THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE

LibraryJournalcalledit,ThebesthistoryofZenever
written.

ThetruthofZenhasalwaysresidedinindividual
experienceratherthanintheoreticalwritings.Togive
themodernreaderaccesstounderstandingofthis
truth,THEZENEXPERIENCEilluminesZenasit
wascreatedandshapedbythepersonalities,
perceptions,andactionsofitsmastersoverthe
centuries.

BeginningwiththetwinrootsofZeninIndian
BuddhismandChineseTaoism,wefollowitthrough
itsinitialfloweringinChinaundertheFirstPatriarch
Bodhidharma;itsdivisionintoschoolsofgradual
andsuddenenlightenmentunderShen-hsuiand
Shen-hui;theusheringinofitsgoldenagebyHui-
neng;thedevelopmentofshockenlightenmentby
Ma-tsu;itspoeticgreatnessinthepersonofHan-
shan;theperfectionoftheuseofthekoanbyTa-hui;
themigrationofZentoJapananditsextraordinary
growththereunderasuccessionoftowering
Japanesespiritualleaders.

Richinhistoricalbackground,vividinrevealing
anecdoteandmemorablequotation,thislong-needed
worksucceedsadmirablyintakingZenfromthe
libraryshelvesandrestoringitsliving,humanform.

BOOKSBYTHOMASHOOVER BOOKSBYTHOMASHOOVER BOOKSBYTHOMASHOOVER BOOKSBYTHOMASHOOVER

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ZenCulture
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Fiction Fiction Fiction Fiction

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Caribbee
WallStreetSamurai
(TheSamuraiStrategy)
ProjectDaedalus
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Syndrome

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THE THE THE THE

ZEN ZEN ZEN ZEN
EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE

ThomasHoover ThomasHoover ThomasHoover ThomasHoover

SIGNET,SIGNETCLASSICS,MENTOR,PLUME,MERIDIAN
ANDNALBOOKSarepublishedintheUnitedStatesbyTheNew
AmericanLibrary,Inc.,1633Broadway,NewYork,NewYork
10019.
FirstPrinting,March,1980
Copyright1980byThomasHoover
ReissuedbyarrangementwithPenguinGroupNewYork,New
York.

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
BibliographyZenBuddhismHistory.Priests,ZenBiography.
ISBN0-452-25228-8

Author:ThomasHoover
Title:TheZenExperience
ZenHistory,Buddhism,ZenBuddhism,ZenHistory,
Seng-Chao,Tao-sheng,LaoTzu,ChuangTzu,Kuo
Hsiang,Nagarjuna,Seng-chao,Tao-Sheng,
Bodhidharma,Huiko,Seng-Tsan,Tao-hsin,Fa-jung,
Hung-jen,Shen-hsiu,Hui-neng,Ma-tsu,Huai-hai,
Nanchuan,Chao-Chou,Pang,Han-shan,Huang-
po,Lin-Chi,Rinzai,Soto,Tung-shan,Tsao-shan,
Kuei-shan,Yun-men,Fa-yen,Ta-hui,Eisai,Dogen,
Hakuin

PERMISSIONS PERMISSIONS PERMISSIONS PERMISSIONS

SelectionsfromZenandZenClassics,Vols.IandII,byR.H.
Blyth(Tokyo:TheHokuseidoPress,copyright1960,1964
byR.H.Blyth,copyright1978byFrederickFranck),
reprintedbypermissionofJoanDaves.
SelectionsfromColdMountainbyHan-shan,BurtonWatson,
trans.(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1970),reprinted
bypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromTheRecordedSayingsofLaymanPang,Ruth
FullerSasakietal.,trans.(NewYork:JohnWeatherhill),
reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromAnthologyofChineseLiterature,CyrilBirch,ed.,
GarySnyder,trans.(NewYork:GrovePress,copyright
1965byGrovePress),reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromTao:ANewWayofThinkingbyChangChung-
yuan,(NewYork:Harper&Row,PerennialLibrary,copyright
1975byChangChung-yuan),reprintedbypermissionof
publisher.
SelectionfromAHistoryofZenBuddhismbyHeinrichS.J.
Dumoulin,PaulPeachey,trans.(NewYork:PantheonBooks,
1962),reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionbyIkkyufromSomeJapanesePortraitsbyDonald
Keene(Tokyo:KodanshaInternational,1979),reprintedby
permissionofauthor.
SelectionsfromEssaysinZenBuddhismbyD.T.Suzuki(New
York:GrovePress),reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionfromTheSutraofHui-neng,PriceandWong,trans.
(Boulder:ShambalaPublications),reprintedbypermissionof
publisher.
SelectionsfromThePlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,Philip
Yamplosky,trans.(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress),
reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromTheZenMasterHakuinbyPhilipYamplosky
(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1971),reprintedby
permissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromTheGoldenAgeofZenbyJohnC.H.Wu(Taipei,
Taiwan:HwakangBookStore),reprintedbypermissionof
author.
SelectionsfromTheZenTeachingoftheHuiHaionSudden
IlluminationbyJohnBlofeld(NewYork:SamuelWeiser,
1972),reprinjtedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromZenMasterDogenbyYohoYukoi(NewYork:
JohnWeatherhill),reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromOriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhismbyChang
Chung-yuan(NewYork:Vintage,1969),reprintedby
permissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromSwamplandFlowersbyChristopherCleary(New
York:GrovePress,copyright1977byChristopherCleary),
reprintedbypermissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromTheZenTeachingofHuangPoonthe
TransmissionofMindbyJohnBlofeld(NewYork:Grove
Press,copyright1958byJohnBlofeld),reprintedby
permissionofpublisher.
SelectionsfromZen-ManIkkyu,adissertationbyJohnSanford,
UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill,reprintedby
permissionofauthor.
SelectionsfromZenisEternalLifebyRoshiJiyu-Kennett
(DharmaPublishing,copyright1976byRoshiJiyu-
Kennett),reprintedbypermissionofauthor).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

HeartfeltthanksgotoDr.PhilipYampolskyofColumbia
University,whoreviewedthemanuscriptindraftandclarified
manypointsoffactandinterpretation.Ialsoamindebtedtothe
worksofanumberofZeninterpretersfortheWest,includingD.T.
Suzuki,JohnBlofeld,ChangChung-yuan,andCharlesLuk.In
caseswherethisfingerpointingatthemoonmistakenlyaims
astray,Ialoneamresponsible.

CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS

PrefacetoZen PrefacetoZen PrefacetoZen PrefacetoZen
Taoism:TheWaytoZen
LaoTzu
ChuangTzu
KuoHsiang:ANeo-Taoist
TheSevenSagesoftheBambooGrove
TheBuddhistRootsofZen
TheBuddha
Nagarjuna
Kumarajiva
Seng-chao
Tao-sheng
TheSynthesis
PARTI.THEEARLYMASTERS PARTI.THEEARLYMASTERS PARTI.THEEARLYMASTERS PARTI.THEEARLYMASTERS
1.Bodhidharma:FirstPatriarchofZen
2.Hui-k'o:SecondPatriarchofZen
3.Seng-Ts'an,Tao-hsin,Fa-jung,andHung-jen:FourEarly
Masters
4.Shen-hsiuandShen-hui:"Gradual"and
"Sudden"Masters
5.Hui-neng:SixthPatriarchandFatherofModernZen
PARTII.THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN PARTII.THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN PARTII.THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN PARTII.THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN
6.Ma-tsu:Originatorof"Shock"Enlightenment
7.Huai-hai:FatherofMonasticCh'an
8.Nan-ch'uanandChao-chou:MastersoftheIrrational
9.P'angandHan-shan:LaymanandPoet
10.Huang-po:MasteroftheUniversalMind
PARTIII.SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN PARTIII.SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN PARTIII.SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN PARTIII.SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN
11.Lin-chi:FounderofRinzaiZen
12.Tung-shanandTs'ao-shan:FoundersofSotoZen
13.Kuei-shan,Yun-men,andFa-yen:ThreeMinorHouses
14.Ta-hui:MasteroftheKoan
PARTIV.ZENINJAPAN PARTIV.ZENINJAPAN PARTIV.ZENINJAPAN PARTIV.ZENINJAPAN
15.Eisai:TheFirstJapaneseMaster
16.Dogen:FatherofJapaneseSotoZen
17.Ikkyu:ZenEccentric
18.Hakuin:JapaneseMasteroftheKoan
19.Reflections
Notes Notes Notes Notes
Bibliography Bibliography Bibliography Bibliography

THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE THEZENEXPERIENCE

ThesoleaimofZenistoenableonetounderstand,realize,
andperfecthisownmind.
GarmaC.C.Chang

PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN

LaoTzu,Buddha,Confucius

Somecallit"seeing,"somecallit"knowing,"andsomedescribeit
inreligiousterms.Whateverthename,itisourreachforanew
levelofconsciousness.Ofthemanyformsthissearchhastaken,
perhapsthemostintriguingisZen.Growingoutofthewisdomof
China,India,andJapan,Zenbecameapowerfulmovementto
explorethelesser-knownreachesofthehumanmind.TodayZen
hascomewestward,wherewearerediscoveringmodern
significanceinitsancientinsights.Thisbookisanattemptto
encounterZeninitspurestform,byreturningtothegreatestZen
masters.
Zenteachingsoftenappeardeceptivelysimple.This
misconceptioniscompoundedbytheZenclaimthatexplanations
aremeaningless.Theyare,ofcourse,butmerelybecause
genuineZeninsightscanariseonlyfromindividualexperience.
Andalthoughourexperiencecanbedescribedandeven
analyzed,itcannotbetransmittedorshared.Atmost,the
"teachings"ofZencanonlyclearthewaytoourdeeper
consciousness.Therestisuptous.
Zenisbasedontherecognitionoftwoincompatibletypesof
thought:rationalandintuitive.Rationalityemployslanguage,
logic,reason.Itspreceptscanbetaught.Intuitiveknowledge,
however,isdifferent.Itlurksembeddedinourconsciousness,
beyondwords.Unlikerationalthought,intuitioncannotbe"taught"
oreventurnedon.Infact,itisimpossibletofindormanipulate
thisintuitiveconsciousnessusingourrationalmindanymore
thanwecangraspourownhandorseeourowneye.
TheZenmastersdevisedwaystoreachthisrepressedarea
ofhumanconsciousness.Someoftheirtechniqueslike
meditationwereborrowedfromIndianBuddhism,andsomelike
theirantirationalparadoxesmayhavebeenlearnedfrom
ChineseTaoists.Butotherinventions,liketheirjarringshoutsand
blows,emergedfromtheirownexperience.Throughoutitall,
however,theirwordsandactionswereonlyameans,neveran
end.
Thatendisanintuitiverealizationofasinglegreatinsight
thatweandtheworldaroundareone,bothpartofalarger
encompassingabsolute.Ourrationalintellectmerelyobscures
thistruth,andconsequentlywemustshutitoff,ifonlyfora
moment.Rationalityconstrainsourmind;intuitionreleasesit.
Theironyisthatthepersonglimpsingthismomentofhigher
consciousness,thisOneness,encounterstheultimaterealization
thatthereisnothingtorealize.Theworldisstillthere,unchanged.
Butthedifferenceisthatitisnowanextensionofour
consciousness,seendirectlyandnotanalytically.Andsinceitis
redundanttobeattachedtosomethingalreadyapartofyou,
thereisasuddensenseoffreedomfromouragonizingbondage
tothings.
Alongwiththisalsocomesreleasefromtheconstraintsof
artificialvalues.Creatingsystemsandcategoriesisnotunlike
countingthecolorsofarainbowbothmerelydetractfromour
experienceofreality,whileatthesametimelimitingour
appreciationoftheworld'srichness.Andtodeclaresomething
rightorwrongissimilarlynearsighted.AsAlanWattsonce
observed,"Zenunveilsbehindtheurgentrealmofgoodandevila
vastregionofoneselfaboutwhichthereneedbenoguiltor
recrimination,whereatlasttheselfisindistinguishablefromGod."
And,wemightadd,whereGodisalsoonewithour
consciousness,ourself.InZenalldualitiesdissolve,absorbedin
thelargerrealitythatsimplyis.
NoneofthesethingsistaughtexplicitlyinZen.Insteadthey
arediscoveredwaitinginourconsciousnessafterallelsehas
beensweptaway.Ascornfultwelfth-centuryChinesescholar
summarizedtheZenmethodasfollows:"SincetheZenmasters
neverruntheriskofexplaininganythinginplainlanguage,their
followersmustdotheirownponderingandpuzzlingfromwhicha
realthreshing-outresults."Inthesepageswewillwatchthe
threshing-outofZenitselfasitsmastersunfoldanewrealmof
consciousness,theZenexperience.

TAOISM:THEWAYTOZEN TAOISM:THEWAYTOZEN TAOISM:THEWAYTOZEN TAOISM:THEWAYTOZEN

TaoismistheoriginalreligionofancientChina.Itisfoundedon
theideathatafundamentalprinciple,theTao,underliesall
nature.LongbeforetheappearanceofZen,Taoistswere
teachingthesuperiorityofintuitivethought,usingananti-
intellectualismthatoftenridiculedthelogic-boundlimitationsof
conventionalChineselifeandletters.However,Taoismwas
alwaysupbeatandpositiveinitsacceptanceofreality,aquality
thatalsorubbedoffonZenoverthecenturies.Furthermore,many
Taoistphilosophersleftwritingswhoseworldviewseemsalmost
Zen-like.TheearlyChineseteachersofmeditation(calleddhyana
inSanskritandCh'aninChinese)absorbedtheTaoisttraditionof
intuitivewisdom,andlaterZenmastersoftenusedTaoist
expressions.Itisfitting,therefore,thatwebrieflymeetsomeof
themostfamousteachersofChineseTaoism.

LAOTZU LAOTZU LAOTZU LAOTZU

OneofthemostinfluentialfiguresinancientChineseloreis
rememberedtodaymerelyasLaoTzu(VenerableMaster).Taoist
legendsreportheoncedisputed(andbettered)thescholarly
Confucius,butthathefinallydespairedoftheworldandrodean
oxcartoffintothewest,pausingattheHan-kuPassonthe
insistenceofitskeepertosetdownhisinsightsinafive-
thousand-characterpoem.Thiswork,theTaoTeChing(TheWay
andthePower),wasaneloquent,organized,andlyrical
statementofanimportantpointofviewinChinaofthesixth
centuryB.C.,anunderstandinglatertobecomeanessential
elementofCh'anBuddhism.
Theword"Tao"meansmany,manythingsincludingtheelan
vitalorlifeforceoftheuniverse,theharmoniousstructuringof
humanaffairs,andperhapsmostimportantarealitytranscend-
ingwords.Taoistsdeclaredthereisaknowledgenotaccessible
bylanguage.AstheTaoTeChingannouncesinitsopeningline,
"TheTaothatcanbeputintowordsisnottherealTao."
AlsofundamentaltotheTaoistheunityofmindandmatter,
oftheonewhoknowsandthethingknown.Theunderstandingof
atruthandthetruthitselfcannotbeseparated.TheTaoincludes
andunifiestheseintoalarger"reality"encompassingboth.The
notionthatourknowledgeisdistinguishablefromthatknownisan
illusion.
AnotherteachingoftheTaoTeChingisthatintuitiveinsight
surpassesrationalanalysis.Whenweactonourspontaneous
judgment,wearealmostalwaysbetteroff.Chapter19declares,
"Letthepeoplebefreefromdiscernmentandrelinquish
intellection...Holdtoone'soriginalnature...Eliminateartificial
learningandonewillbefreefromanxieties."
1
Thewisedefertoa
realmofinsightfloatinginourmindbeyonditsconsciousstate.
Taoistsalsoquestionedthevalueofsocialorganization,
holdingthatthebestgovernmentistheonegoverningleastand
that"thewisedealwiththingsthroughnon-interferenceandteach
throughno-words."
2
Taoiststypicallyrefusedtodrawvalue
judgmentsonothers'behavior.LaoTzuasks,"Whatisthe
differencebetweengoodandbad?"
3
andconcludes,"Goodness
oftenturnsouttobeevil."
4
Thereiscompleteacceptanceofwhat
is,withnodesiretomakethings"better."LaoTzubelieved"good"
and"bad"werebothpartofTaoandtherefore,"Evenifamanis
unworthy,Taowillneverexcludehim."
5
Ifallthingsareone,there
canbenocriticaldifferentiationofanypart.Thisconcentrationon
innerperception,totheexclusionofpracticalconcerns,evokeda
criticismfromthethird-century-B.C.ConfucianphilosopherHsun
Tzuthathasacuriouslymodernringofsocialconsciousness.
"LaoTzuunderstoodlookinginward,butknewnothingoflooking
outward....Ifthereismerelyinward-lookingandneveroutward-
looking,therecanbenodistinctionbetweenwhathasvalueand
whathasnot,betweenwhatispreciousandwhatisvile,between
whatisnobleandwhatisvulgar."
6
ButtherefusalofLaoTzuto
intellectualizewhatisnaturalortositinjudgmentovertheworld
wastheperfectChineseprecedentforCh'an.

CHUANGTZU CHUANGTZU CHUANGTZU CHUANGTZU

ThesecondimportantfigureinTaoismisthealmostequally
legendaryteacherrememberedasChuangTzu,whoisusually
placedinthefourthcenturyB.C.,sometwocenturiesafterLao
Tzu.AnearlyhistoriantellsthatonceChuangTzuwasinvitedto
thecourttoserveasaminister,aninvitationhedeclinedwitha
typicalstory:Anoxisselectedforafestivalandfattenedupfor
severalyears,livingthelifeofwealthandindulgenceuntilthe
dayheisledawayforsacrifice.Atthatreckoningwhatwouldhe
givetoreturntothesimplelife,wheretherewaspovertybutalso
freedom?
InChuangTzu'sownbookofwisdom,healsoderidedthe
faithinrationalitycommontoChinesescholars.Toemphasizehis
pointhedevisedavehicleforassaultingtheapparatusoflogic
thatbeinga"nonsense"storywhosepointcouldonlybe
understoodintuitively.,Therehasyettobefoundamoredeadly
weaponagainstpompousintellectualizing,astheCh'an
Buddhistslaterprovedwiththekoan.ChuangTzualsoknewhow
quicklycomedycoulddeflate,andheuseditwithconsummate
skill,againpavingthewayfortheabsurdistZenmasters.Infact,
hisdialoguesoftenanticipatetheZenmondo,theexchanges
betweenmasterandpupilthathavecomic/straight-man
overtones.
Inthisregard,ChuangTzualsosometimesanticipates
twentieth-centurywritersfortheTheateroftheAbsurd,suchas
BeckettorIonesco.Significantly,theColumbiascholarBurton
WatsonsuggeststhatthemostfruitfulpathtoChuangTzu"isnot
toattempttosubjecthisthoughtstorationalandsystematic
analysis,buttoreadandrereadhiswordsuntilonehasceasedto
thinkofwhatheissayingandinsteadhasdevelopedanintuitive
senseofthemindmovingbeyondthewords,andoftheworldin
whichitmoves."
7
Thisisundoubtedlytrue.Theeffectofcomic
parodyonlogicissotellingthattheonlywaytoreallyunderstand
themessageistostoptryingto"understand"it.
Concerningthelimitationsofverbaltransmission,Chuang
Tzutellsastoryofawheelmakerwhoonceadvisedhisdukethat
thebookofancientthoughtthemanwasreadingwas"nothingbut
theleesandscumofbygonemen."Thedukeangrilydemanded
anexplanationandreceivedaclassicdefenseofthesuperiority
ofintuitiveunderstandingoverlanguageandlogic.

Ilookatthematterinthisway;whenIammakingawheel,ifmy
strokeistooslow,thenitbitesdeepbutisnotsteady;ifmystroke
istoofast,thenitissteady,butdoesnotgodeep.Therightpace,
neitherslownorfast,cannotgetintothehandunlessitcomes
fromtheheart.Itisathingthatcannotbeputintowords;thereis
anartinitthatIcannotexplaintomyson.Thatiswhyitis
impossibleformetolethimtakeovermywork,andhereIamat
theageofseventy,stillmakingwheels.Inmyopinion,itmust
havebeenthesamewiththemenofold.Allthatwasworth
handingondiedwiththem;therest,theyputintotheirbooks.
8

ChuangTzu'sparablethatperhapsbestillustratestheTaoist
idealconcernsacookwhohaddiscoveredonelivesbestby
followingnature'srhythms.Thecookexplainedthathisnatural-
nesswaseasyafterhelearnedtoletintuitionguidehisactions.
ThisapproachhecalledpracticingtheTao,butitisinfactthe
objectiveofZenpracticeaswell.
PrinceWenHuiremarked,"Howwonderfullyyouhavemastered
yourart."Thecooklaiddownhisknifeandsaid,"Whatyour
servantreallycaresforisTao,whichgoesbeyondmereart.
WhenIfirstbegantocutupoxen,Isawnothingbutoxen.After
threeyearsofpracticing,Inolongersawtheoxasawhole.Inow
workwithmyspirit,notwithmyeyes.Mysensesstopfunctioning
andmyspirittakesover."
9

Whathedescribedistheeliminationoftherationalmind,
whichhereferstoasthesenses,andtherelianceuponthe
intuitivepartofhismind,herecalledthespirit.Heexplainedhow
thisintuitiveapproachallowedhimtoworknaturally.

