Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique that uses X-rays to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and fluorescent screen between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an X-ray image intensifier and CCD video camera allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. The use of X-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, requires the potential risks from a procedure to be carefully balanced with the benefits of the procedure to the patient. While physicians always try to use low dose rates during fluoroscopic procedures, the length of a typical procedure often results in a relatively highabsorbed dose to the patient. Recent advances include the digitization of the images captured and flat panel detector systems; modern advances allow further reduction of the radiation dose to the patient. Red adaptation goggles were developed by Wilhelm Trendelenburg in 1916 to address the problem of dark adaptation of the eyes, previously studied by Antoine Beclere. The resulting red light from the goggles' filtration correctly sensitized the physician's eyes prior to the procedure, while still allowing him to receive enough light to function normally. The development of the X-ray image intensifier by Westinghouse in the late 1940s [1] in combination with closed circuit TV cameras of the 1950s revolutionized fluoroscopy. The red adaptation goggles became obsolete as image intensifiers allowed the light produced by the fluorescent screen to be amplified and made visible in a lighted room. The addition of the camera enabled viewing of the image on a monitor, allowing a radiologist to view the images in a separate room away from the risk ofradiation exposure. More modern improvements in screen phosphors, image intensifiers and even flat panel detectors have allowed for increased image quality while minimizing the radiation dose to the patient. Modern fluoroscopes use CsI screens and produce noise-limited images, ensuring that the minimal radiation dose results while still obtaining images of acceptable quality. Experimenter in 1890s examining his hand with fluoroscope.
Operation during World War 1 using a fluoroscope screen to find embedded bullets
1950s fluoroscope Invention of commercial instruments Analog instrument Thomas Edison began investigating materials for ability to fluoresce when x-rayed in the late 1890s and by the turn of the century had invented a fluoroscope with sufficient image intensity to be commercialized. Edison had quickly discovered thatcalcium tungstate screens produced brighter images. Edison, however, abandoned his researches in 1903 because of the health hazards that accompanied use of these early devices. A glass blower of lab equipment and tubes at Edisons laboratory was repeatedly exposed, suffering radiation poisoning and, later, succumbing to an aggressive cancer. Edison himself damaged an eye in testing these early fluoroscopes. [2]
This Adrian Fluoroscope model was used for testing the fit of shoes in shoe stores. During this infant commercial development, many incorrectly predicted that the moving images of fluoroscopy would completely replace roentgenographs or diagnostic radiograph still image films, but the then superior diagnostic quality of the roentgenograph and their already alluded safety enhancement of shorter radiation dose prevented this from occurring. More trivial uses of the technology also appeared in the 1930s-1950s, including a shoe-fitting fluoroscope used at shoe stores. [3]
Digital instrument Later, in the early 1960s, Frederick G. Weighart [4] and James F. McNulty [5] at Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California produced the worlds first image to be digitally generated in real- time on a fluoroscope, while developing a later commercialized portable apparatus for nondestructive testing of naval aircraft. Square wave signals were detected by the pixels of a cathode ray tube to create the image. Digital imaging technology was reintroduced to fluoroscopy after development of improved detector systems from the late 1980s. Equipment
A fluoroscopy x-ray machine is a great asset during surgery for implants The first fluoroscopes consisted of an x-ray source and fluorescent screen between which the patient would be placed. As the x-rays pass through the patient, they areattenuated by varying amounts as they interact with the different internal structures of the body, casting a shadow of the structures on the fluorescent screen. Images on the screen are produced as the unattenuated x rays interact with atoms in the screen through the photoelectric effect, giving their energy to the electrons. While much of the energy given to the electrons is dissipated as heat, a fraction of it is given off as visible light, producing the images. Early radiologists would adapt their eyes to view the dim fluoroscopic images by sitting in darkened rooms, or by wearingred adaptation goggles. X-ray image intensifiers Main article: Image intensifier The invention of X-ray image intensifiers in the 1950s allowed the image on the screen to be visible under normal lighting conditions, as well as providing the option of recording the images with a conventional camera. Subsequent improvements included the coupling of, at first, video cameras and, later, CCD camerasto permit recording of moving