5j19.7
9.5 Coupl-C +0.06j56.6 -0.26j105.5 -0.21j146.1 -0.18j151.2 -0.74j5.0 -15.5j13.7
19.0 Coupl-C +0.20j57.0 -0.46j105.3 -0.31j146.1 -0.19 j151.2 -1.20j4.2 -12.8j18.5
9.5 Both B and C -0.10j56.0 -0.22j105.5 -0.11j146.1 -0.19j151.2 -0.74j5.0 -16.1j13.8
19.0 Both B and C -0.16j55.7 -0.37j105.4 -0.12j146.1 -0.20j151.2 -1.20j4.2 -13.6j19.1
28.5 Both B and C -0.22j55.5 -0.52j105.2 -0.13j146.1 -0.21j151.2 -1.36j3.6 -11.9j22.9
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Stabilizer as in Case A, but with a torsional filter
having a notch at 9 Hz and substantial attenuation at
the higher torsional natural frequencies.
Results shown in Table 15.2
Filter makes torsional modes insensitive to speed
signal stabilization
Damping of system mode with filter is about the same
as without
Filter has adverse effect on "exciter mode"
! Filter characteristics increase gain in the frequency
range associated with exciter mode
! Stabilizer gain has to be limited to low values
! limits the effectiveness of PSS in damping system
mode
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K
STAB
Speed
Sensing
Location
Torsional Modes
System
Mode
Exciter
Mode
9 Hz 17 Hz 23 Hz 24 Hz
0.0 - -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 +0.23j5.7 -
9.5 Generator -0.06j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.11j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -0.91j5.1 -10.4j15.8
9.5 Coupl-B -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -0.94j5.0 -8.114.1
19.0 Coupl-B -0.05j56.2 -0.06j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -1.42j4.1 -1.9j20.5
9.5 Coupl-C -0.06j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -0.92j5.0 -10.5j20.0
19.0 Coupl-C -0.06j56.2 -0.06j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17 j151.2 -1.41j4.2 -3.2j20.0
9.5 Both B and C -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -0.93j5.0 -9.4j21.3
19.0 Both B and C -0.05j56.2 -0.06j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -1.42j4.2 -2.5j20.4
28.5 Both B and C -0.05j56.2 -0.06j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -1.54j3.5 +0.5j20.6
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Stabilizer with electrical power deviation (delta-P) as
stabilizing signal
Similar to previous one, except that an equivalent
speed (-a
eq
) derived from electrical power is used
instead of actual shaft speed
Results shown in Table E15.3
PSS does not cause instability of torsional modes
Exciter well damped
High stabilizer gain can be used, resulting in a well
damped system.
Figure E15.4 Thyristor exciter with delta-P stabilizer
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K
STAB
Torsional Modes
System
Mode
Exciter
Mode 9 Hz 17 Hz 23 Hz 24 Hz
0.0 -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 +0.23j5.7 -
9.5 -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -0.75j5.0 -15.6j13.7
19.0 -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -1.20j4.2 -13.118.6
28.5 -0.05j56.2 -0.07j105.7 -0.10j146.1 -0.17j151.2 -1.40j3.6 -11.3j22.0
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Problem first came to light on Square Butte HVDC
system in North Dakota
! Consists of 250 kV, 500 MW dc link
! Rectifier station located adjacent to Milton Young
GS with two units: 234 MW and 410 MW
Converters employ equidistant firing system
! Normal regulator control modes are constant
current control at the rectifier and constant voltage
at the inverter
! In addition, a supplementary "frequency sensitive
power controller" (FSPC) is provided for damping
system oscillations
Field tests showed that
! The supplementary damping controller destabilized
the first torsional mode (11.5 Hz) of 410 MW
generating unit
! Normal constant current control, without damping
controller, could cause instability of 11.5 Hz
torsional mode
Problem solved by modifying converter controls
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Basic Phenomenon
Torsional mode oscillations cause phase and
amplitude modulation of generated voltage waveform
! modulated voltage has frequency components equal
to f
o
-f
t

Modulated voltage impressed on the dc system
commutating bus
With equidistant firing angle control
! a shift in voltage phase due to a torsional mode
causes a similar shift in firing angle
! results in corresponding changes in direct current,
voltage and power
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Closed-loop current control responds to correct these
changes
! reflected as a change in the generator power
If the net phase lag between the variation in shaft
speed at the torsional frequency and the resulting
change in electrical torque of the generator exceeds
90,