Agoodcookchangeshisknifeonceayearbecausehecuts,
whileamediocrecookhastochangehiseverymonthbecausehe
hacks.I'vehadthisknifeofminefornineteenyearsandhavecut
upthousandsofoxenwithit,andyettheedgeisasifitwerefresh
fromthegrindstone.Therearespacesbetweenthejoints.The
bladeoftheknifehasnothickness.Thatwhichhasnothickness
hasplentyofroomtopassthroughthesespaces.Therefore,after
nineteenyears,mybladeisassharpasever.
10

LaoTzuandChuangTzudidnotseethemselvesasfounders
ofanyformalreligion.Theymerelydescribedtheobvious,
encouragingotherstobeapartofnatureandnotitsantagonist.
Theirmovement,nowcalledPhilosophicalTaoism,waseclipsed
duringtheHanDynasty(206B.C.-A.D.220)inofficialcirclesby
variousothersystemsofthought,mostparticularlyConfucianism
(whichstressedobediencetoauthorityboththatofeldersandof
superiorsandreverenceforformalizedlearning,nottomention
theacceptanceofastructuredhierarchyaspartofone'slarger
socialresponsibility).However,towardtheendoftheHanera
therearosetwonewtypesofTaoism:anEsotericTaoismthat
usedphysicaldisciplinestomanipulateconsciousness,anda
PopularTaoismthatcameclosetobeingareligioninthe
traditionalmold.ThefirstwasmysticalEsotericTaoism,which
pursuedtheprolongingoflifeandvigor,butthisgavewayduring
latertimestoPopularTaoism,ametaphysicalalternativetothe
comfortless,aridConfucianismofthescholarlyestablishment.
Thepost-HanerasawthePhilosophicalTaoismofLaoTzu
andChuangTzuemergeanewamongChineseintellectuals,
actuallycomingtoviewithConfucianism.Thiswholeera
witnessedaturningawayfromtheacceptedvaluesofsociety,as
thewell-organizedgovernmentoftheHaneradissolvedinto
politicalandintellectualconfusion.Governmentwasunstableand
corrupt,andtheConfucianismwhichhadbeenitsphilosophical
underpinningwasstiltedandunsatisfying.Wheneverasociety
breaksdown,thebeliefsystemsupportingitnaturallycomes
underquestion.ThishappenedinChinainthethirdandfourth
centuriesoftheChristianera,andfromitemergedanatural
oppositiontoConfucianism.Oneformofthisoppositionwasthe
importedreligionofBuddhism,whichprovidedaspiritualsolace
missingintheteachingsofConfucius,whiletheotherwasa
revivalamongintellectualsofPhilosophicalTaoism.

KUOHSIANG:ANEO KUOHSIANG:ANEO KUOHSIANG:ANEO KUOHSIANG:ANEO- -- -TAOIST TAOIST TAOIST TAOIST

Inthisdisruptiveenvironment,certainintellectualsreturnedagain
totheinsightsofLaoTzuandChuangTzu,creatingamovement
todayknownasNeo-Taoism.Oneofthethinkerswhotriedto
reinterpretoriginalTaoistideasforthenewtimeswasKuoHsiang
(d.ca.312),whoco-authoredamajordocumentofNeo-Taoism
entitledCommentaryontheChuangTzu.Itfocusedonthe
importantTaoistideaofwu-wei,onceexplainedasfollows:"...to
themthekeyconceptofTaoism,wu(literally,nonexistence),is
notnothingness,butpurebeing,whichtranscendsformsand
names,andpreciselybecauseitisabsoluteandcomplete,can
accomplisheverything.Thesageisnotonewhowithdrawsinto
thelifeofahermit,butamanofsocialandpoliticalachievements,
althoughtheseachievementsmustbebroughtaboutthroughwu-
wei,'nonaction'or'takingno[unnatural]action.'
1,11

Thisconceptofwu-weihasalsobeendescribedasabstaining
fromactivitycontrarytonatureandactinginaspontaneousrather
thancalculatedfashion.InKuoHsiang'swords:

Beingnaturalmeanstoexistspontaneouslywithouthavingto
takeanyaction....Bytakingnoactionisnotmeantfoldingone's
armsandclosingone'smouth.Ifwesimplyleteverythingactby
itself,itwillbecontentedwithitsnatureanddestiny.(12)

KuoHsiang'scommentaryexpandedonalmostallthemajor
ideasofChuangTzu,drawingoutwithlogicwhatoriginallyhad
beensetinabsurdism.Criticizingthis,alaterCh'anmonk
observed,"PeoplesayKuoHsiangwroteacommentaryon
ChuangTzu.IwouldsayitwasChuangTzuwhowrotea
commentaryonKuoHsiang."
13
Nonetheless,theideaofwu-wei,
processedthroughBuddhism,emergedindifferentguiseinlater
Ch'an,influencingtheconceptof"no-mind."

THESEVENSAGESOFTHEBAMBOOGROVE THESEVENSAGESOFTHEBAMBOOGROVE THESEVENSAGESOFTHEBAMBOOGROVE THESEVENSAGESOFTHEBAMBOOGROVE

OtherChinesewerecontentmerelytolivetheideasofNeo-
Taoism.AmongtheseweretheSevenSagesoftheBamboo
Grove,menpartofalargermovementknownastheSchoolof
PureConversation.Theirfavoritepastimewastogathernorthof
Loyangontheestateofoneoftheirmembers,wherethey
engagedinrefinedconversation,wrotepoetryandmusic,and
(notincidentally)drankwine.Tosomeextenttheyreflectedthe
recluseidealofold,exceptthattheyfoundthesatisfactionofthe
sensesnoimpedimenttointrospection.Whattheydidforswear,
however,wastheworldofgettingandspending.Althoughmenof
distinction,theyrejectedfame,ambition,andworldlystation.
ThereisastorythatoneoftheSevenSages,amannamed
LiuLing(ca.221-330),habituallyreceivedguestswhile
completelynaked.Hisresponsetoadversecommentwasto
declare,"Itakethewholeuniverseasmyhouseandmyown
roomasmyclothing.Why,then,doyouenterhereintomy
trousers."
14

Itisalsotoldthattwoofthesages(JuanChi,210-63,andhis
nephewJuanHsien)oftensatdrinkingwiththeirfamilyinsuch
convivialitythattheyskippedthenuisanceofcupsandjustdrank
directlyfromawinebowlontheground.Whenpigswanderedby,
thesetoowereinvitedtosipfromthesamechalice.Ifone
exemptsallnatureincludingpigsfromdistinction,discrimination,
andduality,whyexcludethemasdrinkingcompanions?
ButperhapsthemostsignificantinsightoftheSevenSages
oftheBambooGrovewastheirrecognitionofthelimitedusesof
language.Wearetold,"Theyengagedinconversation'til,asthey
putit,theyreachedtheUnnameable,and'stoppedtalkingand
silentlyunderstoodeachotherwithasmile.'"
1S

THEBUDDHISTROOTSOFZEN THEBUDDHISTROOTSOFZEN THEBUDDHISTROOTSOFZEN THEBUDDHISTROOTSOFZEN

ThereisalegendtheBuddhawasoncehandedaflowerand
askedtopreachonthelaw.Thestorysayshereceivedthe
blossomwithoutasoundandsilentlywheeleditinhishand.Then
amidthehushhismostperceptivefollower,Kashyapa,suddenly
burstintoasmile...andthuswasbornthewordlesswisdomof
Zen.
Theunderstandingofthissilentinsightwaspasseddown
throughthecenturies,independentofthescriptures,finally
emergingastheChineseschoolofCh'an,latercalledZenbythe
Japanese.Itissaidtheabsenceofearlywritingsabouttheschool
isnothingmorethanwouldbeexpectedofateachingwhichwas,
bydefinition,beyondwords.ThemasterWen-yusummeditup
whenheansweredademandfortheFirstPrincipleofCh'anwith,
"Ifwordscouldtellyou,itwouldbecometheSecondPrinciple."
ThisversionofZen'soriginissatisfying,andforallweknowit
mayevenbetrue.Butthereareother,considerablymore
substantive,sourcesfortheideasthatcametoflowerasCh'an.
Taoism,ofcourse,hadplowedawayattheConfucianistclutter
restrainingtheChinesemind,butitwasBuddhismthatgave
Chinathenecessarynewphilosophicalstructurethisbeingthe
metaphysicalspeculationsofIndia.PureChinesenaturalismmet
Indianabstraction,andtheresultwasCh'an.TheschoolofCh'an
wasinpartthegraftingoffragileforeignideas(Buddhism)ontoa
sturdynativespeciesofunderstanding(Taoism).Butitssimplicity
wasinmanywaysare-expressionoftheBuddha'soriginal
insights.

THEBUDDHA THEBUDDHA THEBUDDHA THEBUDDHA

ThehistoricBuddhawasborntothehigh-castefamilyGautama
duringthesixthcenturyB.C.intheregionthatistodaynortheast
IndiaandNepal.Afterachildhoodandyouthofindulgencehe
turnedtoasceticismandforoverhalfadecaderigorously
followedthetraditionalIndianpracticesoffastingandmeditation,
onlyfinallytorejecttheseindespair.However,anauspicious
dreamandonefinalmeditationatlastbroughttotal
enlightenment.GautamatheseekerhadbecomeBuddhathe
Enlightened,andhesetouttopreach.
Itwasnotgodsthatconcernedhim,butthemindofmanand
itssorrowing.Weareunhappy,heexplained,becauseweare
slavestoourdesires.Extinguishdesireandsufferinggoeswithit.
Ifpeoplecouldbetaughtthatthephysicalorphenomenalworldis
illusion,thentheywouldceasetheirattachmenttoit,thereby
findingreleasefromtheirself-destructivementalbondage.
TheBuddhaneglectedtosetdowntheseideasinwrittenform
however,perhapsunwiselyleavingthistasktolatergenerations.
Histeachingssubsequentlywererecreatedintheformof
sermonsorsutras.Inlateryears,theBuddhistmovementsplit
intotwoseparatephilosophicalcamps,knowntodayas
TheravadaandMahayana.TheTheravadaBuddhistsfound
primarilyinsoutheastAsia,SriLanka,andBurmaveneratethe
earlywritingsofBuddhism(knowntodayasthePaliCanon)and
tendtocontentthemselveswithpracticingthephilosophyofthe
Buddharatherthanenlarginguponitwithspeculative
commentaries.Bycontrast,thefollowersofMahayanawho
includethebulkofallBuddhistsinChina,Japan,andTibetleft
thesimpleprescriptionsoftheBuddhafarbehindintheircreation
ofavastnewliterature(inSanskrit,Tibetan,andChinese)of
complextheologies.ChineseCh'angrewoutofMahayana,asof
coursedidJapaneseZen.

NAGARJUNA NAGARJUNA NAGARJUNA NAGARJUNA

AftertheBuddha,perhapsthemostimportantBuddhistfigureis
thesecond-centuryA.D.IndianphilosopherNagarjuna.Somecall
himthemostimportantthinkerAsiahasproduced.Accordingto
Tibetanlegendshisparentssenthimawayfromhomeatseven
becauseanastrologerhadpredictedhisearlydeathandthey
wishedtobesparedthesight.Buthebrokethespellbyentering
Buddhistorders,andwentontobecomethefaith'sforemost
philosopher.
TodayNagarjunaisfamousforhisanalysisoftheso-called
WisdomBooksofMahayana,asetofSanskritsutrascomposed
between100B.C.andA.D.100.(Includedinthiscategoryare
ThePerfectionofWisdomin8,000Lines,aswellastheDiamond
SutraandHeartSutra,bothessentialscripturesofZen.)
NagarjunawastheoriginatoroftheMiddlePath,sonamed
becauseitstrovetodefineamiddlegroundbetweenaffirmationof
theworldandcompletenegationofexistence.
Reality,saidNagarjuna,cannotberealizedthrough
conceptualconstructions,sinceconceptsarecontainedinside
reality,notviceversa.Consequently,onlythroughtheintuitive
mindcanrealitybeapproached.Hisnameforthis"reality"beyond
themind'sanalysiswassunyata,usuallytranslatedas
"emptiness"butsometimesas"theVoid."(Sunyataisperhapsan
unprovableconcept,butsotooaretheegoandtheunconscious,
bothhypotheticalconstructsusefulinexplainingrealitybut
impossibletolocateontheoperatingtable.)Nagarjuna'smost-
quotedmanifestohasthelogic-defyingringofaZen:"Nothing
comesintoexistencenordoesanythingdisappear.Nothingis
eternal,norhasanythinganyend.Nothingisidenticalor
differentiated.Nothingmoveshitherandthither."
AstheCh'anteachersinterpretedtheteachingofsunyata,the
thingsofthisworldareallamentalcreation,sinceexternal
phenomenaaretransientandonlyexistforusbecauseofour
perception.Consequentlytheyareactually"created"byourmind
(or,ifyouwill,amoreuniversalentitycalledMind).Consequently
theydonotexistoutsideourmindandhenceareavoid.Yetthe
minditself,whichistheonlythingreal,isalsoavoidsinceits
thoughtscannotbelocatedbythefivesenses.TheVoidis
thereforeeverything,sinceitincludesboththeworldandthe
mind.Hence,sunyata.
AsamodernNagarjunascholarhasdescribedsunyata,or
emptiness,itisapositivesenseoffreedom,notadeprivation

"Thisawarenessof'emptiness'isnotablanklossof
consciousness,aninanimatespace;ratheritisthecognitionof
dailylifewithouttheattachmenttoit.Itisanawarenessofdistinct
entities,oftheself,of'good'and'bad'andotherpractical
determinations;butitisawareoftheseasemptystructures."
16

TheZenmastersfoundwaystoachievethecognitionwithout
attachmentpostulatedbyNagarjuna,andtheypaidhimhomage
bymakinghimoneofthelegendarytwenty-eightIndian
PatriarchsofZenbyposthumousdecree.

KUMARAJIVA KUMARAJIVA KUMARAJIVA KUMARAJIVA

TheIndianmissionarywhotransmittedtheideaofEmptinessto
ChinawasKumarajiva(344-413),aswashbucklingguruwho,
morethananyotherindividual,wasresponsibleforplanting
sophisticatedMahayanaBuddhistideasinChinesesoil.Before
tellinghisstory,however,itmaybewelltoreflectbrieflyonhow
BuddhismgottoChinainthefirstplace.
AlthoughtherearerecordsofaBuddhistmissionaryinChina
asearlyasA.D.148,historiansarehardpressedtofindthename
ofanout-and-outnativeChineseBuddhistbeforesometimeinthe
thirdcentury.Buddhism,whichatfirstapparentlywasconfused
withTaoism,seemstohavecomeintofashionaftertheNeo-
Taoistsranoutofcreativesteam.Shortlythereafter,aroundA.D.
209,intelligibleChinesetranslationsofIndianMahayanasutras
finallybegantobecomeavailable.
ThereweremanythingsaboutBuddhism,however,that
rubbedChinesethewrongway.Firsttherewerethepractical
matters:Buddhismallowed,ifnotencouraged,begging,celibacy,
andneglectofancestorsallpracticestorankleanytraditional
Chinese.Thentherewerefundamentalphilosophicaldifferences:
BuddhismofferedtobreakoneoutoftheHinducycleofrebirth,
somethingtheChinesehadnotrealizedtheyneeded;andIndian
thoughtwasnaturallygearedtocosmictime,withitsendless
cyclesofeons,whereastheChinesesawtimeasalineleading
backtoidentifiableancestors.Earlymissionariestriedtogain
acceptabilityforBuddhismbyexplainingitinTaoistterms,
includingstretchingthetwoenoughtofind"matchingconcepts"or
ideaswithsuperficialsimilarity,andtheyalsoletoutthemyththat
theBuddhawasactuallyLaoTzu,whohadgoneontoIndiaafter
leavingChina.
WhenbarbarianssackedtheNorthernChinesecenterof
Loyangintheyear313andtookoverNorthChina'sgovernment,
manyofitsinfluentialConfucianistscholarsfledtothesouth.
Theseemigresweredisillusionedwiththesocialideasof
Confucianismandreadyforasolaceofthespirit.Thusthey
turnedforcomforttoBuddhistideas,butusingNeo-Taoist
terminologyandoftentreatingBuddhismmoreasasubjectfor
salonspeculationsthanasareligion.BytranslatingBuddhism
intoaNeo-Taoistframework,thesesouthernintellectuals
effectivelyavoidedhavingtograpplewiththenewideasin
Buddhistmetaphysics.
InNorthChina,theBuddhiststookadvantageofthenew
absenceofcompetingConfucianiststomoveintorulingcircles
andassumetheroleoftheliterateclass.Theypreachedasimple
formofBuddhism,oftenshamelesslydwellingonmagicand
incantationstoarouseinterestamongthegreatestnumberof
followers.ThecommonpeopleweredrawntoBuddhism,sinceit
providedforthefirsttimeinChinaareligionthatseemedtocare
forpeople'ssuffering,theirpersonalgrowth,theirsalvationinan
afterlife.ThusBuddhismtookholdinNorthChinamainlybecause
itprovidedhopeandmagicforthemassesandapoliticalfirewall
againstConfucianismforthenewrulers.Aslateasthebeginning
ofthefifthcentury,therefore,Buddhismwasmisunderstoodand
encouragedforthewrongreasonsinbothnorthandsouth.
Kumarajiva,whowouldchangeallthis,wasborninKuchato
anIndianfatheroftheBrahmincasteandamotherofnoble
blood.WhenhewassevenheandhismothertraveledtoKashmir
toenterBuddhistorderstogether.Afterseveralyearsofstudying
theTheravadasutras,hemovedontoKashgar,whereheturned
hisattentiontoMahayanaphilosophy.Atagetwentywefindhim
backinKucha,beingordainedintheking'spalaceand
sharpeninghisunderstandingoftheMahayanascriptures.He
also,wearetold,sharpenedhisnon-Buddhistamorousskills,
perhapsfindingconsolationintheillusoryworldofthesensesfor
thehollowemptinessofsunyata.
Intheyear382or383,hewastakencaptiveandremovedto
aremoteareainnortheasternChina,wherehewasheldprisoner
foralmosttwodecades,muchtothedismayoftherulersin
Ch'ang-an,whowantednothingmorethantohavethisteacher
(whowasbythenafamousBuddhistscholar)fortheirown.After
seventeenyearstheirpatienceranoutandtheysentanarmyto
defeathisrecalcitrantcaptorsandbringhimback.Hearrivedin
Ch'ang-anintheyear401andimmediatelybeganaproject
crucialtothefutureofChineseBuddhism.Amodernscholarof
Chinesereligiontellswhathappenednext.

"...Chinesemonkswereassembledfromfarandneartowork
withhimintranslatingthesacredtexts.Thiswasa'highly
structuredproject,'suggestiveofthecooperativeenterprisesof
scientiststoday.Therewerecorpsofspecialistsatalllevels:
thosewhodiscusseddoctrinalquestionswithKumarajiva,those
whocheckedthenewtranslationsagainsttheoldandimperfect
ones,hundredsofeditors,sub-editors,andcopyists.Thequality
andquantityofthetranslationsproducedbythesemeninthe
spaceofeightyearsistrulyastounding.Thankstotheireffortsthe
ideasofMahayanaBuddhismwerepresentedinChinesewithfar
greaterclarityandprecisionthaneverbefore.SunyataNagar-
juna'sconceptoftheVoidwasdisentangledfromtheTaoist
terminologythathadobscuredanddistortedit,andthisandother
keydoctrinesofBuddhismweremadecomprehensibleenoughto
laytheintellectualfoundationsofthegreatageofindependent
ChineseBuddhismthatwastofollow."
17

TheChineserulerscontrivedtoputKumarajiva'sother
devotiontouseaswell,installingaharemoftenbeautifulyoung
Chinesegirlsforhim,throughwhomhewasencouragedto
perpetuatealineageofhisown.Thisgeneticexperiment
apparentlycametonothing,buttwonativeChinesestudying
underhim,Seng-chao(384-414)andTao-sheng(ca.360-434),
wouldcarryhiscontributionthroughthefinalstepsneededto
openthewayforthedevelopmentofCh'an.