images and electronic storage of still images. Modern image intensifiers no longer use a separate fluorescent screen. Instead, a caesium iodide phosphor is deposited directly on the photocathode of the intensifier tube. On a typical general purpose system, the output image is approximately 10 5 times brighter than the input image. This brightness gain comprises a flux gain (amplification of photon number) andminification gain (concentration of photons from a large input screen onto a small output screen) each of approximately 100. This level of gain is sufficient that quantum noise, due to the limited number of x- ray photons, is a significant factor limiting image quality. Image intensifiers are available with input diameters of up to 45 cm, and a resolution of approximately 2-3 line pairs mm 1 . Flat-panel detectors Main article: Flat panel detector The introduction of flat-panel detectors allows for the replacement of the image intensifier in fluoroscope design. Flat panel detectors offer increased sensitivity to X-rays, and therefore have the potential to reduce patient radiation dose. Temporal resolution is also improved over image intensifiers, reducing motion blurring. Contrast ratio is also improved over image intensifiers: flat- panel detectors are linear over a very wide latitude, whereas image intensifiers have a maximum contrast ratio of about 35:1. Spatial resolution is approximately equal, although an image intensifier operating in 'magnification' mode may be slightly better than a flat panel. Flat panel detectors are considerably more expensive to purchase and repair than image intensifiers, so their uptake is primarily in specialties that require high-speed imaging, e.g., vascular imaging and cardiac catheterization. Contrast agents A number of substances have been used as positive contrast agents: silver, bismuth, caesium, thorium, tin, zirconium,tantalum, tungsten and lanthanide compoun ds have been used as contrast agents. The use of thoria (thorium dioxide) as an agent was rapidly stopped as thorium causes liver cancer. Most modern injected radiographic positive contrast media are iodine-based. Iodinated contrast comes in two forms: ionic and non-ionic compounds. Non-ionic contrast is significantly more expensive than ionic (approximately three to five times the cost), however, non-ionic contrast tends to be safer for the patient, causing fewer allergic reactions and uncomfortable side effects such as hot sensations or flushing. Most imaging centers now use non- ionic contrast exclusively, finding that the benefits to patients outweigh the expense. Negative radiographic contrast agents are air and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The latter is easily absorbed by the body and causes less spasm. It can also be injected into the blood, where air absolutely cannot.
Neural engineering Neural engineering (also known as Neuroengineering) is a discipline within biomedical engineering that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, enhance, or otherwise exploit the properties of neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. Overview[edit] The field of neural engineering draws on the fields of computational neuroscience, experimental neuroscience, clinicalneurology, electrical engineering and signal processing of living neural tissue, and encompasses elements from robotics,cybernetics, computer engineering, neural tissue engineering, materials science, and nanotechnology. Prominent goals in the field include restoration and augmentation of human function via direct interactions between the nervous system and artificial devices. Much current research is focused on understanding the coding and processing of information in the sensory and motorsystems, quantifying how this processing is altered in the pathological state, and how it can be manipulated through interactions with artificial devices including brain-computer interfaces and neuroprosthetics. Other research concentrates more on investigation by experimentation, including the use of neural implants connected with external technology. Neurohydrodynamics is a division of neural engineering that focuses on hydrodynamics of the neurological system. History[edit] As neural engineering is a relatively new field, information and research relating to it is comparatively limited, although this is changing rapidly. The first journals specifically devoted to neural engineering, The Journal of Neural Engineering and The Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation both emerged in 2004. International conferences on neural engineering have been held by the IEEE since 2003, from 29 April until 2 May 2009 in Antalya, Turkey 4th Conference on Neural Engineering, the 5th International IEEE EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering in April/May 2011 in Cancn, Mexico, and the 6th conference in San Diego, California in November 2013. Fundamentals[edit] The fundamentals behind neuroengineering involve the relationship of neurons, neural networks, and nervous system functions to quantifiable models to aid the development of devices that could interpret and control signals and produce purposeful responses. Neuroscience[edit] Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body. Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life. Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information and then transmit that information to other cells. Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it. A constant voltage, known as the Membrane potential, is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane. Depolarization of the membrane past its Threshold potential generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as Neurotransmission of the nervous system. An action potential results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells. Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes(He 2005). Engineering[edit] Engineers employ quantitative tools that can be used for understanding and interacting with complex neural systems. Methods of studying and generating chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical signals responsible for extracellular field potentials and synaptic transmission in neural tissue aid researchers in the modulation of neural system activity(Babb et al. 2008). To understand properties of neural system activity, engineers use signal processing techniques and computational modeling(Eliasmith & Anderson 2003). To process these signals, neural engineers must translate the voltages across neural membranes into corresponding code, a process known as neural coding. Neural coding uses studies on how the brain encodes simple commands in the form of central pattern generators (CPGs), movement vectors, the cerebellar internal model, and somatotopic maps to understand movement and sensory phenomena. Decoding of these signals in the realm ofneuroscience is the process by which neurons understand the voltages that have been transmitted to them. Transformations involve the mechanisms that signals of a certain form get interpreted and then translated into another form. Engineers look to mathematically model these transformations(Eliasmith & Anderson 2003). There are a variety of methods being used to record these voltage signals. These can be intracellular or extracellular. Extracellular methods involve single-unit recordings, extracellular field potentials, amperometry, or more recently, Multielectrode arrays which have been used to record and mimic signals. Scope[edit] Neuromechanics[edit] Neuromechanics is the coupling of neurobiology, biomechanics, sensation and perception, and robotics(Edwards 2010). Researchers are using advanced techniques and models to study the mechanical properties of neural tissues and their effects on the tissues' ability to withstand and generate force and movements as well as their vulnerability to traumatic loading.(Laplaca & Prado 2010) This area of research focuses on translating the transformations of information among the neuromuscular and skeletal systems to develop functions and governing rules relating to operation and organization of these systems (Nishikawa et al. 2007). Neuromechanics can be simulated by connecting computational models of neural circuits to models of animal bodies situated in virtual physical worlds(Edwards 2010). Experimental analysis of biomechanics including the kinematics and dynamics of movements, the process and patterns of motor and sensory feedback during movement processes, and the circuit and synaptic organization of the brain responsible for motor control are all currently being researched to understand the complexity of animal movement. Dr. Michelle LaPlaca's lab at Georgia Institute of Technology is involved in the study of mechanical stretch of cell cultures, shear deformation of planar cell cultures, and shear deformation of 3D cell containing matrices. Understanding of these processes is followed by development of functioning models capable of characterizing these systems under closed loop conditions with specially defined parameters. The study of neuromechanics is aimed at improving treatments for physiological health problems which includes optimization of prostheses design, restoration of movement post injury, and design and control of mobile robots. By studying structures in 3D hydrogels, researchers can identify new models of nerve cell mechanoproperties. For example, LaPlaca et al. developed a new model showing that strain may play a role in cell culture. (LaPlaca et al. 2005) Neuromodulation[edit] Neuromodulation aims to treat disease or injury by employing medical device technologies that would enhance or suppress activity of the nervous system with the delivery of pharmaceutical agents, electrical signals, or other forms of energy stimulus to re-establish balance in impaired regions of the brain. Researchers in this field face the challenge of linking advances in understanding neural signals to advancements in technologies delivering and analyzing these signals with increased sensitivity, biocompatibility, and viability in closed loops schemes in the brain such that new treatments and clinical applications can be created to treat those suffering from neural damage of various kinds(Potter 2012). Neuromodulator devices can correct nervous system dysfunction related to Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, Tourette's, chronic pain, OCD, severe depression, and eventually epilepsy. (Potter 2012) Neuromodulation is appealing as treatment for varying defects because it focuses in on treating highly specific regions of the brain only, contrasting that of systemic treatments that can have side effects