! torsional oscillations become unstable
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Occurs mainly in series capacitor compensated
transmission systems
First experienced in 1970 resulting in shaft failure of
units at Mohave Plant in Southern California
Not until the second failure in 1971 was the real cause
of failure recognized as SSR
Consider a simple radial system:
Figure 15.9 Radial series compensated system
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Natural frequency f
n
of the circuit inductance and
capacitance:
or
In an uncompensated transmission system, faults and
other disturbances result in dc offset components in
generator stator windings:
! result in a component of air-gap torque at slip
frequency equal to f
o
! necessary to avoid torsional frequencies very near
the fundamental frequency f
o
In a series capacitor compensated system, instead of
the dc component, the offset transient current is an
alternating current of frequency equal to the natural
frequency f
n
! induce rotor currents and torques of slip frequency
(f
o
-f
n
) Hz
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Table 15.1 shows the natural and slip frequencies as a
function of the degree of compensation (with f
0
= 60 Hz)
Percent Compensation
(X
C
/X
L
) x 100 (%)
Natural Frequency
f
n
(Hz)
Slip Frequency
60-f
n
(Hz)
10 18 42
25 30 30
30 32.6 27.4
40 38 22
50 42.4 17.6
Table 15.1
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Here we have considered a simple radial system. For a
complex network, the frequency-dependent
characteristic of the effective impedance seen by a
generator may be determined by a frequency scanning
program
A series compensated network can cause sustained or
negatively damped subsynchronous oscillations by
two distinctive mechanisms:
a) Self-excitation due to induction generator effect
b) Interactions with torsional oscillations (SSR)
A shunt compensated transmission system normally
has natural frequencies in the supersynchronous
range
! Subsynchronous oscillations normally do not pose
a problem
! Exceptions are situations involving very long lines
and a high degree of shunt compensation
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Since f
n
< f
0
, slip is negative.
Depending on f
n
, R
eff
can be negative
At high degrees of compensation, the apparent
negative resistance of the generator may exceed the
transmission network resistance,
! Effectively results in an RLC circuit with negative
resistance
Will result in self-excitation causing electrical
oscillations of intolerable levels
Purely electrical phenomenon; not dependent on shaft
torsionals
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If the complement of f
n
(i.e., f
0
- f
n
) is close to one of the
torsional frequencies, torsional oscillations are excited
! Results in a strong "coupling" between electrical and
mechanical systems
! Condition referred to as "subsynchronous resonance"
! A small voltage induced by rotor oscillations can result
in large subsynchronous currents
! Will produce torque whose phase is such that it
enhances rotor oscillations
Consequences of SSR can be dangerous
! If oscillations build up, shaft will break
! Even if oscillations not unstable, system disturbances
can cause shaft torques of high magnitude and loss of
shaft fatigue life
Countermeasures to SSR:
! Static filter
! Dynamic filter
! Dynamic stabilizer
! Excitation system damper
! Protective relays
! NGH scheme
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Illustrates the two forms of instability of
subsynchronous oscillations associated with series
capacitor compensated systems
! SSR and self-excitation
Test system considered is shown below
! consists of a 555 MVA, 24 kV, 3,600 RPM turbine-
generator feeding power through a series capacitor
compensated transmission system to an infinite bus
Shaft system parameters and the torsional
characteristics of the generating unit are as shown in
Figure 15.3
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Power flow condition is as follows:
P
t
= 519.5 MW E
t
= 1.08 E
B
= 1.0
Degrees of compensation (i.e., X
C
/X
L
) is varied and the
reactive power output of the generator varies
accordingly
Focus is on the interaction between the lowest
torsional (16 Hz) mode and the subsynchronous
natural frequency oscillation of the network for the
following values of load at the HV bus:
a) P
L
= 166.5 MW, Q
L
= 0
b) P
L
= 0 Q
L
= 0
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Case (a): With P
L
= 166.5 MW, Q
L
= 0
Eigenvalue analysis used to analyze the modal interaction
! system model includes the dynamics of the
transmission network and the generator stator circuits.