SENG SENG SENG SENG- -- -CHAO CHAO CHAO CHAO

Theshort-livedSeng-chaowasborntoahumblefamilyinthe
Ch'ang-anregion,wherehereportedlygothisindispensable
groundingintheChineseclassicsbyworkingasacopyist.He
originallywasaconfirmedTaoist,butafterreadingthesutraof
Vimalakirti(whichdescribedapiousnoblemanwhocombinedthe
secularlifeofabonvivantbusinessmanwithaninnerexistence
ofBuddhistenlightenment,acombinationinstantlyattractiveto
thepracticalChinese),Seng-chaoturnedBuddhist.Intheyear
398,atagefifteen,hetraveledtothenorthwesttostudy
personallyunderthefamousKumarajiva,andhelaterreturnedto
Ch'ang-anwiththemaster.
ConversantfirstintheTaoistandthenintheBuddhist
classics,Seng-chaobegantherealsynthesisofthetwothat
wouldeventuallyevolveintoCh'an.TheChinascholarWalter
LiebenthalhaswrittenthatthedoctrineofNagarjuna'sMiddle
Path,sinicizedbySeng-chao,emergedinthelaterCh'anthinkers
cleansedofthetracesofIndianorigin.Hedeclares,"Seng-chao
interpretedMahayana,[theCh'anfounders]Hui-nengandShen-
huire-thoughtit."
18

ThreeofSeng-chao'streatisesexisttodayastheBookof
Chao(orChaoLun),andtheygiveanideaofhowChuangTzu
mighthavewrittenhadhebeenaBuddhist.Thereisthedistrust
ofwords,theunmistakablepreferenceforimmediate,intuitive
knowledge,andthemasterfuluseofwordplayandparadoxthat
leaveshismeaningambiguous.Mostimportantofall,hebelieved
thattruthhadtobeexperienced,notreasonedout.Truthwas
whatlaybehindwords;itshouldneverbeconfusedwiththe
wordsthemselves:

Athingcalledupbyanamemaynotappearaswhatitis
expectedtoappear;anamecallingupathingmaynotleadtothe
realthing.ThereforethesphereofTruthisbeyondthenoiseof
verbalteaching.Howthencanitbemadethesubjectof
discussion?StillIcannotremainsilent.
19

ThedeanofZenscholars,HeinrichDumoulin,declares,"The
relationshipofSeng-chaotoZenistobefoundinhisorientation
towardtheimmediateandexperientialperceptionofabsolute
truth,andrevealsitselfinhispreferencefortheparadoxasthe
meansofexpressingtheinexpressible."
20
Dumoulinalsonotes
thattheBookofChaoregardsthewaytoenlightenmentasoneof
gradualprogress.However,theideathattruthcanbeapproached
graduallywasdisputedbytheothermajorpupilofKumarajiva,
whoseinsistencethatenlightenmentmustarriveinstantaneously
hascausedsometodeclarehimtheideologicalfounderofZen.

TAO TAO TAO TAO- -- -SHENG SHENG SHENG SHENG

ThefamousTao-shengwasthefirstChineseBuddhisttoadvance
theideaof"sudden"enlightenment,andasaresultheearnedthe
enmityofhisimmediatecolleaguesandlastingfameashaving
anticipatedoneofthefundamentalinnovationsofZenthought.He
firststudiedBuddhismatLu-shan,butin405hemovedto
Ch'ang-an,becomingforawhileapartofthecoteriesurrounding
Kumarajiva.Noneofhiswritingssurvive,buttheworkofa
colleague,Hui-yuan,isusuallytakenasrepresentativeofhis
ideas.
Tao-shengisknowntodayfortwotheories.Thefirstwasthat
gooddeedsdonotautomaticallybringreward,arepudiationof
theIndianBuddhistconceptofmerit.Theother,andperhaps
moreimportant,deviationhepreachedwasthatenlightenment
wasinstantaneous.Thereason,hesaid,wassimple:since
Buddhistssaytheworldisone,nothingisdivisible,eventruth,
andthereforethesubjectiveunderstandingoftruthmustcomeall
atonceornotatall.Preparatoryworkandprogresstowardthe
goalofenlightenment,includingstudyandmeditation,could
proceedstep-by-stepandarewholesomeandworthwhile,butto
"reachtheothershore,"asthephraseintheHeartSutra
describesenlightenment,requiresaleapoveragulf,arealization
thatmusthityouwithallitsforcethefirsttime.
Whatexactlyisitthatyouunderstandontheothershore?
Firstyoucometorealizeasyoucanonlyrealizeintuitivelyand
directlythatenlightenmentwaswithinyouallalong.Youbecome
enlightenedwhenyoufinallyrecognizethatyoualreadyhadit.
Thenextrealizationisthatthereactuallyisno"othershore,"since
reachingitmeansrealizingthattherewasnothingtoreach.Ashis
thoughtshavebeenquoted:"Astoreachingtheothershore,if
onereachesit,oneisnotreachingtheothershore.Bothnot-
reachingandnot-not-reachingarereallyreaching....Ifonesees
Buddha,oneisnotseeingBuddha.Whenoneseesthereisno
Buddha,oneisreallyseeingBuddha."
21

LittlewonderTao-shengissometimescreditedasthespiritual
fatherofZen.Hechampionedtheideaofsuddenenlightenment,
somethinginimicaltomuchoftheBuddhismthathadgone
before,andhedistrustedwords(comparingthemtoanetwhich,
afterithascaughtthefishoftruth,shouldbediscarded).He
identifiedtheTaoistideaofwu-weior"nonaction"withthe
intuitive,spontaneousapprehensionoftruthwithoutlogic,
openingthedoorfortheCh'anmainstayof"no-mind"asawayto
ultimatetruth.

THESYNTHESIS THESYNTHESIS THESYNTHESIS THESYNTHESIS

Buddhismhasalwaysmaintainedaskepticalattitudetoward
realityandappearances,somethingobviouslyatoddswiththe
wholeheartedcelebrationofnaturethatcharacterizesTaoism.
WhereasBuddhismbelievesitwouldbebestifwecouldsimply
ignoretheworld,thesourceofourpsychicpain,theTaoists
wantednothingsomuchastohavecompleteunionwiththis
sameworld.BuddhismteachesunionwiththeVoid,whileTaoism
teachesunionwiththeTao.Atfirsttheyseemoppositedirections.
ButthesynthesisofthesedoctrinesappearedinZen,which
taughtthattheonenessoftheVoid,whereinallrealityis
subsumed,couldbeunderstoodasanencompassingwholeor
continuum,asintheTao.Botharemerelyexpressionsofthe
Absolute.TheBuddhistsunitewiththeVoid;theTaoistsyearnto
mergewiththeTao.InZenthetwoideasreconcile.
Withthisphilosophicalpreludeinplace,wemaynowturnto
themasterswhocreatedtheworldofZen.

PARTI PARTI PARTI PARTI

THEEARLYMASTERS THEEARLYMASTERS THEEARLYMASTERS THEEARLYMASTERS

...inwhichasixth-centuryIndianteacherofmeditation,
Bodhidharma,arrivesinChinatoinitiatewhatwouldbecomea
BuddhistschoolofmeditationcalledCh'an.Afterseveral
generationsaswanderers,theseCh'anteacherssettleintoaform
ofmonasticlifeandgraduallygrowinprominenceand
recognition.Outofthisprosperityemergesasplitintheeighth-
centuryCh'anmovement,betweenscholarlyurbanteacherswho
believeenlightenmentis"gradual"andrequirespreparationin
traditionalBuddhism,andruralCh'anistswhoscornsocietyand
insistenlightenmentisexperientialand"sudden,"owinglittleto
theprosperousBuddhistestablishment.Thenapopularteacher
ofruralCh'an,capitalizingonacivildisruptionthatmomentarily
weakenstheurbanelite,gainstheupperhandandemasculates
urbanCh'anthroughhispreachingthattheauthenticlineof
teachingmustbetracedtoanobscureteacherintheruralsouth,
nowrememberedastheSixthPatriarch,Hui-neng.




















CHAPTERONE CHAPTERONE CHAPTERONE CHAPTERONE

BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPA BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPA BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPA BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPATRIARCHOFZEN TRIARCHOFZEN TRIARCHOFZEN TRIARCHOFZEN

ThereisaZenlegendthatabeardedIndianmonknamed
Bodhidharma(ca.470-532),sonofaSouthIndianBrahminking,
appearedonedayatthesouthernChineseportcityofCanton,
sometimearoundtheyear520.Fromtherehetravelednortheast
toNanking,nearthemouthoftheYangtzeRiver,tohonoran
invitationfromChina'smostdevoutBuddhist,EmperorWuofthe
LiangDynasty.Afterafamousinterviewinwhichhisirreverence
lefttheemperordismayed,Bodhidharmapressedonwardtothe
Buddhistcentersofthenorth,finallysettlinginattheShao-lin
monasteryonMt.Sungfornineyearsofmeditationstaringata
wall.Hethentransmittedhisinsightsandacopyofthe
Lankavatarasutratoasuccessorandpassedoneither
physically,spiritually,orboth.Hisdevotiontomeditationandto
theaforementionedsutrawerehislegaciestoChina.Hewaslater
honoredasfatheroftheChineseDhyana,or"Meditation,"school
ofBuddhism,calledCh'an.
BodhidharmaattractedlittlenoticeduringhisyearsinChina,
andthefirsthistoricalaccountofhislifeisabriefmentionina
chroniclecompiledwelloverahundredyearsafterthefact,
identifyinghimmerelyasapractitionerofmeditation.However,
laterstoriesofhislifebecameincreasinglyembellished,ashe
wasslowlyelevatedtotheofficeofFirstPatriarchofChinese
Ch'an.Hislifewasmadetofulfilladmirablytherequirementsofa
legend,asitwasslowlyenvelopedinsymbolicanecdotes
illustratingthetruthmorerichlythandidmerefact.However,most
scholarsdoagreethatthereactuallywasaBodhidharma,thathe
wasaSouthIndianwhocametoChina,thathepracticedan
intensiveformofmeditation,andthatashorttreatiseascribedto
himisprobablymoreorlessauthentic.Althoughthelegend
attachedtothisunshavenIndianBuddhisttellsusfullyasmuch
aboutearlyCh'anasitdoesaboutthemanhimself,itis
nonethelessthefirstpageinthebookofZen.

[Bodhidharma],theTeacheroftheLaw,wasthethirdsonofa
greatBrahminkinginSouthIndia,oftheWesternLands.Hewas
amanofwonderfulintelligence,brightandfar-reaching;he
thoroughlyunderstoodeverythingthathehadeverlearned.Ashis
ambitionwastomasterthedoctrineoftheMahayana,he
abandonedthewhitedressofalaymanandputontheblackrobe
ofmonkhood,wishingtocultivatetheseedsofholiness.He
practicedcontemplationandtranquillization;heknewwellwhat
wasthetruesignificanceofworldlyaffairs.Insideandoutsidehe
wastranspicuous;hisvirtuesweremorethanamodeltothe
world.Hewasgrievedverymuchoverthedeclineoftheorthodox
teachingoftheBuddhaintheremoterpartsoftheearth.Hefinally
madeuphismindtocrossoverlandandseaandcometoChina
andpreachhisdoctrineinthekingdomofWei.
1

ChinaatthetimeofBodhidharma'sarrivalwasapolitically
dividedland,withthenewfaithofBuddhismoftensupplyinga
spiritualcommondenominator.Bodhidharmahappenedtoappear
atamomentwhenanemperorinthenorthwest,the
aforementionedWu(reigned502-49),hadbecomeafanatic
Buddhist.Shortlyaftertakingpower,Wuactuallyorderedhis
imperialhouseholdandallassociatedwiththecourttotakeup
BuddhismandabandonTaoism.Buddhistmonksbecamecourt
advisers,openingtheimperialcofferstobuildmanylavishand
subsequentlyfamoustemples.
EmperorWuledBuddhistassemblies,wrotelearned
commentariesonvarioussutras,andactuallydonatedmenial
workattemplesasalaydevotee.Healsoarrangedtohaveallthe
Chinesecommentariesonthesutrasassembledandcatalogued.
Concernedaboutthesanctityoflife,hebanishedmeat(andwine)
fromtheimperialtableandbecamesolaxaboutenforcing
criminalstatutes,particularlycapitalpunishment,thatcritics
creditedhisgoodnaturewithanincreaseincorruptionand
lawlessness.WhiletheTaoistsunderstandablyhatedhimandthe
Confucianistsbrandedhimadistractedineffectualsovereign,the
Buddhistssawinhimamodelemperor.Quitesimply,Emperor
WuwastosouthernChineseBuddhismwhatEmperor
ConstantinewastoChristianity.
TheemperorwasknownforhishospitalitytovisitingIndian
monks,anditisentirelypossiblehedidinviteBodhidharmaforan
audience.
2
Accordingtothelegend,EmperorWubeganalmost
immediatelytoregalehisvisitingdignitarywithachecklistofhis
owndedicationtothefaith,mentioningtemplesbuilt,clergy
invested,sutraspromulgated.Thelistwaslong,butatlasthe
paused,nodoubtpuzzledbyhisguest'sindifference.Probingfor
aresponse,heasked,"GivenallIhavedone,whatMerithaveI
earned?"Bodhidharmascowled,"Nonewhatsoever,your
majesty."Theemperorwasstunnedbythisreply,buthepressed
on,tryinganotherpopularquestion."Whatisthemostimportant
principleofBuddhism?"ThissecondpointBodhidharma
reportedlyansweredwiththeabrupt"Vastemptiness."
3
The
emperorwasequallypuzzledbythisanswerandindesperation
finallyinquiredwho,exactly,wasthebeardedvisitorstanding
beforehimtowhichBodhidharmacheerfullyadmittedhehadno
idea.Theinterviewendedasabruptlyasitbegan,with
Bodhidharmaexcusinghimselfandpressingon.Forhisfirst
miracle,hecrossedtheYangtzejustoutsideNankingonareed
andheadednorth.
ThelegendofBodhidharmapicksupagaininNorthChina,
nearthecityofLoyang.Thestoriesdiffer,butthemostenduring
oneslinkhisnamewiththefamousShao-linmonasteryonMt.
Sung.There,wearetold,hemeditatedfornineyearsfacinga
wall(therebyinventing"wallgazing")untilatlast,apiousversion
reports,hislegsfelloff.Atonetime,relatesanotherZenstory,he
caughthimselfdozingandinafitofragetoreoffhiseyelidsand
castthemcontemptuouslytotheground,whereuponbushesof
theteaplantZen'ssacramentaldrinksprangforth.Anotherstory
hashiminventingaChinesestyleofboxingasphysicaleducation
fortheweaklingmonksatShao-lin,therebyfoundingaclassic
Chinesediscipline.Butthemostfamousepisodesurroundinghis
stayattheShao-linconcernsthemonkHui-k'o,whowastobehis
successor.ThestorytellsthatHui-k'owaitedinthesnowsoutside
Shao-linfordaysonend,hopinginvaintoattractBodhidharma's
notice,untilfinallyindesperationhecutoffhisownarmtoattract
themaster'sattention.
Bodhidharmaadvocatedmeditation,sutras,andthetrappings
oftraditionalBuddhismasawaytoseeintoone'sownnature.His
legendsrepresentZeninitsformativeperiod,beforethemore
unorthodoxmethodsforshakingdisciplesintoanewmodeof
consciousnesshadbeendevised.However,oneofthestories
attributedtohimbylaterwriterssoundssuspiciouslylikeaZen
mondo(thetraditionalconsciousness-testingexchangebetween
masterandmonk).Accordingtothisstory,thediscipleHui-k'o
entreatedBodhidharma,saying,"Master,Ihavenotfoundpeace
ofmind.Ibegyoutopacifymymindforme."Bodhidharma
replied,"BringmeyourmindandIwillpacifyitforyou."Hui-k'o
wassilentforatime,finallyconcedinghecouldnotactuallyfind
hismind."There,"saidBodhidharma,"Ihavepacifieditforyou."
Thissymbolicstoryillustrateseloquentlytheconceptofthemind
asaperceiver,somethingthatcannotitselfbesubjecttoanalysis.
Logicalintrospectionisimpossible.Themindcannotexamine
itselfanymorethantheeyecanseeitself.Sincethemindcannot
becometheobjectofitsownperception,itsexistencecanonlybe
understoodintuitively,asHui-k'orealizedwhenhetriedtoplumb
itswhereaboutsobjectively.
TheactualteachingsofBodhidharmaarenotfullyknown.The
firstnoticeofthe"blue-eyedbarbarian"(aslaterChinesecalled
him)isintheChineseBuddhisthistoryentitledFurther
BiographiesofEminentPriests,usuallydatedaroundtheyear
645,morethanacenturyafterhecametoChina.Thisbiography
alsocontainsthebrieftextofanessayattributedtoBodhidharma.
Atthetimeitwascompiled,Bodhidharmahadnotyetbeen
anointedtheFirstPatriarchofZen:ratherhewasmerelyoneofa
numberofprieststeachingmeditation.Accordinglytherewould
havebeennoincentivetoembellishhisstorywithanapocryphal
essay,andforthisreasonmostauthoritiesthinkitisauthentic.
4
A
later,moredetailedversionoftheessaybyBodhidharmais
containedintheRecordsoftheTransmissionoftheLamp(A.D.
1004).Thislattertextisusuallytheonequoted,anditisagreedto
bethesuperiorliterarydocument.
5
Weareingoodcompanyifwe
acceptthisessayasamoreorlessaccuraterecordofthe
thoughtsoftheFirstPatriarch.
ThetextthatBodhidharmaleftwasmeanttoshowothersthe
severalwaystoenlightenment.

TherearemanywaystoenterthePath,butbrieflyspeaking,they
aretwosortsonly.Theoneis"EntrancebyReason"andtheother
"EntrancebyConduct."
6

Thefirstofthesepaths,theEntrancebyReason,mightmore
properlybecalledentrancebypureinsight.Thepathadvocated
seemsablendingofBuddhismandTaoism,bywhichthesutras
areusedasavehicleforleadingtheseekerfirsttomeditation,
andthentoanonliterarystateofconsciousnessinwhichall
dualities,allsenseofoneselfasapartfromtheworld,areerased.
ThisisanearlyandeloquentsummaryofZen'sobjectives.

By"EntrancebyReason"wemeantherealizationofthespiritof
Buddhismbytheaidofscripturalteaching.Wethencometo
haveadeepfaithintheTrueNaturewhichisoneandthesamein
allsentientbeings.Thereasonthatitdoesnotmanifestitselfis
duetotheoverwrappingofexternalobjectsandfalsethoughts.
Whenone,abandoningthefalseandembracingthetrue,andin
simplenessofthought,abidesinpi-kuan[puremeditationor"wall-
gazing"],onefindsthatthereisneitherselfhoodnorotherness,
thatthemassesandtheworthiesareofoneessence,andfirmly
holdsontothisbeliefandnevermovesawaytherefrom.Hewill
notthenbeguidedbyanyliteraryinstructions,forheisinsilent
communicationwiththeprincipleitself,freefromconceptual
discrimination,forheissereneandnot-acting.
7

Bodhidharmaisgivencreditforinventingthetermpi-kuan,
whoseliteraltranslationis"wall-gazing,"butwhoseactual
meaningisanyone'sguess.Pi-kuanissometimescalleda
metaphorforthemind'sconfrontationwiththebarrierofintellect
whichmusteventuallybehurdledifoneistoreachenlightenment.
Inanycase,thistextisanunmistakableendorsementof
meditationasameansfortranquilizingthemindwhile
simultaneouslydissolvingourimpulsetodiscriminatebetween
ourselvesandtheworldaroundus.Itpointsoutthatliterary
instructionscangoonlysofar,andatlasttheymustbe
abandonedinfavorofrelianceontheintuitivemind.
8

TheotherPath(orTao)hedescribedwascalledthe
"EntrancebyConduct"andinvokeshisIndianBuddhistorigins.
Thedescriptionof"conduct"wasdividedintofoursectionswhich,
takentogether,wereintendedtosubsumeorincludeallthe
possibletypesofBuddhistpractice.

By"EntrancebyConduct"ismeanttheFourActsinwhichall
otheractsareincluded.Whatarethefour?1.Howtorequite
hatred;2.Tobeobedienttokarma;3.Nottoseekafteranything;
and4.TobeinaccordwiththeDharma.
9

ThefirstActofConductcounseledthebelievertoendureall
hardships,sincetheyarepaymentforevildeedscommittedin
pastexistences.

Whatismeantby"Howtorequitehatred"?Thosewho
disciplinethemselvesinthePathshouldthinkthuswhenthey
havetostrugglewithadverseconditions:Duringtheinnumerable
pastagesIhavewanderedthroughmultiplicityofexistences,all
thewhilegivingmyselftounimportantdetailsoflifeatthe
expenseofessentials,andthuscreatinginfiniteoccasionsfor
hate,ill-will,andwrong-doing.Whilenoviolationshavebeen
committedinthislife,thefruitsofevildeedsinthepastaretobe
gatherednow.Neithergodsnormencanforetellwhatiscoming
uponme.Iwillsubmitmyselfwillinglyandpatientlytoalltheills
thatbefallme,andIwillneverbemoanorcomplain.IntheSutrait
issaidnottoworryoverillsthatmayhappentoyou.Why?
Becausethroughintelligenceonecansurvey[thewholechainof
causation].Whenthisthoughtarises,oneisinconcordwiththe
principlebecausehemakesthebestuseofhatredandturnsit
intotheserviceofhisadvancetowardsthePath.Thisiscalledthe
"waytorequitehatred."
10

ThesecondRuleofConductistobereconciledtowhatever
comes,goodorevil.ItseemstoreflecttheTaoistattitudethat
everythingiswhatitisandconsequentlyvaluejudgmentsare
irrelevant.Ifgoodcomes,itistheresultofmeritoriousdeedsina
pastexistenceandwillvanishwhenthestoreofcausativekarma
isexhausted.Theimportantthingtorealizeisthatnoneofit
mattersanyway.