on the body. Neuromodulator stimulators such as microelectrode arrays can stimulate and record brain function and with further improvements are meant to become adjustable and responsive delivery devices for drugs and other stimuli. (2012a) Neural regrowth and repair[edit] Neural engineering and rehabilitation applies neuroscience and engineering to investigating peripheral and central nervous system function and to finding clinical solutions to problems created by brain damage or malfunction. Engineering applied toNeuroregeneration focuses on engineering devices and materials that facilitate the growth of neurons for specific applications such as the regeneration of peripheral nerve injury, the regeneration of the spinal cord tissue for spinal cord injury, and the regeneration of retinal tissue. Genetic engineering and Tissue engineering are areas developing scaffolds for spinal cord to regrow across thus helping neurological problems. (Potter 2012, Schmidt & Leach 2003) Research and applications[edit] Research is focused on neural engineering utilizes devices to study how the nervous system functions and malfunctions. (Schmidt & Leach 2003) Neural imaging[edit] Neuroimaging techniques are used to investigate the activity of neural networks, as well as the structure and function of the brain. Neuroimaging technologies include functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) and computed axial tomography (CAT) scans. Functional neuroimaging studies are interested in which areas of the brain perform specific tasks. fMRI measures hemodynamic activity that is closely linked to neural activity. It probes the brain by tuning the brain scanner to a certain wavelength to see which part of the brain are activated doing different tasks by seeing what lights up doing different things. PET, CT scanners, and electroencephalography (EEG) are currently being improved and used for similar purposes(Potter 2012). Neural networks[edit] Scientists can use experimental observations of neuronal systems and theoretical and computational models of these systems to create Neural networks with the hopes of modeling neural systems in as realistic a manner as possible. Neural networks can be used for analyses to help design further neurotechnology devices. Specifically, researchers handle analytical or finite element modeling to determine nervous system control of movements and apply these techniques to help patients with brain injuries or disorders. Artificial neural networks can be built from theoretical and computational models and implemented on computers from theoretically devices equations or experimental results of observed behavior of neuronal systems. Models might represent ion concentration dynamics, channel kinetics, synaptic transmission, single neuron computation, oxygen metabolism, or
POSIX Threads POSIX Threads, usually referred to as Pthreads, is a POSIX standard for threads. The standard, POSIX.1c, Threads extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1c-1995), defines an API for creating and manipulating threads. Implementations of the API are available on many Unix-like POSIX-conformant operating systems such as FreeBSD, NetBSD,OpenBSD, GNU/Linux, Mac OS X and Solaris. DR-DOS and Microsoft Windows implementations also exist: within theSFU/SUA subsystem which provides a native implementation of a number of POSIX APIs, and also within third-partypackages such as pthreads- w32, [1] which implements pthreads on top of existing Windows API. Contents Pthreads defines a set of C programming language types, functions and constants. It is implemented with a pthread.hheader and a thread library. There are around 100 Pthreads procedures, all prefixed "pthread_" and they can be categorized into four groups: Thread management - creating, joining threads etc. Mutexes Condition variables Synchronization between threads using read/write locks and barriers The POSIX semaphore API works with POSIX threads but is not part of threads standard, having been defined in thePOSIX.1b, Real-time extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1b-1993) standard. Consequently the semaphore procedures are prefixed by "sem_" instead of "pthread_". Example An example illustrating the use of Pthreads in C: #include <pthread.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <assert.h>
int main(void) { pthread_t threads[NUM_THREADS]; int thread_args[NUM_THREADS]; int rc, i;
// create all threads one by one for (i=0; i<NUM_THREADS; ++i) { thread_args[i] = i; printf("In main: creating thread %d\n", i); rc = pthread_create(&threads[i], NULL, task_code, (void *) &thread_args[i]); assert(0 == rc); }
// wait for each thread to complete for (i=0; i<NUM_THREADS; ++i) { // block until thread i completes rc = pthread_join(threads[i], NULL); printf("In main: thread %d is complete\n", i); assert(0 == rc); }
printf("In main: All threads completed successfully\n"); exit(EXIT_SUCCESS); } This program creates five threads, each executing the function task_code that prints the unique number of this thread to standard output. If a programmer wanted the threads to communicate with each other, this would require defining a variable outside of the scope of any of the functions, making it a global variable. POSIX Threads for Windows[edit] Windows does not support the pthreads standard natively, therefore the Pthreads-w32 project seeks to provide a portable and open-source wrapper implementation. It can also be used to port Unix software (which use pthreads) with little or no modification to the Windows platform. [2] With some additional patches the last version 2.8.0 is compatible with 64-bit Windows systems. [3][4][5] 2.9.0 is said to also be 64-bit compatible. [6]