The complete system equations are expressed in the dq
reference frame
Table E15.4 gives eigenvalues, frequencies, and damping
ratios of lowest torsional mode and network mode
Participation factors associated with generator speed
deviation and voltage across the series capacitor are also
given
! help identify extent of interaction between the two
modes
Network is in dq reference frame (rotates at generator
speed)
! frequency of network mode is the complement of the
network natural frequency
With no compensation, torsional mode has frequency of
16.29 Hz and small positive damping
With 25% compensation, frequency and damping
increase slightly
! little interaction between modes
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% Comp.
Torsional Mode Network Mode
Freq.
(Hz)
!
Participation
Factors
Freq.
(Hz)
!
Participation Factors
"#
1
"v
c
"#
1
"v
c
0.0 16.29 0.0004 0.90 - - - - -
25.0 16.32 0.0006 0.90 0.002 35.20 0.0130 0.03 1.00
50.0 16.41 0.0010 0.90 0.01 24.75 0.0288 0.02 0.99
60.0 16.50 0.0012 0.90 0.04 21.80 0.0231 0.01 1.00
65.0 16.61 0.0010 0.91 0.09 20.09 0.0230 0.05 1.00
70.0 16.90 -0.0027 0.91 0.31 18.27 0.0273 0.26 1.00
75.0 16.85 -0.0468 0.93 0.77 16.88 0.0721 0.65 0.95
80.0 16.28 -0.0590 0.93 0.75 16.05 0.0858 0.63 0.95
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As compensation is increased
! frequency of the torsional mode varies slightly
! damping increases slightly at first, then decreases
At 70% compensation, torsional mode is just unstable
and noticeable interaction between torsional and
network modes
Further increase in compensation strengthens
"coupling"
! pulls modes together in frequency but apart in
damping
At 75% to 80% compensation, coupling is strongest
and frequencies are nearly equal
Effect of "interaction" of torsional and network mode
on characteristics of network mode can be seen in
Table E15.5
! provides frequency and damping of network mode
with and without multimass representation
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% Comp. of
line 2-3
Network mode with
multimass representation of
the turbine-generator rotor
Network mode with single
lumped mass representation
of the turbine-generator rotor
Freq. (Hz) Damp. Freq. (Hz) Damp.
0.0% 0.95 0.0280 0.95 0.0244
25.0% 35.20 0.0130 35.32 0.0133
50.0% 24.75 0.0288 25.13 0.0185
60.0% 21.80 0.0231 21.82 0.0205
65.0% 20.09 0.0230 20.27 0.0215
66.0% 19.74 0.0230 19.96 0.0217
68.0% 19.04 0.0241 19.37 0.0221
70.0% 18.27 0.0273 18.78 0.0224
71.3% 17.70 0.0376 18.39 0.0227
72.0% 17.49 0.0460 18.20 0.0228
74.0% 17.06 0.0658 17.63 0.0231
75.0% 16.88 0.0721 17.35 0.0233
77.0% 16.51 0.0814 16.74 0.0237
78.0% 16.23 0.0850 16.27 0.0239
80.0% 16.05 0.0858 15.96 0.0241
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Case (b): With P
L
= Q
L
= 0
Results are summarized in Table E15.6
With the load removed, the effective resistance of the
network is reduced significantly. Consequently, the
network mode becomes unstable due to the induction
motor effect
As the frequency of the network mode approaches the
torsional mode frequency, the coupling between the
two modes increases
! The effect of the interaction is to increase the
damping of the torsional mode and to decrease the
damping of the network mode
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% Comp.
of line 2-3
Torsional Mode Network Mode
Freq.
(Hz)
!
Participation
Factors
Freq.
(Hz)
!