Weshouldknowthatallsentientbeingsareproducedbythe
interplayofkarmicconditions,andassuchtherecanbenoreal
selfinthem.Themingledyarnsofpleasureandpainareall
wovenofthethreadsofconditioningcauses....Therefore,let
gainsandlossesruntheirnaturalcoursesaccordingtotheever
changingconditionsandcircumstancesoflife,fortheMinditself
doesnotincreasewiththegainsnordecreasewiththelosses.In
thisway,nogalesofself-complacencywillarise,andyourmind
willremaininhiddenharmonywiththeTao.Itisinthissensethat
wemustunderstandtheruleofadaptationtothevariable
conditionsandcircumstancesoflife.
11

ThethirdRuleofConductwastheteachingoftheBuddhathata
cessationofseekingandaturningtowardnonattachmentbrings
peace.

Menoftheworldremainunawakenedforlife;everywherewefind
themboundbytheircravingandclinging.Thisiscalled
"attachment."Thewise,however,understandthetruth,andtheir
reasontellsthemtoturnfromtheworldlyways.Theyenjoypeace
ofmindandperfectdetachment.Theyadjusttheirbodily
movementstothevicissitudesoffortune,alwaysawareofthe
emptinessofthephenomenalworld,inwhichtheyfindnothingto
covet,nothingtodelightin....Everyonewhohasabodyisan
heirtosufferingandastrangertopeace.Havingcomprehended
thispoint,thewisearedetachedfromallthingsofthe
phenomenalworld,withtheirmindsfreeofdesiresandcraving.
Asthescripturehasit,"Allsufferingsspringfromattachment;true
joyarisesfromdetachment."Toknowclearlytheblissof
detachmentistrulytowalkonthepathoftheTao.
12

ThefourthRuleofConductwastodissolveourperceptionof
object-subjectdualitiesandviewlifeasaunifiedwhole.This
mergingofselfandexteriorworldBodhidharmacallspuremindor
purereason.

TheDharmaisnothingelsethanReasonwhichispureinits
essence.ThispureReasonistheformlessFormofallForms;itis
freeofalldefilementsandattachments,anditknowsofneither
"self"nor"other."
13

HavingsetforththisratherelegantstatementofZenand
Buddhistideals,asascribedtoBodhidharma,itunfortunatelyis
necessarytoaddthatitappearstohavebeentakendirectlyfrom
theVajrasamadhiSutra(attributingquotationsfromthesutrasto
Patriarchswascommon),withthesoleexceptionofthetermpi-
kuan.
14
Attheveryleast,thelegendatthistimedoesnotportray
Bodhidharmaasadespiserofthesutras.Hewas,infact,usinga
sutraasavehicletopromotehispracticeofintensivemeditation.
ItisnotknownwhatrolemeditationplayedinBuddhismatthis
time.However,thescholarHuShihquestionshowwellitwas
understood."[AnearlyBuddhisthistorian's]Biographies,which
coveredthewholeperiodofearlyBuddhisminChinafromthefirst
centurytotheyear519,containedonly21namesof'practitioners
ofdhyana(meditation)'outofatotalofabout450.Andpractically
allofthe21dhyanamonkswererecordedbecauseoftheir
remarkableasceticismandmiraculouspowers.Thisshowsthatin
spiteofthenumerousyogamanualsintranslation,andinspiteof
thehighrespectpaidbyintellectualBuddhiststothedoctrineand
practiceofdhyana,therewere,aslateas500,practicallyno
ChineseBuddhistswhoreallyunderstoodorseriouslypracticed
dhyanaorZen."
15

PerhapsBodhidharma,arrivingin520,felthispraiseof
meditation,usingthewordsofanexistingsutra,couldrouse
ChineseinterestinthisformofBuddhism.Asitturnedout,hewas
successfulbeyondanythinghecouldhaveimagined,althoughhis
successtookseveralcenturies.AsD.T.Suzukisumsitup,
"WhiletherewasnothingspecificallyZeninhisdoctrineof'Two
EntrancesandFourActs,'theteachingofpi-kuan,wall-
contemplation,waswhatmadeBodhidharmathefirstpatriarchof
ZenBuddhisminChina."
16
Suzukiinterpretspi-kuanasreferring
tothemindinathoughtlessstate,inwhichmeditationhas
permittedtherationalmindtobesuppressedentirely.Theuseof
meditationforthisgoalinsteadoffordevelopingmagicalpowers,
ashadbeenthegoalofearlierdhyanamasters,seemstohave
beentheprofoundnewideaintroducedtoChinaby
Bodhidharma.
17

ThepassageofBodhidharmaisalsoswathedinlegend.What
eventuallyhappenedtothistravelingIndianguru?Didhedieof
poison,asonelegendsays;ordidhewanderofftoCentralAsia,
asanotherreports;ordidhegotoJapan,asstillanotherstory
wouldhaveit?Thestorythathasbeenthemostenduring
(recordedinaSungwork,Ching-tech'uan-teng-lu)tellsthatafter
nineyearsattheShao-linmonasterydecidedtoreturntoIndia
andcalledtogetherhisdisciplestotesttheirattainment.Thefirst
disciplereportedlysaid,"AsIviewit,torealizethetruthweshould
neitherrelyentirelyonwordsandlettersnordispensewiththem
entirely,butratherweshouldusethemasaninstrumentofthe
Way."Tothis,Bodhidharmareplied,"Youhavegotmyskin."
Nextanuncameforwardandsaid,"AsIviewit,theTruthis
likeanauspicioussightingoftheBuddhistParadise;itisseen
onceandneveragain."TothisBodhidharmareplied,"Youhave
attainedmyflesh."
Thethirddisciplesaid,"Thefourgreatelementsareempty
andthefiveskandhas[constituentsofthepersonality:body,
feelings,perception,will,andconsciousness]arenonexistent.
Thereis,infact,nothingthatcanbegrasped."Tothis
Bodhidharmareplied,"Youhaveattainedmybones."
Finally,itwasHui-k'o'sturn.Butheonlybowedtothemaster
andstoodsilentathisplace.TohimBodhidharmasaid,"You
haveattainedmymarrow."
18

Accordingtoacompetingstory,Bodhidharmadiedof
poisoningattheageof150andwasburiedinthemountainsof
Honan.
19
NottoolongthereafteralayBuddhistnamedSungYun,
whowasreturningtoChinaafteratriptoIndiatogathersutras,
metBodhidharmainthemountainsofTurkestan.TheFirst
Patriarch,whowaswalkingbarefootcarryingasingleshoe,
announcedhewasreturningtoIndiaandthatanativeChinese
wouldarisetocontinuehisteaching.SungYunreportedthisto
Bodhidharma'sdisciplesonhisreturnandtheyopenedthe
master'sgrave,onlytofinditemptysavefortheothershoe.
HowmuchofthestoryofBodhidharmaislegend?The
answerdoesnotreallymatterallthatmuch.AswithMoses,if
Bodhidharmahadnotexisteditwouldhavebeennecessaryto
inventhim.Althoughhisfirstfullbiography(ca.645)makesno
particularfussoverhim,lessthanacenturyafterthis,hewas
declaredthefounderofZen,providedwithalineagestretching
directlybackthroughNagarjunatotheBuddha,andfurnishedan
excitinganecdotalhistory.Yetasfoundersgo,hewasaworthy
enoughindividual.Hedoesseemtohavedevisedastrainof
Buddhistthoughtthatcouldsuccessfullybegraftedontothehardy
nativeChineseTaoistorganism.Healsoleftanactivedisciple,
latertobeknownastheSecondPatriarch,Hui-k'o,sohemust
havehadeitheracharismaticpersonalityoraphilosophical
positionthatdistinguishedhimfromthegeneralrunofmeditation
masters.
ItisimportanttokeepinmindthatBodhidharma,manand
myth,wastheproductofanearlyformofZen.Thelatermasters
neededalineage,andhewastappedfortheroleofFirst
Patriarch.ThemajorproblemwithBodhidharmawasthatmanyof
hisideaswereindirectcontradictiontothepositionadoptedby
laterZenteachings.Forinstance,recallthathepromotedthe
relianceonasutra(theLankavatara);andheheavilystressed
meditation(somethinglaterZenmasterswouldpartially
circumvent).TheJesuitscholarHeinrichDumoulinhasdeclared
thatBodhidharma'sattributedteachinginnowaydeviatesfrom
thegreatMahayanasutras.
20
Itis,infact,afarcryfromlaterZen
ideas,saysJohnWu,theChineseauthority.
21
Finally,heleftno
claimtopatriarchy,nordidhisfirstbiographeroffertodothisfor
him.
PerhapstheevolutionofZenisbestdemonstratedbythe
slowchangeinthepaintingsofBodhidharma,culminatinginthe
latter-dayportrayalsofhimasascowlinggrump.Hisimage
becamesuccessivelymoremisanthropicthroughthecenturies,
perhapsasawayofunderscoringthelaterZenpracticeof
establishingaratherdehumanizedrelationshipbetweentheZen
masterandpupil,asthemastershouts,beatsamonk,and
destroyshisegothroughmercilessquestion-and-answer
sessions.Forallweknow,the"wall-gazingBrahmin"ofancient
Chinamayhavehadawrysmiletogoalongwithhisdrollsense
ofhumor.Perhapsitisfittingtoclosewiththemostlasting
apocryphaassociatedwithhisname,towitthestanzathatlater
mastersattributedtohimasanallegedsummaryofhisteaching,
butwhichhe,promulgatoroftheLankavataraSutra,would
undoubtedlyhavedisowned:

Aspecialtransmissionoutsidethesutras;
Norelianceuponwordsandletters;
Directpointingtotheverymind;
Seeingintoone'sownnature.

ChapterTwo ChapterTwo ChapterTwo ChapterTwo

HUI HUI HUI HUI- -- -K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN

Hui-k'o(487-593)firstentersthehistoryofZenasaneager
Chinesescholardevotedtomeditation.Wishingtobecomea
discipleofthefamousIndianmonkwhohadrecentlyinstalled
himselfattheShao-linmonastery,Hui-k'osetupavigiloutside
thegate.Timepassedandthesnowsbegantofall,butstill
Bodhidharmaignoredhim,declaring,"Theincomparabledoctrine
ofBuddhismcanonlybecomprehendedafteralonghard
discipline,byenduringwhatismostdifficulttoendureandby
practicingwhatismostdifficulttopractice.Menofinferiorvirtue
arenotallowedtounderstandanythingaboutit."
1
FinallyHui-k'o
despairedandresortedtoanextrememeasuretodemonstrate
hissincerity:hecutoffhisownarmandofferedittothemaster.
(Thisactreportedlyhasbeenrepeatedsincebyanoccasional
overenthusiasticZennovice.)Evenasinglemindedmasterof
meditationlikeBodhidharmacouldnotignoresuchagesture,and
heagreedtoacceptHui-k'oashisfirstChinesedisciple.
UnlikeBodhidharma,Hui-k'oisnotamysterious,legendary
figure,butratherisrememberedbyadetailedhistorythat
interactsperiodicallywithknowneventsinChinesehistory.
2
He
camefromtheChifamilyandwasoriginallynamedSeng-k'o,only
laterbecomingknownasHui-k'o.Themostreliablereporthas
himcomingfromWu-lao,withareputationasascholarly
intellectualprecedinghim.Indeedheseemstohavebeena
Chinesescholarinthefinestsense,withadeepappreciationof
allthreemajorphilosophies:Confucianism,Taoism,and
Buddhism.Itwastowardthelast,however,thathe
slowlygravitated,finallyabandoninghisscholarlysecularlifeand
becomingaBuddhistmonk.Hewasaroundageforty,intheprime
ofwhatwastobeaverylonglife,whenhefirstencountered
BodhidharmaattheShao-linmonastery.Whetherhelosthisarm
byself-mutilation,asthelaterZenchroniclessay,orwhetherit
wasseveredinafightwithbandits,astheearliesthistoryreports,
mayneverbedetermined.
3
Thelaterstoryiscertainlymorepious,
buttheearlierwouldseemmoreplausible.
ForsixyearshestudiedmeditationwithBodhidharma,
graduallyretreatingfromthelifeofthescholarasheturnedaway
fromintellectualismandtowardpureexperience.When
Bodhidharmafinallydecidedtodepart,hecalledinallhis
disciplesforthefamoustestingoftheirattainmentrecountedin
Chapterl.
4
Hui-k'o,bysimplybowinginsilencewhenaskedwhat
hehadattained,provedthathisunderstandingofthemaster's
wordlessteachingwassuperior,anditwashewhoreceivedthe
LankavataraSutra.Theeventreportedlywassealedbyashort
refrain,nowuniversallydeclaredtobespurious,inwhich
BodhidharmapredictedthelaterdivisionofCh'anintofive
schools:

OriginallyIcametothisland
TotransmittheDharmaandtosaveallfromerror
Aflowerwithfivepetalsopens;
Ofitselfthefruitwillripen.
5

Asthestorygoes,Hui-k'oremainedattheShao-linforawhile
longerandthenwentunderground,supportinghimselfthrough
menialworkandlearningaboutChinesepeasantlifefirsthand.
Reportedly,hewantedtotranquilizehismind,toacquirethe
humilitynecessaryinagreatteacher,andnotincidentallyto
absorbtheLankavataraSutra.Whenaskedwhyhe,an
enlightenedteacher,chosetoliveamongmeniallaborers,he
wouldreplytartlythatthislifewasbestforhismindandinany
casewhathedidwashisownaffair.Itwasahardexistence,but
onehebelievedproper.Perhapsitwasinthisformativeperiod
thattheinnerstrengthofCh'an'sfirstChinesemasterwasforged.
Hui-k'o'smajorconcernduringthisperiodmustinevitably
havebeenthestudyoftheLankavataraSutraentrustedhimby
Bodhidharma.TheLankavatarawasnotwrittenbyaZenmaster,
nordiditcomeoutoftheZentradition,butitwastheprimary
scriptureofthefirsttwohundredyearsofCh'an.As
D.T.Suzukihasnoted,therewereatleastthreeChinese
translationsofthisSanskritsutrabythetimeBodhidharmacame
toChina.
6
However,heisusuallygivencredit,atleastinZen
records,fororiginatingthemovementlaterknownasthe
Lankavataraschool.Asthesutrawasdescribedbyanon-Ch'an
Chinesescholarintheyear645,"Theentireemphasisofits
teachingisplacedonPrajna(highestintuitiveknowledge),which
transcendsliteraryexpression.Bodhidharma,theZenmaster,
propagatedthisdoctrineinthesouthaswellasinthenorth,the
gistofwhichteachingconsistsinattainingtheunattainable,which
istohaverightinsightintothetruthitselfbyforgettingwordand
thought.Lateritgrewandflourishedinthemiddlepartofthe
country.Hui-k'owasthefirstwhoattainedtotheessential
understandingofit.Thoseaddictedtotheliteraryteachingof
BuddhisminWeiwereaversetobecomingassociatedwiththese
spiritualseers."
7

TheLankavatarapurportedlyrelaysthethoughtsofthe
BuddhawhileensconcedonamountainpeakinSriLanka.
Althoughtheworkisnotoriouslydisorganized,vague,and
obscure,itwastobethestoneonwhichHui-k'osharpenedhis
penetratingenlightenment.Themajorconceptitadvancesisthat
ofMind,characterizedbyD.T.Suzukias"absolutemind,tobe
distinguishedfromanempiricalmindwhichisthesubjectof
psychologicalstudy.Whenitbeginswithacapitalletter,itisthe
ultimaterealityonwhichtheentireworldofindividualobjects
dependsforitsvalue."
8
OnthequestionofMind,theLankavatara
hasthefollowingtosay:

...theignorantandthesimpleminded,notknowingthatthe
worldiswhatisseenofMinditself,clingtothemultitudinousness
ofexternalobjects,clingtothenotionsofbeingandnon-being,
onenessandotherness,bothnessandnot-bothness,existence
andnon-existence,eternityandnon-eternity....
9

AccordingtotheLankavatara,theworldandourperceptionof
itarebothpartofalargerconceptualentity.Theteachingsofthe
Lankavataracastthegravestdoubtontheactualexistenceofthe
thingswethinkwesee.Discriminationbetweenoneselfandthe
restoftheworldcanonlybefalse,sincebotharemerely
manifestationsofthesameencompassingessence,Mind.Our
perceptionistooeasilydeceived,andthisisthereasonwemust
notimplicitlytrusttheimagesthatreachourconsciousness.

...[I]tislikethosewaterbubblesinarainfallwhichhavethe
appearanceofcrystalgems,andtheignoranttakingthemforreal
crystalgemsrunafterthem....[T]heyarenomorethanwater
bubbles,theyarenotgems,noraretheynot-gems,becauseof
theirbeingsocomprehended[byoneparty]andnotbeingso
comprehended[byanother].
10

Realityliesbeyondthesepettydiscriminations.Theintellect,too,
ispowerlesstodistinguishtherealfromtheillusory,sinceall
thingsarebothandneitheratthesametime.Thisconvictionof
theLankavatararemainedatthecoreofZen,evenafterthesutra
itselfwassupplantedbysimpler,moreeasilyapproachedliterary
works.
AsHui-k'ostudiedtheLankavataraandpreached,he
graduallyacquiredareputationforinsightthattranscendedhis
deliberatelyunpretentiousappearance.Throughoutitall,heled
anitinerantlife,travelingaboutNorthChina.Itisreportedthathe
foundhiswaytothecapitaloftheeasternhalfoftheWeikingdom
afteritsdivisionintheyear534.Here,inthecityofYeh-tu,he
taughthisversionofdhyanaandopenedthewayto
enlightenmentformanypeople.Thoughunassuminginmanner
anddress,henonethelessarousedantagonismfromestablished
Buddhistcirclesbecauseofhissuccess,encounteringparticular
oppositionfromaconventionaldhyanateachernamedTao-huan.
AccordingtoFurtherBiographiesoftheEminentPriests(645),
Tao-huanwasajealousteacherwhohadhisownfollowingofas
manyasathousand,andwhoresenteddeeplythenonscriptural
approachHui-k'oadvocated.Thisspitefulpriestsentvariousof
hisfollowerstomonitorHui-k'o'steaching,perhapswithaneyeto
accusinghimofheresy,butallthosesentweresoimpressedthat
noneeverreturned.Thenonedaytheantagonisticdhyanamaster
metoneofthoseformerpupilswhohadbeenwonoverbyHui-
k'o'steachings.D.T.Suzukitranslatestheencounterasfollows:

WhenTao-huanhappenedtomeethisfirstmessenger,heasked:
"HowwasitthatIhadtosendforyousomanytimes?DidInot
openyoureyeaftertakingpainssomuchonmypart?"The
formerdisciple,however,mysticallyanswered:"Myeyehasbeen
rightfromthefirst,anditwasthroughyouthatitcametosquint."
11

ThemessagewouldseemtobethatHui-k'otaughtareturnto
one'soriginalnature,totheprimalmanwithoutartificiallearning
ordoctrinalpretense.Outofresentmentthejealousdhyana
masterreportedlycausedHui-k'otoundergoofficialpersecution.
Inlateryears,beginningaround574,therewasatemporary
butthoroughpersecutionofBuddhisminthecapitalcityof
Ch'ang-an.Sometimeearlier,anambitioussorcererandapostate
BuddhistnamedWeihaddecidedtogainabitofnotorietyfor
himselfbyattackingBuddhism,thenapowerfulforceinCh'ang-
an.Intheyear567hepresentedadocumenttotheemperor
claimingthatBuddhismhadallowedunsavorysocialtypesto
enterthemonasteries.HealsoattackedworshipoftheBuddha
imageonthegroundthatitwasun-Chineseidolatry.Instead,he
proposedasecularizedchurchthatwouldincludeallcitizens,with
thegullibleemperorsuggestedfortheroleof"pope."The
emperorwastakenwiththeideaandafterseveralyearsof
complexpoliticalmaneuvering,heproscribedBuddhisminNorth
China.
Asaresult,Hui-k'owasforcedtofleetothesouth,wherehe
tookuptemporaryresidenceinthemountainousregionsofthe
YangtzeRiver.Thepersecutionwasshort-lived,sincethe
emperorresponsiblediedsoonafterhisdecree,whereuponHui-
k'oreturnedtoCh'ang-an.However,thesepersecutionsmayhave
actuallycontributedtothespreadofhisteaching,byforcinghim
totravelintothecountryside.
TheonlyauthenticfragmentofHui-k'o'sthoughtthathas
survivedrecordshisanswertoaninquirysentbyalaydevotee
namedHsiang,whoreportedlywasseekingspiritualattainment
aloneinthejungle.Theinquiry,whichseemsmoreastatement
thanaquestion,wentasfollows:

...hewhoaspirestoBuddhahoodthinkingittobeindependent
ofthenatureofsentientbeingsistobelikenedtoonewhotriesto
listentoanechobydeadeningitsoriginalsound.Thereforethe
ignorantandtheenlightenedarewalkinginonepassageway;the
vulgarandthewisearenottobedifferentiatedfromeachother.
Wheretherearenonames,wecreatenames,andbecauseof
thesenames,judgmentsareformed.Wherethereisno
theorizing,wetheorize,andbecauseofthistheorizing,disputes
arise.Theyareallphantomcreationsandnotrealities,andwho
knowswhoisrightandwhoiswrong?Theyareallempty,no
substantialitieshavethey,andwhoknowswhatisand
whatisnot?Sowerealizethatourgainisnotrealgainandour
lossnotrealloss.ThisismyviewandmayIbeenlightenedifIam
atfault?
12

This"question,"ifsuchitis,soundssuspiciouslylikeasermon
andstands,infact,asaneloquentstatementofZenconcerns.
Hui-k'oreportedlyansweredasfollows,inafragmentofaletter
thatishisonlyknownextantwork.