The mingw-w64 project also contains a wrapper implementation of pthreads, winpthreads, [7] which tries to use more native system calls than the Pthreads-w32 project. [8]
Interix environment subsystem available in the Windows Services for UNIX/Subsystem for UNIX- based Applications package provides a native port of the pthreads API, i.e. not mapped on Win32/Win64 API but built directly on the operating systemsyscall interface. [9]
Central Monitoring System From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Central Monitoring System, abbreviated to CMS, is a clandestine masselectronic surveillance data mining program installed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT), an Indian Government ownedtelecommunications technology development centre, [1] and operated byTelecom Enforcement Resource and Monitoring (TERM) Cells. [2] The CMS gives India's security agencies and income tax officials centralized access toIndia's telecommunications network [3] and the ability to listen in on and recordmobile, landline and satellite [4] calls and voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), and read private emails, SMS and MMS and track the geographical location of individuals, [5] all in real time. [6] It can also be used to monitor posts shared on social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter, and to track users' search historieson Google, [7][8][9] without any oversight by courts or Parliament. According to a government official, an agency "shall enter data related to target in the CMS system and approach the telecom services provider (TSP), at which point the process is automated, and the provider simply sends the data to a server which forwards the requested information". [10] The intercepted data is subject to pattern recognition and other automated tests to detect emotional markers, such as hate, compassion or intent, and different forms of dissent. [6] Telecom operators in India are obligated by law to give access to their networks to every legal enforcement agency. [11] From 2014 onwards, all mobile telephony operators will be required to track and store the geographical location from which subscribers make or receive calls, [12] meaning that, in addition to the contact number of the person a caller speaks to, the duration of the call and details of the mobile tower used, the Call Data Records (CDR) will now also contain details of the caller's location. The system aims to attain a tracking accuracy of 80% in the first year of operation, followed by 95% accuracy in the second year, in urban areas. Commander (rtd) Mukesh Saini, former national information security coordinator of the Government of India, expressed fears that all CDR details would eventually be fed into the central server for access through the CMS. [13]
itrary monitoring. The new system comes under the jurisdiction of the Indian Telegraph Act, a law formulated by the British in 1885 during the Raj, which allows for monitoring communication in the "interest of public safety." System details[edit] CMS creates central and regional databases, which authorized Central and State level government agencies can use to intercept and monitor any landline, mobile or internet connection in India. The CMS will converge all the interception lines at one location, for access by authorized government agencies. CMS is connected with the Telephone Call Interception System (TCIS) which will helps in monitoring voice calls, SMS and MMS, fax communications on landlines, CDMA, GSM, video calls and 3G networks. [42] CMS equips government agencies with Direct Electronic Provisioning, filters and alerts on the target numbers, and enables Call Data Records (CDR) analysis and data mining to identify the personal information of the target numbers, without any manual intervention from telecom service providers (TSPs). [43]
The Indian government agencies known to have been authorized to make intercept requests through CMS are the Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT), the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), theDirectorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), the Enforcement Directorate, the Intelligence Bureau (IB), Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), National Investigation Agency (NIA) and the Research & Analysis Wing (R&AW), [34] as well as Military Intelligence of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir, and the Home Ministry. [16] Authorized agencies are not required to seek a court order for surveillance or depend, as they did prior to CMS, on Internet or telephone service providers to give them the data. The government has built intercept data servers on the premises of private telecommunications firms, [18] which will allow it to tap into communications, at will, without informing the service providers. The top bureaucrat in the home ministry and his state-level deputies have the authority to approve requests for surveillance of specific phone numbers, e-mails