Participation Factors
"#
1
"v
c
"#
1
"v
c
0.0 16.28 0.0003 0.896 - - - - -
25.0 16.32 0.0004 0.898 0.002 35.20 0.0088 0.03 1.00
70.0 16.94 0.0050 0.909 0.34 18.25 -0.0058 0.33 1.00
75.0 16.79 0.0570 0.940 0.88 16.94 -0.0611 0.78 1.00
80.0 16.14 0.0681 0.930 0.88 16.20 -0.0758 0.78 1.00
85.0 15.53 0.0500 0.871 0.83 15.46 -0.0639 0.71 1.00
93.7 15.80 0.0013 0.870 0.13 12.9 -0.0241 0.07 1.00
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A generating unit encounters multitude of switching
duties during its lifetime
! can produce high levels of oscillatory shaft torques
! the resulting cyclic stress variations on the shaft
may cause loss of "fatigue life"
! a cumulative process with each incident using a
portion of the total fatigue life
In the early 1970s, it was recognized that network-
switching operations could contribute to shaft fatigue
damage
Problem examined by an IEEE Working Group, and
general recommendations made to industry
concerning:
a) steady-state switching
b) successive network switching
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Fatigue is a cumulative process in which additional events add
to previous life expenditure
Observable defects such as cracks will not be formed until all
the fatigue life is consumed
Typical fatigue characteristics:
High-cycle fatigue limit (HCFL) is the limiting value of cyclic
stress to which shaft can be subjected such that no
cumulative fatigue damage occurs
Figure 15.11 A typical fatigue characteristic showing cycle life curve for fully
reversed stress
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Most severe switching operation, with the network
initially under steady state, is the reclosing of lines
across a large breaker angle
! Depending on network impedances, the resulting
sudden increase in generator torque of a nearby
generator could be very large
! If resulting torques are high, this may result in loss
of shaft fatigue life
For planned switching operations, such as a simple
line restoration, IEEE Guidelines recommend that
switching be conducted so that it does not contribute
significantly to cumulative shaft fatigue
! Magnitude of cycle shaft stress, should be kept
mostly below HCFL
! This way, nearly all of fatigue capability will be
preserved to withstand impact of unplanned and
unavoidable disturbances, such as faults
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A detailed investigation, involving assessment of shaft
torques and loss of fatigue life, for all possible line-
switching duties would be impractical
Reference 32 prepared by an IEEE Working Group
provides general guidelines to permit utilities to
screen switching operations
! assume a simple line restoration from steady state
! hence, applicable only for delayed (10 seconds or
more) reclosing
! based on detailed studies of a number of cases
Breaker angle is not by itself useful in judging severity
of a switching operation
! circuit impedances play a major role
Therefore, severity is measured in terms of the sudden
change in the generator power ("P), as computed by a
conventional transient stability program
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A rule-of-thumb limit for "P is:
! 0.5 pu of generator MVA rating
A line-switching case resulting in "P of less than 0.5
pu considered safe
! no contribution to loss of fatigue life
Switching operations resulting in "P greater than the
0.5 pu limit have to be studied in detail to assess the
shaft duty
Reference 32: IEEE WG Report, "IEEE Screening Guide for Planned Steady-
State Switching Operations to Minimize Harmful Effects on Steam Turbine
Generators", IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-99, No. 4, pp. 1519-1521, July/August
1980.
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Successive network disturbances, such as automatic
high-speed line reclosing following a fault,
! can result in dangerously high torques
Concern is for the compounding effects of the different
switching operations
! torsional oscillations due to successive impacts
may reinforce the initial oscillations
! risk of amplifying torsional oscillations to damaging
levels is a function of the type of disturbance and
the timing of subsequent switching operations
Reference 33 prepared by the IEEE Working Group
gives a summary of the predicted range of fatigue life
expenditure for various types of disturbances:
! different type faults, fault clearing, successful
reclosing, unsuccessful reclosing

cont'd
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Automatic high speed reclosing of multiple faulted
lines near thermal generating plants pose significant
risks of shaft fatigue life expenditure
! where contemplated, a study of shaft fatigue duty
recommended
The following are possible alternative reclosing
strategies with reduced risk of shaft damage:
! Delayed reclosing, with a delay of 10 seconds or
more
! Sequential reclosing: automatic reclosing from the
remote end, followed by synchro-check reclosing of
the plant end
! Selective reclosing: limiting high-speed reclosing to
L-G faults and L-L faults
Reference 33: IEEE Working Interim Report, "Effects of Switching
Network Disturbances on Turbine-Generator Shaft System", IEEE
Trans., Vol. PAS-101, No. 9, pp. 3151-3157, September 1982
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Rotor of a hydraulic generating unit consists of a
turbine runner and a generator rotor
! If unit has a shaft-driven exciter, there is an
additional rotor mass
! There are at most two torsional modes of oscillation
Inertia of generator rotor about 10 to 40 times that of
turbine runner (waterwheel)
No reported cases of adverse dynamic interaction with
electrical network
Principal reasons for absence of adverse interaction:
a) High generator rotor inertia relative to turbine runner
" effectively shields the rotor mechanical system
from the electrical network
b) Viscous waterwheel damping
" torsional oscillations inherently highly damped