YouhavetrulycomprehendedtheDharmaasitis;thedeepest
truthliesintheprincipleofidentity.Itisduetoone'signorance
thatthemani-jewelistakenforapieceofbrick,butlo!whenone
issuddenlyawakenedtoself-enlightenmentitisrealizedthatone
isinpossessionoftherealjewel.Theignorantandthe
enlightenedareofoneessence,theyarenotreallytobe
separated.Weshouldknowthatallthingsaresuchastheyare.
Thosewhoentertainadualisticviewoftheworldaretobepitied,
andIwritethisletterforthem.Whenweknowthatbetweenthis
bodyandtheBuddha,thereisnothingtoseparateonefromthe
other,whatistheuseofseekingafterNirvana[assomething
externaltoourselves]?
13

Hui-k'oinsiststhatallthingsspringfromtheoneMind,and
consequentlytheideasofduality,ofattachmenttothisorthat
phenomenon,oreventhepossibilityofchoice,areequally
absurd.Althoughheknewalltoowellthatenlightenmentcould
notbeobtainedfromteaching,hestilldidnotadvocatearadical
breakwiththetraditionalmethodsoftheBuddhistdhyana
masters.Hisstylewasunorthodox,buthisteachingmethods
werestillconfinedtolecturesandmeditation.Thislow-key
approachwasstillclosertothetraditionoftheBuddhathantothe
jarringtechniquesof"suddenenlightenment"destinedtoeruptout
ofChineseCh'an.
Towardtheendofhislife,Hui-k'owasbackinCh'ang-an,
livingandteachinginthesameunassumingmanner.Hisfree-
lancestyleseemstohavecontinuedtooutragethemore
conventionalteachers,andalaterstoryrecordsamartyr'sdeath
forhim.
14
Oneday,whilealearnedmasterwaspreachinginside
theK'uang-chouTemple,Hui-k'ochancedbyandstartedtochat
withthepassersbyoutside.Graduallyacrowdstartedtocollect,
untileventuallythelecturehallofthereveredpriestwasemptied.
Thisfamouspriest,rememberedasPien-ho,accusedtheragged
Hui-k'otothemagistrateCheCh'ung-j'anasateacheroffalse
doctrine.Asaresulthewasarrestedandsubsequentlyexecuted,
animpious106-year-oldrevolutionary.

ChapterThree ChapterThree ChapterThree ChapterThree

SENG SENG SENG SENG- -- -TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO- -- -HSIN,FA HSIN,FA HSIN,FA HSIN,FA- -- -JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG- -- -JEN: JEN: JEN: JEN:
FOUREARLYMASTERS FOUREARLYMASTERS FOUREARLYMASTERS FOUREARLYMASTERS


TheFifthPatriarch,Hung TheFifthPatriarch,Hung TheFifthPatriarch,Hung TheFifthPatriarch,Hung- -- -jen(left) jen(left) jen(left) jen(left)

ThemastersucceedingHui-k'owasSeng-ts'an(d.606),whothen
taughtFa-jung(594-657)andTao-hsin(580-651),thelatterin
turnpassingtherobeofthepatriarchytoHung-jen(601-74).The
mastersSeng-ts'an,Tao-hsin,andHung-jenarehonoredtoday
astheThird,Fourth,andFifthPatriarchs,respectively,and
reveredasthetorchbearersofCh'an'sformativeyears.Yetwhen
welookforinformationabouttheirlives,wefindthesourcesthin
anddiffuse.Onereasonprobablyisthatbefore700nobody
realizedthatthesemenwouldonedaybeelevatedtofounding
fathers,andconsequentlynoonebotheredrecordingdetailsof
theirlives.
Duringtheseventhcenturythescatteredteachersofdhyana
seemtohavegraduallycoalescedintoasortofadhoc
movementwithsizablefollowingsgrowinguparoundthebetter-
knownfigures.Acertainamountofrespectabilityalsoemerged,if
wecanbelievethereferencestoimperialnoticethatstart
appearinginthechronicles.Itwouldseemthatthedhyanaor
Ch'anmovementbecameamoreorlesscoherentsect,a
recognizableiflooselydefinedschoolofBuddhism.However,
whatthemovementapparentlywasstrivingtobecomewasnotso
muchabranchofBuddhisminChinaasaChineseversionof
Buddhism.ThemenlaterrememberedastheThird,Fourth,and
FifthPatriarchshaveincommonastruggletobendBuddhist
thoughttoChineseintellectualrequirements,tosinicize
Buddhism.Whereastheysucceededonlyinsettingthestagefor
thistransformation(whoserealizationwouldawaitotherhands),
theydidestablishapersonalitypatternthatwouldsetapartall
latermasters:ablitheirreverencethatowedasmuchtoChuang
TzuastoBodhidharma.
Whenreadingthebiographiesthatfollow,itisusefultokeep
inmindthattheexplicitdetailsmaywellhavebeencookedupin
lateryearstosatisfyanaturalChineseyearningforanecdotes,
withorwithoutsupportinginformation.Yetthefactthatthe
dhyanapractitionerseventuallybecameamovementinneedofa
historyisitselfproofthatthesemenandtheirstorieswerenot
completeinventions.Inanycase,theywereremembered,
honored,andquotedinlateryearsasthelegendaryfoundersof
Ch'an.

SENG SENG SENG SENG- -- -TSAN,THETHIRDPATRIARCH(d.606) TSAN,THETHIRDPATRIARCH(d.606) TSAN,THETHIRDPATRIARCH(d.606) TSAN,THETHIRDPATRIARCH(d.606)

ThequestionoftheSecondPatriarchHui-k'o'ssuccessorwas
troublesomeevenfortheancientCh'anhistorians.Theearliest
versionofhisbiography(writtenin645,beforethesectofCh'an
anditsneedforahistoryexisted)declares,"Before[Hui-k'o]had
establishedalineagehedied,leavingnoworthyheirs."Whenit
laterbecamenecessaryforCh'antohaveanuninterrupted
patriarchy,arevisedhistorywaspreparedwhichsuppliedhiman
heirnamedSeng-ts'an,towhomheissaidtohavetransmitted
thedoctrine.
1
ThestoryoftheirmeetingrecallsHui-k'o'sfirst
exchangewithBodhidharma,savethattherolesarereversed.
ThetextimpliesthatSeng-ts'anwassufferingfromleprosywhen
hefirstencounteredHui-k'o,andthatheimploredtheMasterfor
reliefinamostun-Zenlikeway,saying:"Iamingreatsuffering
fromthisdisease;pleasetakeawaymysins."
Hui-k'orespondedwith,"Bringmeyoursins,andIwilltake
themaway."
Afteralongsilence,Seng-ts'anconfessed,"I'velooked,butI
cannotfindthem."
TowhichHui-k'oreplied,echoingBodhidharma'sclassic
rejoinder,"Behold,youhavejustbeencleansed."
AnotherversionofthestorysaysHui-k'ogreetedSeng-ts'an
withthewords,"Youaresufferingfromleprosy;whyshouldyou
wanttoseeme?"
TothisSeng-ts'anresponded,"Althoughmybodyissick,the
mindofasickmanandyourownmindarenodifferent."
Whateveractuallyhappened,itwasenoughtoconvinceHui-
k'othathehadfoundanenlightenedbeing,onewhoperceived
theunityofallthings,andheforthwithtransmittedtoSeng-ts'an
thesymbolsofthepatriarchytherobeandbeggingbowlof
Bodhidharmatellinghimthatheshouldtakerefugeinthe
Buddha,theDharma(theuniversaltruthproclaimedbyBuddha),
andtheSangha(theBuddhistorganizationorpriesthood).Seng-
ts'anrepliedthatheknewoftheSangha,butwhatwasmeantby
theBuddhaandtheDharma?Theanswerwasthatallthreewere
expressionsofMind.
2

ThisexchangeseemstohavetakenplacewhileHui-k'owas
inthenorthernWeicapitalofYeh-tu.
3
InlateryearsSeng-ts'an
founditnecessarytofeignmadness(toescapepersecution
duringtheanti-Buddhistmovementof574),andfinallyhewentto
hideonHuan-kungmountainfortenyears,wherehismere
presencereportedlywasenoughtotamethewildtigerswhohad
terrorizedthepeoplethere.Theonlysurvivingworkthat
purportedlyrelayshisteachingisapoem,saidtobeoneofthe
earliestCh'antreatises,whichiscalledtheHsin-hsin-ming,or"On
theBelievingMind."
4
Itstartsoffinalyrical,almostTaoist,voice
worthyofChuangTzu,asitcelebratesman'soriginalnatureand
thefollyofstriving.

ThereisnothingdifficultabouttheGreatWay
But,avoidchoosing!
Onlywhenyouneitherlovenorhate,
Doesitappearinallclarity.

Donotbeanti-orpro-anything.
Theconflictoflongingandloathing,
Thisisthediseaseofthemind.
Notknowingtheprofoundmeaningofthings,
Wedisturbour(original)peaceofmindtonopurpose.
5

Next,thepoemturnstoanacknowledgmentofthe
Mahayanistconceptoftheall-encompassingMind,thegreatest
singletruthoftheuniverse,andofNagarjuna'sVoid,thecosmic
emptinessofsunyata.

ThingsarethingsbecauseoftheMind.
TheMindistheMindbecauseofthings.
Ifyouwishtoknowwhatthesetwoare,
TheyareoriginallyoneEmptiness.
InthisVoidboth(Mindandthings)areone,
Allthemyriadphenomenacontainedinboth.
6

ThepoemcloseswithanaffirmationoftheCh'ancredoofunity
andtheabsenceofdualityasasignofenlightenment.

IntheWorldofReality
Thereisnoself,noother-than-self.
...
Allthatcanbesaidis"NoDuality!"
Whenthereisnoduality,allthingsareone,
Thereisnothingthatisnotincluded.
...
Thebelievingmindisnotdual;
Whatisdualisnotthebelievingmind.
Beyondalllanguage,
Foritthereisnopast,nopresent,nofuture.
7

SincetheearliesthistoricalsourcesmaintainthatSeng-ts'an
leftnowritings,somehavequestionedtheattributionofthislilting
worktotheThirdPatriarch.Whateveritsauthorship,thereal
importanceofthepoemliesinitssubtlemergingofTaoismand
Buddhism.WecanwatchasthevoicesofancientChinaand
ancientIndiaareblendedtogetherintoaperfectharmonyuntilthe
partsareinseparable.Itwasanobleattempttoreconcile
BuddhistmetaphysicswithChinesephilosophicalconcepts,andit
wassuccessfulinalimitedway.AsforSeng-ts'an,thelegends
tellthathefinallywasovercomebyhislongingforthesouthand,
handingdownthesymbolsofthepatriarchytoapriestnamed
Tao-hsin,hevanished.

TAO TAO TAO TAO- -- -HSIN,THEFOURTHPATRIARCH(580 HSIN,THEFOURTHPATRIARCH(580 HSIN,THEFOURTHPATRIARCH(580 HSIN,THEFOURTHPATRIARCH(580- -- -651) 651) 651) 651)

China,whosepoliticalturmoilhadsenttheearlyPatriarchs
scurryingfromonesmallkingdomtoanother,foundunityandthe
beginningsofstabilityunderadynastyknownastheSui(581-
618),thefirstinthreeandahalfcenturies(sincetheendofthe
Hanin220)abletounifytheland.
8
Thisbriefdynasty(whichsoon
wasreplacedbytheresplendentT'ang)cametobedominatedby
theEmperorYang,acraftypoliticianwhomaneuveredthethrone
awayfromanelderbrotherpartially,itissaid,bydemonstrating
tohisparentshisindependenceofmindbyabandoningallthe
childrenhebegatintheladies'quarters.Whereashisfatherhad
undertakentherenovationoftheNorthChinesecapitalofCh'ang-
annotincidentallycreatingoneofthegloriesoftheancientworld
andthesiteofthefinestmomentsofthelaterT'angDynasty
EmperorYangdecidedtoreconstructthecityofLoyang,some
twohundredmilestotheeast.Theresultwasa"WesternCapital"
atCh'ang-anandan"EasternCapital"atLoyang,thelattercity
soontobethelocationofsomepivotalepisodesinCh'anhistory.
FortheconstructionofLoyang,afairylandofpalacesand
gardens,millionsofcitizenswereconscriptedandtensof
thousandsdiedunderforcedlabor.EmperorYang'sother
monumentwasagrandcanal,linkingtheYellowRiverinthe
northwiththerichagriculturaldeltasoftheYangtzeinthesouth,
nearNanking.Theemperorlovedtobebargeddownthisvast
waterwayjourneysthatunsympathetichistorianshaveclaimed
weremerelyexcusestoseeksexualdiversionsawayfromthe
capital.Inanycase,hisextravagancesbankruptedthecountry
andbroughtabouthisoverthrowbythemanwhowouldbecome
thefounderoftheT'angDynasty,latertoreignunderthenameof
EmperorT'ai-tsung(ruled626-49).
TheT'angisuniversallyregardedasoneofthegreatagesof
man,anditisalsoconsideredtheGoldenAgeofCh'an.The
foundingemperor,T'ai-tsung,wasawiseandbeneficent"Sonof
Heaven,"asChineserulerswerestyled.
9
Underhisinfluence,the
capitalcityofCh'ang-anbecamethemostcosmopolitan
metropolisintheancientworld,withsuchwidespreadinfluence
thatwhenthefirstvisitingJapanesecameuponit,theywereso
dazzledtheyreturnedhomeandbuiltareplicafortheirown
capitalcity.Thecitywaslaidoutasagrid,withlavishvermilion
imperialpalacesandgardensclusteredregallyatoneend.Its
inhabitantsnumberedupwardoftwomillion,whileitsinternational
marketsandfleshpotswerecrowdedwithtradersfromthefarthest
reachesofAsiaandEurope,echoingwithatrulyastounding
cacophonyoftongues:Indian,Japanese,Turkish,Persian,
RomanLatin,andArabic,nottomentionthemanydialectsof
Chinese.ChristiansmovedamongtheBuddhists,asdidMuslims
andJews.Artisansworkedwithsilver,gold,jewels,silks,and
porcelains,evenaspoetsgatheredinwineshopstonibblefruits
andrelaxwithround-eyedforeignservinggirls.Suchwerethe
worldlyattractionsofCh'ang-anduringtheearlyseventhcentury.
Thisnewsophisticationandurbanization,aswellasthepolitical
stabilitythatmadeitallpossible,wasalsoreflectedinthechange
inCh'anfromaconcernchieflyofnomadicdhyanateachers
hidinginthemountainstothefocusofsettledagricultural
communitiescenteredinmonasteries.
ThegrowthinCh'antowardanestablishedplaceinChinese
lifebegantoconsolidateundertheFourthPatriarch,Tao-hsin,the
manwhoselifespannedtheSuiandtheearlyT'angdynasties.
Heisbestrememberedtodayfortwothings:First,hewas
particularlydedicatedtomeditation,practicingitmoreavidlythan
hadanydhyanamastersinceBodhidharma;andsecond,heis
creditedwithbeginningthetruemonastictraditionforCh'an.His
formationofaself-supportingmonasticcommunitywithitsown
agriculturalbaseundoubtedlybroughtCh'analongwaytoward
respectabilityinChineseeyes,sinceitreducedthedependence
onbegging.Itinerantmendicants,evenifteachersofdhyana,had
neverelicitedtheadmirationinChinatheytraditionallyenjoyedin
theIndianhomelandoftheBuddha.Beggingwasbelievedto
fashioncharacter,however,anditneverdisappearedfromCh'an
discipline.Indeed,Ch'anissaidtohaveencouragedbegging
morethandidanyoftheotherChineseBuddhistsects,butasa
closelyregulatedformofmoraltraining.
Tao-hsin,whosefamilynamewasSsu-ma,camefrom
Honan,buthelefthomeatseventostudyBuddhismandmetthe
ThirdPatriarch,Seng-ts'an,whilestillinhisteens.WhenSeng-
ts'andecidedtodropoutofsight,heaskedthisbrilliantpupilto
takeuptheteachingofdhyanaandBodhidharma'sLankavatara
SutraatamonasteryonMt.Lu.Tao-hsinagreedandremained
foranumberofyears,attractingfollowersandreportedly
performingatleastonenotablemiracle.Thestorysaysthathe
savedawalledcityfrombeingstarvedoutbybanditsby
organizingaprogramofpublicsutrachantingamongitspeople.
Wearetoldthattherobbersretiredoftheirownaccordwhile,as
thoughbymagic,previouslydrywellsinthecityflowedagain.
OnedaynottoolongthereafterTao-hsinnoticedanunusual
purplecloudhangingoveranearbymountain.Takingthisasa
sign,heproceededtosettlethere(themountainlaterbecame
knownasShuang-fengor"TwinPeaks")andfoundthefirstCh'an
community,presidingoveravirtualarmyofsomefivehundred
followersforthenextthirtyyears.
Heisrememberedtodayasacharismaticteacherwhofinally
stabilizeddhyanateaching.Inanageofpoliticalturmoil,many
intellectualsflockedtothenewschoolofCh'an,withitspromiseof
tranquilmeditationinuneasytimes.Tao-hsinapparently
encouragedhisdisciplestooperateaformofcommune,inwhich
agricultureanditsadministrationweremergedwiththepracticeof
meditation.
10
Insodoing,heseemsnotonlytohave
revolutionizedtherespectabilityofdhyanapractice,butalsoto
havebecomesomethingofanationalfigurehimself.This,atany
rate,iswhatwemaysurmisefromoneofthemoredurable
legends,whichhashimdefyinganimperialdecreetoappear
beforetheemperor,T'ai-tsung.
Thislegendconcernsanepisodewhichallegedlytookplace
aroundtheyear645.Asthestorygoes,animperialmessenger
arrivedonedayatthemountainretreattosummonhimtothe
palace,butTao-hsinturnedhimdowncold.Whenthemessenger
reportedthistotheemperor,theresponsewastosendbacka
renewedinvitation.Againthemessengerwasmetwitharefusal,
alongwithachallenge.
"Ifyouwishmyhead,cutitoffandtakeitwithyou.Itmaygo
butmymindwillnevergo."
Whenthisreplyreachedtheemperor,heagaindispatched
themessenger,thistimebearingasealedswordandasummons
forthemaster'shead.Buthealsoincludedacontradictorydecree
requiringthatTao-hsinnotbeharmed.Whenthemasterrefused
athirdtimetocometothepalace,themessengerreadthedecree
thathisheadshouldbesevered.Tao-hsinobliginglybentover,
withthecommand"Cutitoff."Butthemessengerhesitated,
admittingthattheimperialordersalsoforbadeharminghim.On
hearingthisTao-hsinreportedlyroaredwithlaughter,saying,
"Youmustknowthatyoupossesshumanqualities."
11

TheFourthPatriarch'steachingsarenotwellknown,other
thanforthefactthathesupposedlydevisedandpromotednew
techniquestohelpnovicesachieveintensivemeditation.The
followingexcerptofhisteachingillustrateshisfervorfordhyana.
Sitearnestlyinmeditation!Thesittinginmeditationisbasictoall
else.Bythetimeyouhavedonethisforthreetofiveyears,you
willbeabletowardoffstarvationwithabitofmeal.Closethe
doorandsit!Donotreadthesutras,andspeaktonoman!Ifyou
willsoexerciseyourselfandpersistinitforalongtime,thefruit
willbesweetlikethemeatwhichamonkeytakesfromthe
nutshell.Butsuchpeopleareveryrare.
12

Thede-emphasisonthesutraspointsthewaytolaterCh'an.
Interestingly,however,theusefulnessofsittinginmeditation
wouldalsocomeunderreviewinonlyafewshortyears,whenthe
newstyleofCh'anappeared.
ThereportsofTao-hsinsaythatHung-jen,whowasto
becometheFifthPatriarch,wasoneofhisfollowersandgrasped
theinnermeaningofhisteaching.ItwasHung-jenwhomhe
askedtoconstructamausoleuminthemountainside,thesiteof
hisfinalrepose,andwhenitwasfinishedheretiredthereforhis
lastmeditation.Afterhepassedaway,hisbodywaswrappedin
lacqueredcloth,presentingavisionsomagnificentthatnoone
couldbeartoclosethemausoleum.
Asidefromhishistoricalplaceasthefounderofthefirstreal
communityforCh'an,thereislittlethatcanbesaidwith
assuranceaboutTao-hsin.However,amanuscriptdiscovered
earlyinthiscenturyintheBuddhistcavesatTun-huang
purportedlycontainsasermonbytheFourthPatriarchentitled
"AbandoningtheBody."

Themethodofabandoningthebodyconsistsfirstinmeditatingon
Emptiness,wherebythe[conscious]mindisemptied.Letthe
mindtogetherwithitsworldbequieteddowntoaperfectstateof
tranquility;letthoughtbecastinthemysteryofquietude,sothat
themindiskeptfromwanderingfromonethingtoanother.When
themindistranquilizedinitsdeepestabode,itsentanglements
arecutasunder....ThemindinitsabsolutepurityisliketheVoid
itself.
13

ThetextgoesontoquotebothLaoTzuandChuangTzu,aswell
assomeoftheoldersutras,andthereisaconsiderablereference
toNagarjuna'sEmptiness.Thistext,realorspurious,isonemore
elementinthemergingofTaoismandBuddhismthatwasearly
Ch'an,evenasitsanalysisofthemindstateachievedin
meditationanticipateslaterCh'anteachings.