or social media accounts. [11] According to the Press Trust of India (PTI), the government plan Media reaction[edit] Business Standard criticized the lack of a court warrant stating, "Making the new system unusually draconian is the discretion it provides bureaucrats to approve requests for surveillance, which can be made by any one of nine government agencies, including the Central Bureau of Investigation, Intelligence Bureau and Income Tax Department. With the union and state home secretaries permitted to approve requests for surveillance, this bypasses the traditional system of a court warrant being needed for monitoring a citizen." Firstpost criticized the lack of information from the government about the project and the lack of a legal recourse for a citizen whose personal details were misused or leaked from the database. The paper stated, "One of the primary concerns raised by experts is the sheer lack of public information on the project. So far, there is no official word from the government about which government bodies or agencies will be able to access the data; how will they use this information; what percentage of population will be under surveillance; or how long the data of a citizen will be kept in the record." It also criticized the lack of judicial oversight, but conceded that "given the use of technology by criminals and terrorists, government surveillance per se, seems inevitable". [24]
Human rights and civil-liberties groups reactions[edit] Human rights and civil-liberties groups have expressed concerns that the CMS is prone to abuse, and is an infringement of privacy and civil liberties. [23] Critics have described it as "abuse of privacy rights and security-agency overreach", and counterproductive in terms of security. [17] Indian activists have also raised concerns that the system will inhibit them from expressing their opinions and sharing information, especially because the government has repeatedly used the Information Technology Act, since it was amended in 2008, to arrest people for posting comments on social media that are critical of the government, as well as to put pressure on websites such as Facebook and Google to filter or block content, and impose liability on private intermediaries to filter and remove content from users. [15]
Optical fiber From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Stealth Fiber Crew installing a 432-count fiber cable underneath the streets of Midtown Manhattan, New York City
A TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable with red light being shone in one end transmits the light to the other end
An optical fiber junction box. The yellow cables are single mode fibers; the orange and blue cables are multi-mode fibers: 50/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibers respectively. An optical fiber (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fiber made of extruded glass (silica) or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. It can function as awaveguide, or light pipe, [1] to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. [2] Power over Fiber (PoF) optic cables can also work to deliver an electric current for low-power electric devices. [3] The field of applied science and engineeringconcerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparentcladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are used for short- distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single- mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then carefully spliced together with the cores perfectly aligned. A mechanical splice holds the ends of the fibers together mechanically, while fusion splicing uses heat to fuse the ends of the fibers together. Special optical fiber connectors for temporary or semi- permanent connections are also available. Advantages over copper wiring[edit] The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are: Broad bandwidth A single optical fiber can carry 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000 TV channels. Immunity to electromagnetic interference Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it does not act as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic signals. Information traveling inside the optical fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference, even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices. Low attenuation loss over long distances Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, allowing transmission over long distances without the need for repeaters. Electrical insulator Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with ground loops and conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage power cables. Material cost and theft prevention Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper. In some places, this copper is a target for theft due to its value on the scrap market. Sensors[edit] Main article: Fiber optic sensor Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer. Power transmission[edit] Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light into electricity. [33] While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones, it is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields. [34] Other examples are for powering electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-voltage transmission equipment.