FA FA FA FA- -- -JUNG,THEST.FRANCISOFZEN(594 JUNG,THEST.FRANCISOFZEN(594 JUNG,THEST.FRANCISOFZEN(594 JUNG,THEST.FRANCISOFZEN(594- -- -657) 657) 657) 657)

IntheparadeofPatriarchs,weshouldnotoverlookthemaverick
Fa-jung,amasterwhowasneverofficiallycrownedaPatriarch,
butwhosehumanitymadehimalegend.
14
Fa-jung(594-657),
whosefamilynamewasWei,wasborninaprovinceonthesouth
bankoftheYangtzeRiverandinhisearlyyearswasastudentof
Confucianthought.Butbeforelonghisyearningforspiritual
challengeledhimtoBuddhism.Hefinallysettledinarockcavein
thesideofacliffnearafamousmonasteryonMt.Niu-t'ou,where
hissanctityreportedlycausedbirdstoappearwithofferingsof
flowers.
AccordingtotheZenchronicleTransmissionoftheLamp
(1004),sometimebetween627and649theFourthPatriarch,
Tao-hsin,sensedthatafamousBuddhistwaslivingonMt.Niu-
t'ouandwenttheretosearchouttheman.Aftermanydaysof
seeking,hefinallycameuponaholyfigureseatedatoparock.As
thetwomeditationmasterswerebecomingacquainted,there
suddenlycametheroarofatigerfromthebramblefartherupthe
mountain.Tao-hsinwasvisiblystartled,causingFa-jungfriendof
theanimalstoobservewryly,"Iseeitisstillwithyou."His
meaning,ofcourse,wasthatTao-hsinwasstillenslavedbythe
phenomenalworld,wasnotyetwhollydetachedfromhisfears
andperceptions.
Aftertheyhadchattedawhilelonger,Fa-jungfoundoccasion
toleavehisseatandattendnatureatadetachedlocation.During
hisabsenceTao-hsinwrotetheChinesecharacterforthe
Buddha'snameontheveryrockwherehehadbeensitting.When
Fa-jungreturnedtoresumehisplace,hewasmomentarily
broughtupshortbytheprospectofsittingontheBuddha'sname.
Expectingthis,Tao-hsinsmiledandsaid,"Iseeitisstillwithyou."
HehadshownthatFa-jungwasstillintimidatedbythe
trappingsofclassicalBuddhismandhadnotyetbecomea
completelydetachedmasterofthepureMind.Thestorysaysthat
Fa-jungfailedtounderstandhiscommentandimploredTao-hsin
toteachhimCh'an,whichtheFourthPatriarchproceededtodo.
Tao-hsin'smessage,onceagain,wastocounsel
nondistinction,nonattachment,nondiscrimination;hesaidto
abjureemotions,values,striving.Justbenaturalandbewhatyou
are,forthatisthepartofyouthatisclosesttotheBuddhistideal
ofmentalfreedom.

Thereisnothinglackinginyou,andyouyourselfarenodifferent
fromtheBuddha.ThereisnowayofachievingBuddhahoodother
thanlettingyourmindbefreetobeitself.Youshouldnot
contemplatenorshouldyoupurifyyourmind.Lettherebeno
cravingandhatred,andhavenoanxietyorfear.Beboundless
andabsolutelyfreefromallconditions.Befreetogoinany
directionyoulike.Donotacttodogood,nortopursueevil.
Whetheryouwalkorstay,sitorliedown,andwhateveryousee
happentoyou,allarethewonderfulactivityoftheGreat
EnlightenedOne.Itisalljoy,freefromanxietyitiscalled
Buddha.
15

AfterTao-hsin'svisit,thebirdsofferingflowersnolonger
appeared:evidence,saidthelaterCh'anteachers,thatFa-jung's
physicalbeinghadentirelyvanished.HisschoolonMt.Niu-t'ou
flourishedforatime,teachingthatthegoalsofCh'anpractice
couldberealizedbycontemplatingtheVoidofNagarjuna.AsFa-
junginterpretedtheteachingsoftheMiddlePath:

Alltalkhasnothingtodowithone'sOriginalNature,whichcan
onlybereachedthroughsunyata.No-thoughtistheAbsolute
Reality,inwhichthemindceasestoact.Whenone'smindisfree
fromthoughts,one'snaturehasreachedtheAbsolute.
16

AlthoughFa-jung'steachingshappenedtobetransmittedto
Japaninlateryears,throughtheaccidentofapassingJapanese
pilgrim,hisschooldidnotendureineithercountrybeyondthe
eighthcentury.HiswasthefirstsplintergroupofZen,and
perhapsitlackedtheinnovationnecessarytosurvive,becauseit
clungtoomuchtotraditionalBuddhism.
AsFa-jung'syearsadvanced,hewasencouragedtocome
downfromhismountainandliveinamonastery,whichhisbetter
judgmenteventuallycompelledhimtodo.Itisreportedthatafter
hisfinalfarewelltohisdiscipleshewasfolloweddownthe
mountainbythelamentsofallitsbirdsandanimals.Amore
ordinaryteacherwouldhavebeenforgotten,butthisbelovedSt.
FrancisofZenbecamethetopicoflecturesandamaster
rememberedwithreverenceeverafter.

HUNG HUNG HUNG HUNG- -- -JEN,THEFIFTHPATRIARCH(601 JEN,THEFIFTHPATRIARCH(601 JEN,THEFIFTHPATRIARCH(601 JEN,THEFIFTHPATRIARCH(601- -- -74) 74) 74) 74)

Theotherwell-knowndiscipleoftheFourthPatriarch,Tao-hsin,
wasthemanhistoryhasgiventhetitleofFifthPatriarch,Hung-jen
(601-74).ThechroniclessaythathecamefromTao-hsin'sown
provinceandimpressedthemasterdeeplywhen,atagefourteen,
heheldhisownwiththeFourthPatriarchinanintroductory
interview.Astheexchangehasbeendescribed,Tao-hsinasked
theyoungwould-bedisciplehisfamilyname,butsincetheword
for"familyname"ispronouncedthesameasthatfor"nature,"
Hung-jenansweredthequestionasthoughithadbeen,"Whatis
your'nature'?"deliberatelymisinterpretingitinordertosay,"My
'nature'isnotordinary;itistheBuddha-nature."
Tao-hsinreportedlyinquired,"Butdon'tyouhavea'family
name'?"
TowhichHung-jencleverlyreplied,"No,fortheteachingssay
thatour'nature'isempty."
17

Hung-jenwentontobecomethesuccessortotheFourth
Patriarch,withanestablishmentwhereseveralhundredfollowers
gathered.Thechronicleshavelittletosayabouttheactuallife
andteachingsoftheFifthPatriarch,butnomatter.Hisplacein
historyissecurednotsomuchforwhathesaidthereisactually
verylittlethatcanreliablybeattributedtohimbutratherforhis
accidentalappearanceatthegreatcrossroadsofZen.Hung-jen
andhismonasterybecamethesymbolofagreatphilosophical
debatethatoccupiedthefirsthalfoftheeighthcentury,aconflict
tobeexaminedindetailinthetwochapterstofollow.Sufficeitto
sayherethatthechroniclesatleastagreethathewasaneminent
priestandwellrespected,amantowhomanearly-eighth-century
documentattributeselevendisciplesofnote.
18
Amongthoselisted
whoareparticularlyimportanttotheeventsthatfollowareamonk
namedShen-hsiuandanothernamedHui-neng,themenwhose
nameswouldonedaybeassociatedwithacelebratedmidnight
poetrycontestinHung-jen'smonastery.
Thiscontesteventuallycametosymbolizetheconflict
betweentheteachingsofgradualenlightenmentandsudden
enlightenment,betweenintellectualandintuitiveknowledge,
betweensophisticatedurbanBuddhismandunletteredrural
teachers,andbetweenpromotersoftheabstrusebutchallenging
LankavataraSutrasanctionedbyBodhidharmaandthecryptic
DiamondSutra.Quitesimply,itwasabattlebetweenwhatwould
eventuallybeknownastheNorthernandSouthernschoolsof
Ch'an,anditconcernedtwofundamentallyopposingviewsofthe
functionsofthehumanmind.Asthingsturnedout,thegradual,
Northern,LankavataraSutrafactionwentonforyearsthinkingit
hadwonorperhapsnotreallyawarethattherewasabattlein
progresswhiletheanti-intellectual,Southern,DiamondSutra
factionwasgatheringitsstrengthinthehinterlandsforafinal
surgetovictory.WhentheSouthernschooldidstrike,itwonthe
warhandilyandthenproceededtorecastthehistoryofwhathad
gonebefore,evengoingsofarastoputposthumouswordsof
praiseforitselfintothemouthsoftheonce-haughtyNorthern
masters.Thusthemightywereeventuallybroughtlowandthe
humbleliftedupintheannalsofCh'an.Itistothetwomasters
whosenamesareassociatedwiththisbattlethatwemustturn
next.

ChapterFour ChapterFour ChapterFour ChapterFour

SHEN SHEN SHEN SHEN- -- -HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN- -- -HUI: HUI: HUI: HUI:
"GRADUAL" "GRADUAL" "GRADUAL" "GRADUAL"AND"SUDDEN"MASTERS AND"SUDDEN"MASTERS AND"SUDDEN"MASTERS AND"SUDDEN"MASTERS

WhereastheCh'anPatriarchsofearliertimeshadbeen,more
oftenthannot,fractiousteachersignoredbyemperorsandgentry
alike,theT'angDynastysawCh'anmastersrisetoofficial
eminence,receivinghonorsfromthehighestofficeinChina.The
firsthalfoftheeighthcenturywitnessedwhatwastobethe
greatestbattlewithintheschoolofCh'an,butitwasalsothetime
whenCh'anwasfinallyrecognizedbyChineserulingcircles.The
namemostoftenassociatedwiththisimperialrecognitionisthe
famous,orperhapsinfamous,EmpressWu.
1

Wuwasnotborntoroyalty,butintheyear638,whenshe
wasthirteen,shewasplacedinEmperorT'ai-tsung'sharemasa
concubineofrelativelylowrank.Disapprovinghistoriansclaim
thatonedayshemanagedtocatchthecrownprince,theheir
apparenttotheagingemperor,inwhatwetodaymight
euphemisticallycallthebathroom,andseducedhimatamoment
whenhewaswithoutbenefitoftrousers.Thusshewasalreadyon
familiartermswiththenextemperorwhenherofficialhusband,
EmperorT'ai-tsung,wenttohisancestorsinthesummerof649.
Althoughshewasonlytwenty-fouryearsold,customrequiredthat
shejoinallthedeceasedemperor'sconcubinesinretirementata
monasterywhichordinarilywouldhavebeenthelastanyone
heardofher.Asithappened,however,thenewemperor'sfirst
wifewaschildless,withtheeffectthathebegandevoting
increasingattentiontoafavoriteconcubine.Knowingofthe
emperor'searlieracquaintanceandinfatuationwithWu,the
barrenempressrecalledherfromtheconvent,intendingtodivert
theemperorfromhiscurrentfavorite.Thecure,however,turned
outtobefarmoredeadlythantheailment.
Throughanintriguethatapparentlyincludedmurderingher
ownchildbytheemperorandthenblamingtheempress,Wu
soonhadboththeempressandthecompetingconcubinein
prison.Notcontentwithmereimprisonmentforherrivals,she
wentontohavethembothboiledaliveafterfirstamputatingtheir
handsandfeet,elicitingadyingcursefromtheconcubinethat
shewouldreturnasacattohauntWu.Toescapethiscurse,Wu
permanentlybannedcatsfromtheimperialcompound,and
eventuallypersuadedtheemperortomovethegovernmentfrom
Ch'ang-antoLoyang,whereforthenexthalfcenturyshetriedto
exorcisethememoryofherdeed.Inlate683Wu'shusband,the
emperor,died,andforatimesheallowedhisson,thetrueheir,to
occupythethroneuntilshecouldfindapretexttotakeoverthe
governmentcompletely.
Acoupleofyearsaftertheemperor'sdeath,whenWuwas
agedsixty,shebecameinfatuatedwithalustypeddlerof
cosmeticsandaphrodisiacs,amanwhosevirilityhadmadehima
favoritewithvariousservingladiesaroundthepalace.Togivehim
arespectablepost,sheappointedhimabbotofthemajor
BuddhistmonasteryofLoyangenablinghimtosatisfy,asitwere,
adoubleofficeintheserviceofthestate.Hisanticsandthoseof
hisfollowersdidthecauseofBuddhismlittlegoodoverthenext
fewyears.Whenin695hisarrogancefinallybecametoomuch
evenforWu,shehadhimstrangledbythecourtladiesandhis
bodysentbacktothemonasteryinacart.AlthoughWuis
rememberedtodayasanardentBuddhist,somehavesuggested
thatherdevotionsturnedasmuchtotheclaimsoffortunetelling
byBuddhistnuns(someofwhoseorganizationsinLoyang
reportedlyranbrothelsontheside)astoapiousconcernwith
Indianphilosophy.

SHEN SHEN SHEN SHEN- -- -HSIU(605 HSIU(605 HSIU(605 HSIU(605- -- -706),THEFIRST"SIXTHPATRIARCH" 706),THEFIRST"SIXTHPATRIARCH" 706),THEFIRST"SIXTHPATRIARCH" 706),THEFIRST"SIXTHPATRIARCH"

Itisknownthataround701EmpressWuinvitedanagingCh'an
monknamedShen-hsiu,followeroftheLankavataraschoolof
Bodhidharma,tocomenorthtotheimperialcapitalfromhis
monasteryincentralChina.
2
Hewasoverninetyatthetimeand
hadamassedalifelongreputationforhisrigorouspracticeof
dhyana.Shen-hsiuagreedreluctantly,reportedlyhavingtobe
carriedonapalletintothepresenceoftheempress.Itissaidthat
Wucurtsiedtohim,anunusualactforaheadofstate,and
immediatelymovedhimintothepalace,whereheseemstohave
becomethepriest-in-residence.AsforwhyEmpressWuwould
havechosentohonoralineageofCh'anBuddhism,ithasbeen
pointedoutthatshewasatthetimeattemptingtosupplantthe
establishedT'angDynastyofherlatehusbandwithoneofher
own.AndsincetheT'angemperorshadhonoredaBuddhist
lineage,itwasessentialthatshedothesamebutoneofa
differentschool.Shen-hsiuwasbotheminentandunclaimed,an
idealcandidatetobecomethecourtBuddhistforherfledgling
dynastywhich,needlesstosay,wasneverestablished.
Nonetheless,Shen-hsiuwasgiventhetitleof"Lordofthelawof
Ch'ang-anandLoyang,"andhepreachedtovastcrowdsdrawn
fromtheentirenorthernregions.Tosolidifyhiseminence,Wuhad
monasteriesbuiltinhishonorathisbirthplace,athismountain
retreat,andinthecapital.
Shen-hsiu,whobrieflyreignedastheSixthPatriarchof
Ch'an,wasdescribedintheearlychroniclesasasensitiveand
brightchildwho,outofdespairfortheworld,earlyonturnedaway
fromConfucianismtobecomeaBuddhistmonk.Atageforty-six
hefinallyfoundhiswaytotheEastMountainretreatoftheFifth
Patriarch,Hung-jen,wherehestudiedunderthemasteruntil
achievingenlightenment.Asnotedpreviouslyhewasamongthe
elevenmostprominentindividualsrememberedfromthe
monasteryoftheFifthPatriarch.Helaterleftthemonasteryand
traveledforalmosttwodecades,duringwhichtimeanotherofthe
studentsofHung-jen,Fa-ju,eclipsedhiminfameandfollowers.
However,Shen-hsiuseemstohavebeenthebestknownMaster,
eventuallybecomingthetitularheadoftheLankavatarafaction,
alsotobeknownastheNorthernschoolpossiblybecauseShen-
hsiubroughtittotheurbanized,sophisticatedcapitalsofNorth
China,LoyangandCh'ang-an.ThiswasCh'an'smostimperial
moment,andnolessthanastateministercomposedthe
memorialepitaphforShen-hsiu'sgravestone.Althoughhis
specificteachingsarenotwellknown,aversesurvivesfromone
ofhissermonsthatseemstosuggestthattheteachingsofCh'an
werereallyteachingsofthemindandowedlittletotraditional
Buddhism.

TheteachingofalltheBuddhas
Inone'sownMindoriginallyexists:
ToseektheMindwithoutone'sSelf,
Islikerunningawayfromthefather.
3

AfterhediedapupilnamedP'u-chi(d.739)carriedonhis
organizationinthecapital.Thiswasthehighpointofofficial
Ch'an,signifyingthemomentoftheLankavataraschool'sgreatest
prestige.
Perhapsmostimportant,thesuccessofShen-hsiuwasalso
thesuccessofCh'an,orwhatappearedtobesuccess.Thesect
hadrisenfrombeingthepassionofhomelessteachersofdhyana
totheobjectofimperialhonorsinthemidstofChina'sfinest
moment,theT'angDynasty.TheT'angwasaneratobe
rememberedforeverforitspoetry,itsart,itsarchitecture,its
culturalbrilliance.
4
UnfortunatelyforNorthernCh'an,thiscultural
brilliancewasbeginningtobetheprovinceofgroupsotherthan
thebluebloodedgentrythattraditionallyhadcontrolledChina's
culture.ThegloriesoftheT'angweretosomedegreethecreation
ofthenon-gentry,andanoutcastwarriorwouldbeforelongbring
thegovernmenttoitsknees,evenasanobscureCh'anmaster
fromtheruralsouthwassoontoeraseShen-hsiu'sseemingly
permanentplaceinhistory.

SHEN SHEN SHEN SHEN- -- -HUI(670 HUI(670 HUI(670 HUI(670- -- -762),THE"MARTINLUTHER"OFCH'AN 762),THE"MARTINLUTHER"OFCH'AN 762),THE"MARTINLUTHER"OFCH'AN 762),THE"MARTINLUTHER"OFCH'AN

TheDavidtoShen-hsiu'sGoliathwasamasterwithasimilar-
soundingname:Shen-hui.Thistheologicalstreetfighterwasa
nativeoftheprovinceofHupeh,somedistancesouthofthelavish
twinT'angcaptialsofCh'ang-anandLoyang.
5
Hebeganasa
Taoistscholar,butlaterturnedtoBuddhism,travelingeven
farthersoutharoundhisfortiethyeartobecomethediscipleofa
priestnamedHui-neng,whosetemplewasTs'ao-ch'i,justnorthof
thesouthernportcityofCantoninKuangtungprovince.Itwillbe
rememberedthatHui-neng(whoselegendwewillexploreinthe
nextchapter)hadalsobeenadiscipleoftheFifthPatriarch,
Hung-jen,studyingalongsideShen-hsiu.Shen-huiisthoughtto
havestudiedunderHui-nengforaroundfiveyears,untilthe
latter'sdeathin713.AfterthishetraveledaboutChina,endingup
atHua-t'ai,slightlynortheastofthecapitalofLoyang.Heseems
tohavebeenamanofcharismaticpresence,onewhoinspired
followerseasily.Then,intheyear732,ataconvocationofCh'an
worthiesatthetemple,hemountedtheplatformand,inahistoric
moment,declaredthatthegreatCh'anorganizationsofChina,
heretoforebeholdentoShen-hsiuasSixthPatriarch,were
followingafalsemaster.
6

ThehistoricalsignificanceofthisconvocationandShen-hui's
attackmightbelikenedtothedefiantactofMartinLuther,when
hechallengedchurchhierarchyinsixteenth-centuryGermany.
Withsuperbaudacity,Shen-huiwentontospelloutanewhistory
ofCh'anthatsupportedhisclaims.Hisrevisedchronicle
culminatedwiththenameofhisoldteacherHui-neng,theretofore
anobscurefolloweroftheFifthPatriarch,Hung-jen,whomhe
declaredSixthPatriarch.HeinsistedthatShen-hsiu,theman
honoredbyEmpressWu,hadposedfalselyastheheirofHung-
jen.TheNorthernschoolofShen-hsiuandhisheir,P'u-chi,had
perpetratedahistoricaldeceit,saidShen-hui,robbingthetrue
SixthPatriarch,thesouthernerHui-neng,ofhisduerecognition.
ForShen-huitohavechallengedthehand-pickedschoolofthe
rulingfamilywasanincrediblycourageousact,butperhapsone
thatwasjustaudaciousenoughtowinpublicsympathy.
Hetoutedthisnewpropositionmoreorlessfull-timebetween
theyears732and745,ashetraveledaboutNorthChinaandgot
toknowtheofficialsoftheT'angregime.Hispoliticalstanding
graduallyimprovedandhewaseventuallyinvited(in745,atage
seventy-seven)toLoyangtoassumeleadershipofthegreatHo-
tsetemple.Althoughtheparticularobjectofhiscriticism,Shen-
hsiu'sdiscipleP'u-chi,haddiedin739,Shen-hui'sattacksonthe
lineagecontinuedundiminished.Politicsfinallycaughtupwith
him,however,whenafollowerofShen-hsiu's"Northern"Ch'an
namedLuI,whojusthappenedtobechiefofimperialcensors,
accusedhimofplottingagainstthegovernment(citingas
evidencethelargecrowdsheroutinelyattracted).Finally,
EmperorHsuan-tsung(grandsonofEmpressWu)himself
summonedShen-huifromLoyangtoCh'ang-an,wherehe
questionedthemasterandfinallysenthimintoexileinthedeep
south.Thiswasabout753.ItwasatthispointthatChinese
politicalhistoryandCh'ancollide,forthethronewassoontoneed
Shen-hui'shelp.
EmperorHsuan-tsung(reigned712-756)hasbeencredited
bymanywiththewreckoftheT'angDynasty.Atthebeginningof
hisreignthecapitalhadbeenintheeastatLoyang(where
EmpressWuhadmovedit.toescapehermemories),butthe
aristocracyinthewestsuccessfullypressuredhimtobringitback
toCh'ang-an.InhisdecliningyearsHsuan-tsungbecame
infatuatedwiththewifeofhisson,aladynowinfamousin
ChinesehistoryasYangKuei-fei.Shesubsequentlywasdivorced
byherhusbandandbecameamemberoftheemperor'sharemin
738,comingtoenjoyenormousinfluenceinaffairsofstate.She
hadfirstbeenbroughttotheemperor'sattentionbyoneofher
relatives,andintypicalChinesestylesheprocuredgovernment
postsforallavailablemembersofherfamily.AsthepoetTuFu
(712-770)describedhermachinations:

Somanycourtiersnowthrongaroundthecourt
Thathonestmenmusttremble;
Andit'ssaidthatthegoldplatefromthetreasury
HasgonetothekinsmenofLadyYang.
7

Althoughnoneofthesebloodrelativeseverrosetotherich
opportunitiesthesituationafforded,anotherofherfavorites
compensatedabundantlyfortheirpoliticalineptitude.
HisnamewasAnLu-shan,a"barbarian"ofTurkish
extraction,bornin703,whofirstenteredChinaasaslavetoan
officerinanortherngarrisonoftheempire.Afterdistinguishing
himselfasasoldier,hecametotheattentionofYangKuei-fei,
whowassocharmedbythemanthatsheadoptedhimasher
son.Beforelonghewasafamiliarfigureatthecourt,reportedly
veryfatandpossessingaflairforentertainingthebored
aristocracybyhisflippancy.Eventuallyhewasmadegovernorof
afrontierprovince,whereunderpretenseofaforeignthreathe
proceededtorecruitanarmyofalarmingproportionsand
questionableallegiance.
Meanwhile,backinthecapital,LadyYangandherrelatives
hadtakenoverthegovernment,whereupontheyunwisely
decidedthatAnLu-shanshouldbebroughtunderfirmercontrol.
Withtheirhostilityprovidinghimjustthepretextneeded,he
marchedhisnewarmytowardCh'ang-an,pausingonlylong
enoughtoconquerLoyangandproclaimhimselfemperor.This
wasinJanuary756.ByJulyhehadalsotakenCh'ang-an,from
whichtheroyalfamilyhadalreadyfled.Conditionsdeteriorated
sufficientlythatthetroopssupportingthethronedemanded,and
got,theheadofLadyYangKuei-feiasthepriceforcontinued
support.(Onimperialordersshewasstrangledbyaeunuch.)In
themeantime,theimperialT'angforcesfoundreinforcements,
includingsomeArabmercenaries.AfterabattleoutsideCh'ang-
anwhichleftAnLu-shan'sforcesindisarray,therebelwas
murdered,somesaybyhisownson.Soonthereafterthe
victoriousmercenariessackedandlootedLoyang,endingforever
itsprominenceinChinesehistory.ThegovernmentoftheT'ang
survived,butitwaspennilessafterthemanywaryearsinwhichit
couldnotenforcetaxation.
8

Thetimewasnow757,somefouryearsafterShen-hui's
banishment.Thedestitutegovernment,desperateformoney,
decidedtosetupordinationplatformsinthemajorcitiesacross
Chinaandraisecashbysellingcertificatesofinvestiturefor
Buddhistmonks.(Sinceentryintothepriesthoodremovedan
individualfromthetaxrolls,itwasacceptedpracticeforthe
Chinesegovernmenttorequireanadvancecompensation.)Shen-
hui'soratoricalgiftsweresuddenlyrememberedbysomeofhis
formerfollowers,andtheoldhereticwasrecalledtoassistinthe
fundraising.Hewassuchaneffectivefundraiserintheruinedcity
ofLoyangthatthegovernmentcommissionedspecialquartersto
bebuiltforhimonthegroundsofhisoldtemple,theHo-tse.(He
waslatertoberememberedastheMasterofHo-tse.)
Thepriceforhiscooperationseemstohavebeentheofficial
acceptanceofhisversionofCh'an'shistory.Inhisbattlewiththe
NorthernschoolofCh'anhehadoutlivedhisopponentsand
throughabizarreturnofeventshadfinallywontheday.Solely
throughhispersistence,theobscureSouthernCh'anmonkHui-
nengwasinstalledasSixthPatriarchinCh'anhistories(replacing
Shen-hsiu),andonehistorywentsofarastodeclareShen-hui
himselftheSeventhPatriarch.
ThephilosophicalsignificanceofwhatShen-hui's"Southern"
doctrinebroughttoCh'anhasbeendescribedasnothingless
thanarevolution.AmodernZenscholarhasclaimedthatShen-
hui'srevolutionproducedacompletereplacementofIndian
BuddhismwithChinesephilosophy,keepingonlythename.
Shen-hui,heclaims,sweptasideallformsofmeditationor
dhyanaandreplaceditwithaconceptcalledno-mind:the
doctrinesof"absenceofthought"and"seeingintoone'soriginal
nature."
9

Perhapsthisphilosophicalcoupd'etatmaybestbe
understoodbycomparingtheNorthernandSouthernteachings.
ThediscreditedNorthernschoolofShen-hsiuhadpreachedthat
theroadtoenlightenmentmustbetraversed"stepbystep,"that
therewereinfacttwostagesofthemindthefirstbeinga"false
mind"whichperceivestheworlderroneouslyindualities,andthe
seconda"truemind"whichispureandtranscendsall
discriminationsanddualities,perceivingtheworldsimplyasa
unity.Oneproceedsfromthe"falsemind"tothe"truemind"step
bystep,throughthesuppressionoferroneousthoughtprocesses
bythepracticeofdhyanaormeditation,inwhichthemindandthe
sensesslowlyreachastateofabsolutequietude.
TheSouthernschooltookissuewiththistheoryofthemind
onanumberofpoints.Tobegin,theysaidthatiftherereallyisno
dualityintheworld,thenhowcanthemindbedividedinto"false"
and"true"?Theyarguedthattheanswerquitesimplyisthatthere
isonlyonemind,whosemanyfunctionsareallmerely
expressionsofsingletruereality.Theunityofallthingsisthetrue
reality;ourmindsarealsopartofthisreality;anduponrealizing
this,youhaveachievedthesameenlightenmentexperienceonce
realizedbytheBuddha.Thereisno"falsemind"and"truemind,"
noristhereanyneedforalongprogramofdhyanatoslowly
suppressfalsethoughts.Allthatisneededistopractice"absence
ofthought"andtherebyintuitivelytorealizeasimpletruth:One
unitypervadeseverything.ThisrealizationtheycalledBuddha-
mind,anditcouldonlyhappen"allatonce"(not"stepbystep"),at
anytimeandwithoutwarning.Thismomentofprimalrealization
theycalled"seeingintoone'soriginalnature."
AlthoughShen-huiissomewhatvagueaboutexactlywhat
practiceshouldreplacemeditation,thescholarWalterLiebenthal
hasinferredthefollowingaboutShen-hui'sattitudetoward
"suddenenlightenment"asareplacementformeditation:"He
seemstohaverejectedmeditationinthetechnicalsenseofthe
word.Insteadofmethodicalendeavorsdesignedtopromote
religiousprogressherecommendsachangeofpointofview
leadingtonon-attachment....Non-attachmentinthiscase
meansthatexternalobjectsarenotallowedtocatchourfancy....

[A]thingrecollectedisisolated,itissingledoutofthewhole,
andisthusanillusion;forallshortoftheundifferentiated
continuumisillusive.Thesensesworkasusual...but'nodesire
isaroused.'...Thischangehappenssuddenly,thatis,itisnot
dependentuponprecedingexertions;itcanbebroughtabout
withoutfirstpassingthroughthestagesofacareer.Thatiswhyit
iscalled'suddenawakening.'"
10

LiebenthalinterpretsShen-huiassayingthatwhereasthe
purposeofmeditationshouldbemerelytoeraseourattachment
tophysicalthings,italsoremovesourcognizanceofthem,which
isnotnecessarilyarequirementfornonattachment.Itshouldbe
possibleforustobeawareoftheworldwithoutbeingattachedto
itandenslavedbyit.AccordingtoShen-hui'ssermon:

Whenthusmyfriendsaretoldtodiscardasuselessallthey
havelearnedbefore,thenthosewhohavespentfiftyormore,or
onlytwentyyearspracticingmeditation,hearingthis,mightbe
verymuchpuzzled....Friends,listenattentively,Ispeaktoyou
ofself-deception.Whatdoesself-deceptionmean?You,who
haveassembledinthisplacetoday,arecravingforrichesand
pleasuresofintercoursewithmalesandfemales;youarethinking
ofgardensandhouses....TheNirvanaSutrasays,"Togetridof
yourpassionsisnotNirvana;tolookuponthemasnomatterof
yours,thatisNirvana."
11

Sofarsogood;buthowdowereachthisstateofrecognition
withoutattachment?Apparentlythewayistosomehowfindour
originalstate,inwhichwewerenaturallyunattachedtothe
surroundingworld.Thewayistomentallydisassociateourselves
fromtheturmoilofsocietythatsurroundsusandlookinward,
touchingouroriginalnature.Inthisway,bothprajnaandsamadhi,
awarenessandnoninvolvement,whichhavebeendescribedas
theactiveandpassivesidesofmeditation,areachieved
simultaneously.

Now,letuspenetratetothatstateinwhichwearenotattached.
Whatdowegettoknow?Notbeingattachedwearetranquiland
guileless.Thisstateunderlyingallmotionsandpassionsiscalled
samadhi.Penetratingtothisfundamentalstateweencountera
naturalwisdomthatisconsciousofthisoriginaltranquilityand
guilelessness.Thiswisdomiscalledprajna.Theintimaterelation
betweensamadhiandprajnaisthusdefined.
...Ifnowyoupenetratetothatstateinwhichyourmindisnot
attached,andyetremainsopentoimpressions,andthusare
consciousofthefactthatyourmindisnotattached,thenyou
havereachedthestateoforiginalblanknessandtranquility.From
thatstateofblanknessandtranquilitytherearisesaninner
knowledgethroughwhichblue,yellow,red,andwhitethingsin
thisworldarewelldistinguished.Thatisprajna.Yetnodesires
arisefromthesedistinctions.Thatissamadhi.
...Itfollowsthatfreedomfromattachment(toexternalthings,
whichreplacesmeditationinCh'anBuddhism),enablesyouto
lookintotheheartofalltheBuddhasofthepast,andyetitis
nothingelsethanwhatyouyourselvesexperiencetoday.
12

Perhapsthemostrevolutionarythingaboutthisapproachwas
thatitseemedtoeliminatetheneedforallthetraditional
apparatusofBuddhism.Ithadlittleornothingtodowith
organizedreligion,andevenlessconnectionwiththemountains
ofIndianphilosophythathadgonebefore.Athousandyearsof
Indianthoughthadbeendistilleddowntoasingletruth:The
realizationofouroriginalnaturecomprisesenlightenment.Ifthis
weretakenatfacevalue,thentherewasnolongeranyneedfor
theBuddhistcommunity,thesutras,thechanting,even
meditation.Therewas,infact,nolongeranyneedforBuddhism.
Ithadbeenreduced,astheChinesescholarWing-tsitChanhas
observed,toaconcernforthemindalone.
Byredefiningmeditation,Shen-huihad"laidthefoundations
ofChineseZenwhichwasnoZenatall."
13
AsShen-huinow
describedmeditationordhyana:Sittingmotionlessisnodhyana;
introspectionintoyourownmindisnodhyana;andlookinginward
atyourowncalmnessisnodhyana.
14
...Hereinmyschool,to
havenothoughtsissitting,andtoseeone'soriginalnatureis
dhyana(Ch'an).
15

WhathappenedtoIndianmeditation?Nowonderthescholar
HuShihhasdescribedthisnewteachingasaChineserevolt
againstBuddhism.
ThepoliticaltriumphofShen-huimadeSouthernCh'anthe
officialsect,butitalsomeantthathe,nowoneoftheleading
religiousfiguresinChina,hadnecessarilybecomeapartofthe
rulingestablishment.LittlewonderthattheactualfutureofCh'an
soonrevertedbacktoruralteachers,menwhocouldmore
convincinglyclaimtodespisethewaysoftheworld,asthey
meditatedintheirsecludedmountainretreatsfarfromimperial
patronage.Shen-hui'sschoolof"Southern"Ch'anofHo-tse
temple,whichhadestablisheddominanceinthenorth,wassoon
tobeeclipsedbythesenewvigorousbutunletteredrural
Ch'anists.
16
Interestingly,theofficialrecognitionofthecourt
seemedtoquicklyextinguishanyschoolofCh'anthatreceivedit.
Shen-hsiuwashonoredbyEmpressWu,andhisschoolwasthen
supplantedbythatofShen-hui,whoseownimperialrecognition
andhonorsweresoontobedustinthehistoryofCh'an,asthe
newruralschoolburstonthesceneandeffectivelytookover.
17

ThedisorderssurroundingandfollowingtherebellionofAn
Lu-shanarecommonlyconsideredtodayassignalingthedecline
ofthegreatageoftheT'angDynasty.Theycertainlysignifiedthe
atrophyofthewar-tornNorthChinesecapitalsasthepolitical
powerinChina.LoyangandCh'ang-ancametobereplacedin
economicinfluencebythesouth,aregionrelativelyuntouchedby
theconstantstrugglesNorthChinahadtomountagainst
barbarianinvaders.Northernscholarsretiredtothepastoral
south,wheretheylazedinpeacefulgardensandrecalledthe
greatpoetsoftheearlyT'ang.ThusNorthernurbanCh'an
followedthegeneraldemiseofNorthChinesepoliticalstrength.
WasShen-huireallythefatherofthenew"meditationless"
Ch'anofthemind?Sometraditionalscholarsclaimitwasnot
reallyShen-huiwhorevolutionizedCh'an,butratherhismaster,
theSouthernteacherHui-neng.Forexample,D.T.Suzuki
believedthatwhereasShen-huiwascorrectinequating
meditationwiththeprimalknowledgeofselfcalledprajna,he
actuallytaughtthatthisknowledgecameaboutthroughrational
understandingratherthanintuition.
18
ItwasHui-neng,said
Suzuki,whocorrectlyunderstoodthatprajnawasintuitionand
whoknewthatitcouldberealizedonlythroughthe"sudden"path
ratherthanthroughthe"step-by-step"path.Thismaywellhave
beentrue.JustastheApostlePaulinterpretedtheteachingsofan
obscureprovincialteacher,JesusofNazareth,andpopularized
themamongtheurbancentersoftheRomanEmpire,soShen-hui
dispensedtheideasofHui-nenginnortherncities,possibly
temperingthemwherenecessarytogainacceptancefromthe
morerationallyinclinedurbanCh'anists.Tocontinuetheanalogy,
Shen-hui(likePaul)neverquoteshismentordirectlyinhis
writingssomethinghecertainlywouldhavedoneiftherehad
beenanythingtoquotebutinafewdecadestherewouldbeafull
autobiographyofHui-nengcompletewitha"sermon."Shen-hui's
owncontributionwastoopenthewayfortheanti-meditationrural
schooltotakeoverCh'an.WemaynowturntothelegendaryHui-
neng,rememberedasthe"SixthPatriarch."

ChapterFive ChapterFive ChapterFive ChapterFive

HUI HUI HUI HUI- -- -NENG: NENG: NENG: NENG:
THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROFMODERNZEN THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROFMODERNZEN THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROFMODERNZEN THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROFMODERNZEN

ThemasterhonoredtodayasthefatherofmodernZenwasan
impoverishedcountryladfromSouthChina,whoseattributed
autobiography,ThePlatformSutraofHui-neng,istheonly"sutra"
ofBuddhismwrittenbyaChinese.
1
Inthiswork,Hui-neng(638-
713)toldthestoryofhisrisefromobscuritytofame.Hedescribed
hisfatherasahighChineseofficialwho,unjustlybanishedand
reducedtoacommoner,diedofshamewhileHui-nengwasstilla
smallchild.Tosurvive,thefatherlessboyandhismothersold
woodinthemarketplaceatHan-hai,nearCantoninSouthChina.
Thenonedayhechancedtooverhearamanrecitingapassage
fromtheDiamondSutra.Hui-nengstoppedtolisten,andwhenhe
heardthephrase"Letyourmindfunctionfreely,withoutabiding
anywhereorinanything,"hewassuddenlyawakened.Upon
inquiry,hediscoveredthatthereciterwasafolloweroftheFifth
Patriarch,Hung-jen.Thisteacher,thestrangersaid,taughtthat
byrecitingtheDiamondSutraitwaspossibletoseeintoone's
ownnatureandtodirectlyexperienceenlightenment.
TheDiamondSutra(sometimescalledtheVajracchedika
Sutra)becamethepassionofHui-nengaswellasthetouchstone
forthenewChineseCh'an.Anunusuallybriefwork,ithasbeen
calledtheultimatedistillationoftheBuddhistWisdomLiterature.
Thefollowingexcerptisrepresentativeofitsteaching.

Allthemind'sarbitraryconceptsofmatter,phenomena,andofall
conditioningfactorsandallconceptionsandideasrelatingthereto
arelikeadream,aphantasm,abubble,ashadow,the
evanescentdew,thelightning'sflash.Everytruediscipleshould
thuslookuponallphenomenaanduponalltheactivitiesofthe
mind,andkeephismindemptyandselflessandtranquil.
2

TheDiamondSutradoesnotsearchthephilosophicheightsofthe
LankavataraSutra,thetreatisereveredbytheearlydhyana
schoolofBodhidharma,andpreciselyforthisreasonitappealed
totheSouthernschoolwhosegoalwasthesimplificationof
Ch'an.Hui-nengcouldnotresistthecallandimmediatelysetout
fortheEastMountainmonasteryoftheFifthPatriarch.
Whenhearrived,Hung-jenopenedtheinterviewbyasking
thenewcomerhisorigin.HearingthathewasfromtheCanton
region,theoldpriestsighed,"Ifyou'refromthesouthyoumustbe
abarbarian.Howdoyouexpecttobecomeenlightened?"Tothis
Hui-nengshotback,"Thepeopleinthenorthandsouthmaybe
different,butenlightenmentisthesameinbothregions."Although
thisimpertinencecausedthemastertoimmediatelyrecognize
Hui-neng'smentalgifts,hesaidnothingandsimplyputhimto
workthreshingandpoundingrice.(Thisexchange,incidentally,
willberecognizedasthememorablefirstencounterbetweentwo
generationsofmasters,anobligatoryelementinallthelegendsof
theearlyPatriarchs.)
Forthenexteightmonths,theyoungnovicetoiledin
obscurity,neversomuchasseeingtheFifthPatriarch.Thenone
daytheoldpriestcalledanassemblyandannouncedthathewas
readytopassontherobeofthepatriarchytotheonewhocould
composeaverseshowinganintuitiveunderstandingofhisown
innernature.Thedisciplestalkedoverthischallengeamong
themselvesanddecided,"Therobeiscertaintobehandeddown
toShen-hsiu,whoisheadmonkandthenaturalheir.Hewillbea
worthysuccessortothemaster,sowewillnotbothercomposing
averse."
Shen-hsiu,thesamemasterlaterexaltedbytheEmpressWu
inLoyang,knewwhatwasexpectedofhimandbeganstruggling
tocomposetheverse.Afterseveraldays'effort,hefoundthe
couragetowriteanunsignedgathaonacorridorwallinthedark
ofnight.

OurbodyistheBodhi-tree
Andourmindamirrorbright.
Carefullywewipethemhourbyhour,
Andletnodustalight.
3

WhentheFifthPatriarchsawtheverse,heconvenedan
assemblyinthecorridor,burnedincense,anddeclaredthatthey
allshouldrecitetheanonymouspassage.Afterward,however,he
summonedShen-hsiutohisprivatequartersandinquiredifhe
wasauthoroftheverse.Receivinganaffirmativereply,the
mastersaid,"Thisversedoesnotdemonstratethatyouhaveyet
achievedtrueunderstandingofyouroriginalnature.Youhave
reachedthefrontgate,butyouhavenotyetenteredintofull
understanding.Prepareyourmindmorefullyandwhenyouare
ready,submitanothergatha."ItisaCh'ancommonplacethat
Shen-hsiu'sversestressedmethodicalpracticeandwasperfectly
logicaljusttheoppositeofthesudden,anti-logicalleapof
intuitionthatistrueenlightenment.Shen-hsiudeparted,buttryas
hemighthecouldnotproducethesecondgatha.
Inthemeantime,Hui-nengoverheardthemonksreciting
Shen-hsiu'slines.Althoughherecognizedthatitsauthorhadyet
tograsphisownoriginalnature,Hui-nengaskedtobeshownthe
verseandallowedtodohomagetoit.Afterhewasledtothehall,
theilliterateladfromthebarbariansouthaskedtohaveagathaof
hisowninscribednexttotheoneonthewall.

ThereisnoBodhi-tree
Norstandofamirrorbright.
Sinceallisvoid,
Wherecanthedustalight?
4

Althoughtheassemblywaselectrifiedbytheinsight
containedinthisgatha,thediplomaticoldFifthPatriarchpublicly
declaredthatitsauthorlackedfullunderstanding.Duringthe
night,however,hesummonedyoungHui-nengtothedarkened
meditationhall,whereheexpoundedtheDiamondSutratohim
andthenceremoniallypassedtohimtherobeofBodhidharma,
symbolofthepatriarchy.Healsoadvisedhimtotravel
immediatelytothesouth,tostayundergroundforatimeinthe
interestofsafety,andthentopreachtheDharmatoallwhowould
listen.Hui-nengdepartedthatverynight,crossingtheYangtze
andheadingsouththeanointedSixthPatriarchatagetwenty-
four.
Whentheothermonksrealizedwhathadhappened,they
hastilyorganizedapartytoretrieveHui-nengandtheCh'anrelics.
Finallyoneofthepursuers,aburlyformersoldier,reachedthe
newSixthPatriarchinhishideaway.Suddenlyovercomebythe
presenceofHui-neng,hefoundhimselfaskingnotforthereturn
oftherobebutratherforinstruction.Hui-nengobligedhimwith,
"Notthinkingofgood,notthinkingofevil,tellmewhatwasyour
originalfacebeforeyourmotherandfatherwereborn."This
celebratedquestionwhichdramatizestheZenconceptofan
originalnatureineverypersonthatprecedesandtranscends
artificialvaluessuchasgoodandevilcausedthepursuertobe
enlightenedonthespot.
ForthenextseveralyearsHui-nengsoughtseclusion,living
amonghuntersinthesouthandconcealinghisidentity.The
legendssayhiskindlynaturecausedhimsometimestosecretly
releaseanimalsfromthehunters'trapsandthathewouldaccept
onlyvegetablesfromtheirstewpots.Butthislifeasan
anonymousvagabond,aPatriarchwhilenotevenapriest,could
notbehisfinalcalling.Onedaywhenthetimefeltright(in676,as
henearedforty),herenouncedthelifeofarefugeeandventured
intoCantontovisittheFa-hsingtemple.Oneafternoonashe
lingeredintheguiseofananonymousguest,heoverhearda
groupofmonksarguingaboutabannerflappinginthebreeze.
Onemonkdeclared,"Thebannerismoving."
Anotherinsisted,"No,itisthewindthatismoving."
Althoughhewasonlyalayobserver,Hui-nengcouldnot
containhimself,andheinterruptedthemwithhisdramatic
manifesto,"Youarebothwrong.Itisyourmindthatmoves."
Theabbotofthetemple,standingnearby,wasdumbstruckby
theprofoundinsightofthisstranger,andonthespotofferedto
becomehispupil.Hui-nengdeclinedthehonor,however,
requestinginsteadthathisheadbeshavedandhebeallowedto
enterBuddhistorders,apriestatlast.Hewasshortlyacclaimed
byoneandallastheSixthPatriarch,andafterafewmonthsin
CantonhedecidedtomovetoatempleofhisownatTs'ao-ch'i,
wherehetaughtforthenextfourdecades.Fromthismonastery
cametheteachingsthatwoulddefinethefaith.
Theforegoingstory,perhapsthemostfamousintheZen
canon,isdrawnmainlyfromtheaforementionedPlatformSutraof
Hui-neng,purportedlyanautobiographyandsermonpresentedto
anassemblyinhislateryears.
5
(Thesettingwasatemplenear
hismonastery,wherehewasinvitedtolectureonedaybythe
localabbot.Itwastranscribedbyoneofhisdisciples,inceHui-
nengtraditionallywassaidtohavebeenilliterate.)Thedocument
hascomedowntousinthreeparts.Thefirstpartisthestoryjust
summarized:apoetrycontestatthemonasteryoftheFifth
PatriarchinwhichthemanlatertoleadNorthernCh'anis
humiliatedbyabumpkin,whohimselfmustthenfleethewrathof
theCh'anestablishmentandwaitforrecognitioninthesouth.The
secondpartisalecturethatscholarsbelieveprobablyrepresents
thegeneraloutlineofHui-neng'sviewsonman'soriginalnature.
Thethirdpartisahighlyembellishedaccountofhislateryears,
usuallydismissedasthepiousinventionofamorerecentdate.
ThereallifeofHui-nengisahistoricalpuzzlethatmaywell
neverberesolved.Forexample,itiscommontonotethatthe
laterCh'anwriterstookgreatpainstorenderHui-nengasilliterate
andunletteredaspossible,themoretoemphasizehis
egalitarianism.(Thisinspiteofthefactthatthesermonattributed
tohimreferstoatleastsevendifferentsutras.)Thefactswere
adjustedtomakeapoint:Ifasimpleilliteratewoodpeddlercould
becomePatriarch,whatbetterproofthatthefaithisopentoall
people?Manyofthetraditionalanecdotessurroundinghisearly
yearsaresimilarlysuspect,andinfactthemostrespectedHui-
nengscholarhasdeclared,"Ifweconsideralltheavailable
material,andeliminatepatientlyalltheinconsistenciesbypicking
themostlikelylegends,wecanarriveatafairlycredible
biographyofHui-neng.If,ontheotherhand,weeliminatethe
legendsandtheundocumentedreferencestotheSixthPatriarch,
wemayconcludethatthereis,infact,almostnothingthatwecan
reallysayabouthim."
6
Yetdoesitreallymatterwhetherthe
legendismeticulouslyfaithfultothefacts?Hui-nengisasmucha
symbolasahistoricalindividual,anditwasessentialthathislife
havelegendaryqualities.Inhiscase,artmayhavehelpedlife
alongabit,butitwasforalargerpurpose.
Thepurposewastoformalizethenewphilosophicalideasof
SouthernCh'an.ThesecondpartofthePlatformSutra,which
detailshisphilosophicalposition,hasbeencharacterizedasa
masterpieceofChinesethought,theworknotofascholarbutofa
naturalsagewhosewisdomflowedspontaneouslyfromdeep
within.Yetitiscommonlyconcededthattheuniquenessofhis
messageliesnotsomuchinitsbeingoriginal(whichmostagree
itisnot)butinitsrenderingofthebasicideasofBuddhisminto
Chineseterms.
7
Buddhismitselfseemsattimestobeinquestion,
astheSixthPatriarchdiscountstraditionalobservances,even
suggestingthattheBuddhistWesternParadise,knownasthe
PureLand,mightbemerelyastateofmind.

ThedeludedpersonconcentratesonBuddhaandwishestobe
bornintheotherland;theawakenedpersonmakespurehisown
mind....Ifonlythemindhasnoimpurity,theWesternLandisnot
far.Ifthemindgivesrisetoimpurities,eventhoughyouinvoke
theBuddhaandseektoberebornintheWest,itwillbedifficultto
reach...butifyoupracticestraightforwardmind,youwillarrive
thereinaninstant.
8

Hui-nengalsoquestionedthetraditionalCh'anpracticeof
sittinginmeditation,declaringittobemoreamind-setthana
physicalact(ifhisSutraisauthentic,thenhepredateshispupil
Shen-huionthispoint).Healsobrokeitapartintotwodifferent
categories:thesittingandthemeditation.

...whatisthisteachingthatwecall"sittinginmeditation"?Inthis
teaching"sitting"meanswithoutanyobstructionanywhere,
outwardlyandunderallcircumstances,nottoactivatethoughts.
"Meditation"isinternallytoseetheoriginalnatureandnot
becomeconfused.
9

Elsewhereheisquotedasdeclaringthatprotractedsittingonly
shacklesthebodywithoutprofitingthemind.
10
AlthoughHui-neng
severelytooktotaskthosewhodependedonmeditation,thereis
noevidencethatheforbadeitentirely.Whathedidrejectwasa
fixationonmeditation,aconfusiontousealaterZenexpression
ofthefingerpointingatthemoonwiththemoonitself.Evenso,
thiswasaradicalmove.Hui-nengpresentsuswiththestartling
prospectofadhyanateacherquestioningthefunctionofdhyana
untilthentheverybasisoftheschool.
Yetthesutraisfarfrombeingallnegative.Ithasanumberof
positivemessages,includingthefollowing:Allpeoplearebornin
anenlightenedstate,aconditioninwhichgoodandevilarenot
distinguished.Noraretheredistractingdiscriminations,
attachments,andperturbationsofthespiritinthisprimalestate.
(AverysimilarviewisfoundthroughoutthepoetryofWilliam
Wordsworth,togiveonlyoneexamplefromWesternthought.
11
)
Butifman'soriginalnatureispureandunstained,howthendoes
evilenterintoaperson'scharacter?Hefacesthisclassic
theologicalquestionhead-on:

Goodfriends,althoughthenatureofpeopleinthisworldisfrom
theoutsetpureinitself,thetenthousandthingsareallwithintheir
ownnatures.Ifpeoplethinkofalltheevilthings,thentheywill
practiceevil;iftheythinkofallthegoodthings,thentheywill
practicegood.Thusitisclearthatinthiswayallthedharmas
(aspectsofhumanity)arewithinyourownnatures,yetyourown
naturesarealwayspure.Thesunandmoonarealwaysbright,yet
iftheyarecoveredbyclouds,althoughtheyarebright,belowthey
aredarkened,andthesun,moon,stars,andplanetscannotbe
seenclearly.Butifsuddenlythewindofwisdomshouldblowand
rollawaythecloudsandmists,allformsintheuniverseappearat
once....[I]fasinglethoughtofgoodevolves,intuitivewisdomis
born.Asonelampservestodispelathousandyearsofdarkness,
sooneflashofwisdomdestroystenthousandyearsof
ignorance.
12

AsHui-nengviewedit,thereislatentwithinusalltheconditionof
enlightenment,thestatethatprecedesourconcernwithgoodand
evil.Itcanbereclaimedthroughanintuitiveacquaintancewithour
owninnernatures.ThisiswellsummarizedbytheHui-neng
scholarPhilipYampolsky:"ThePlatformSutramaintainsthatthe
natureofmanisfromtheoutsetpure,butthathispurityhasno
form.Butbyself-practice,byendeavoringforhimself,mancan
gaininsightintothispurity.Meditation,prajna,truereality,purity,
theoriginalnature,self-nature,theBuddhanature,allthese
terms,whichareusedconstantlythroughoutthesermon,indicate
thesameundefinedAbsolute,whichwhenseenandexperienced
bytheindividualhimself,constitutesenlightenment."
13

Thisconditionoforiginalinnocencethatisenlightenmentcan
bereclaimedthrough"no-thought,"astateinwhichthemind
floats,unattachedtowhatitencounters,movingfreelythrough
phenomena,unperturbedbytheincursionsandattractionsofthe
world,liberatedbecauseitisitsownmaster,tranquilbecauseitis
pure.Thisistheconditioninwhichwewerebornanditisthe
conditiontowhichwecanreturnbypracticing"no-thought."
Althoughithappenstobesimilartotheconditionthatcanbe
realizedthrougharduousmeditation,Hui-nengapparentlydidnot
believethatmeditationwasrequired.Thisprimalconditionofthe
mind,thisglimpseintoouroriginalnature,couldberealized
instantaneouslyifourmindwerereceptive.Butwhatisthisstate
called"no-thought"?AccordingtoHui-neng:

Tobeunstainedinallenvironmentsiscalledno-thought.Ifonthe
basisofyourownthoughtsyouseparatefromenvironment,then,
inregardtothings,thoughtsarenotproduced.Ifyoustopthinking
ofthemyriadthings,andcastasideallthoughts,assoonasone
instantofthoughtiscutoff,youwillbereborninanotherrealm...
.Becausemaninhisdelusionhasthoughtsinrelationtohis
environment,heterodoxideasstemmingfromthesethoughts
arise,andpassionsandfalseviewsareproducedfromthem.
14

Yampolskycharacterizes"no-thought"asfollows:"Thoughtsare
conceivedasadvancinginprogressionfrompasttopresentto
future,inanunendingchainofsuccessivethoughts.Attachment
tooneinstantofthoughtleadstoattachmenttoasuccessionof
thoughts,andthustobondage.Bycuttingoffattachmenttoone
instantofthought,onemay,byaprocessunexplained,cutoff
attachmenttoasuccessionofthoughtsandthusattaintono-
thought,whichisthestateofenlightenment."
15
Preciselyhowthis
conditionof"no-thought"enlightenmentisachievedisnot
explainedinthePlatformSutraandinfacthasbeenthemajor
concernofZeneversince.Theonethingthatallwillagreeisthat
theharderonetriestoattainit,themoredifficultitbecomes.Itis
thereinside,waitingtobereleased,butitcanbereachedonly
throughtheintuitivemind.Andithappenssuddenly,whenwe
leastexpect.
ThemasterHui-nengstandsatthewatershedofZenhistory.
Indeedhemaybethewatershed,intheembodiedformofa
legend.Thereseemsreasontosuspectthathewascanonized
wellafterthefact,aswasBodhidharma.Butwhereas
Bodhidharmaprovidedananchorfortheoriginalformationofa
separateDhyanasectinChineseBuddhism,Hui-nengbecame
therallyingsymbolforanewtypeofCh'an,onewhollyChinese,
andonethatseemedtodiscountBodhidharma'soldmainstay,
meditation.HebecametheChineseanswertotheIndian
Bodhidharma.
Hui-nengredefinedthespecificcharacteristicsoftheCh'an
goalanddescribedinnontheologicaltermsthemindstatein
whichdualityisbanished.Buthefailedtogothenextstepand
explainhowtogetthere.Allhedidwaspointout(tousethe
terminologyoflogic)thatmeditationnotonlywasnotasufficient
conditionforenlightenment,itmightnotevenbeanecessary
condition.Whatthenwasrequired?Theanswertothisquestion
wastobeworkedoutduringthenextphaseofCh'an,theso-
calledGoldenAgeofZen,whenanewschoolofSouthernCh'an
exploded(touseacommondescription)inthesouthandwenton
totakeoverallofCh'an.Thesenewteachersseemtohave
acceptedHui-nengastheirpatron,althoughthedirectconnection
isnotentirelyclear.Thesemasterslearnedhowtoimposea
torturechamberonthelogicalmind,bringingtoitsuch
humiliationsthatitfinallyannihilatedegoorselfandsurrendered
toprajna,intuitivewisdom.Theydevisedsystematicwaysto
producethestateof"no-thought"thatHui-nengandShen-hui
apparentlycouldonlyinvoke.

PARTII PARTII PARTII PARTII

THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN THEGOLDENAGEOFZEN

....inwhichteachersofrural,SouthernCh'anbeginto
experimentwithnewwaystoprecipitatethe"sudden"
enlightenmentexperience,evenbringingintoquestiontheroleof
meditation.Alongwiththesearchfornewtechniquesgoesthe
attempttodefinepreciselywhatenlightenmentisandtoformalize
thetransmissionprocess.Duringthistime,Ch'anmonasteries
becomeindependentorganizationsandCh'anarecognized,if
eccentric,Buddhistsect.Theiconoclastic,self-supportingCh'an
establishmentsrideoutapersecutionofBuddhisminthemid-
ninthcenturythateffectivelydestroysallotherBuddhistschoolsin
China.ThisisthegreatcreativeeraofCh'an,inwhichthesect
securesitsownidentityandcreatesitsowntextsforusebylater
generations.

ChapterSix ChapterSix ChapterSix ChapterSix

MA MA MA MA- -- -TSU: TSU: TSU: TSU:
ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT

Ma-tsu(right)andLaymanPang

IfHui-nengwastheSixthPatriarch,thenwhowastheseventh?
AlthoughseveralofhisfollowersarementionedinthePlatform
Sutra,theonlyonewhoseemstohavemadeanydifferencein
Ch'anhistorywasShen-hui(670-762),whosuccessfully
destroyedtheNorthernschoolofShen-hsiu(605-706)and
elevatedHui-neng.AlthoughShen-huiwasgiventheaccoladeof
SeventhPatriarchinsomepartsofthenorth,historywastobe
writtenelsewhere.Shen-hui'sschoolof"Southern"Ch'anwas
sooncompromisingwiththeremainingNorthernCh'anists
concedingthatthestudyofthesutrascouldgoalonghandin
handwithsuddenenlightenmentandheseemstohaveenjoyed
alittletoomuchhisroleasimperialsocialite.Theonlymemberof
Shen-hui'sschooltorealizeanyhistoricalprominencewas
Tsung-mi(780-841),whosefameattachesnottohisoriginal
thoughtbutrathertohisscholarlywritingsdescribingthevarious
sectsofCh'an.
1
AlitterateurandfriendofthefamouspoetPo
Chu-i(772-846),healsotriedunsuccessfullytomediatebetween
thefollowersofthestep-by-stepsutra-readingBuddhistsofthe
citiesandtheall-at-once,anti-literaryproponentsofsudden
enlightenmentinthecountry,buthesucceededonlyinbringing
thehistoryofNorthernCh'antoadignifiedclose.
2

TheChinesescholarHuShihskillfullypinpointswhythe
socialsuccessofShen-hui'snew"Southern"schoolinthenorth
actuallycontributedtoitsdecline.Ashesawit:"Theexplanation
issimple.Zennismcouldnotflourishasanofficiallypatronized
religion,butonlyasanattitudeofmind,amethodofthinkingand
amodeofliving.AnofficiallypatronizedteacherofBuddhismis
obligedtoperformallthetraditionalritualsandceremonieswhich
thetrueZennistdespises.Shen-huisucceededinestablishing
Zennismasastatereligion,butbysodoinghealmostkilledit.All
furtherdevelopmentofChineseZenhadtocomefromthosegreat
teacherswhovaluedsimplelifeandintellectualfreedomand
independencemorethanworldlyrecognition."
3
Andinfactjust
suchteachershadbegunspringinguplikemushrooms.Onlonely
mountaintops,teachersofsuddenenlightenmentwere
experimentingwithnewwaystotransmitwordlessinsight.They
seemtohavedespisedtraditionalBuddhism,perhapspartly
becauseBuddhismbywhichismeanttheculturalelitistsand
aristocratsinthecapitalsofCh'ang-anandLoyanghadsolong
despisedthem.(RecalltheFifthPatriarch'sgreetingtoHui-neng:
"Ifyou'refromthesouth,youmustbeabarbarian.")Although
traditionalBuddhism(includingteachersofdhyana)continuedto
flourish,andthecityofCh'ang-anremainedamodelforAsian
civilization,thepoliticalpoweroftheT'anggovernmentinthe
northgraduallywithered.Andasitdeclined,sotoodidthe
fortunesofthetraditionalCh'anestablishmentsthathad
flourishedunderimperialpatronage.
ThenewCh'anteachersoftheSouthernschoolmayhavefelt
smugintheirnewprestigeandindependence,buttheystillwere
subjecttotheingrainedChinesedesireforalineage.(Perhapsin
thelandofConfucius,spiritualancestorswereessentialto
dignity.)ThetriumphofthelegendofHui-nenginthenorthhad
notbeenlostontheCh'anistselsewhere,anditeffectivelymeant
thatforanyCh'anschooltohaverespectabilitynationwide,ithad
tobeabletotraceitslineagebacktothisilliteratesouthernerand
histempleatTs'ao-ch'i.Unfortunatelythisturnedouttobe
difficult,sincebythetimeHui-nengactuallycametobe
recognizedastheSixthPatriarch,hehadbeendeadforhalfa
centuryandtherewerefewChinesewhoevenknewfirsthandof
hisexistenceandnonebesidesShen-huiwhoeverclaimedto
havestudiedunderhim.Howthencouldhebemadethefounder
oftheCh'anschoolsbloomingalloverChina?
ThescholarHuShihhasspeculatedsomewhatknavishlyon
howHui-neng's"lineage"mayhavebeencreatedafterthefact:
"Bythelastquarteroftheeighthcentury,therebegantobea
greatstampedeofalmostalltheCh'anschoolstogetonthe
bandwagonoftheschoolofHui-neng....Hui-nengdiedearlyin
theeighthcentury,andhisdisciplesweremostlyunknown
asceticswholivedanddiedintheirhillyretreats.Onecouldeasily
havepaidavisittosomeofthem.Sointhelastdecadesofthe
century,someofthoseunknownnameswererememberedor
discovered.Twoofthenamesthusexhumedfromobscuritywere
Huai-jangoftheHengMountainsinHunan,andHsing-ssuofthe
Ch'ing-yuanMountainsofKiangsi.Neitherofthesenames
appearedinearlierversionsofHui-neng'slifestory."
4

Thesetwomasters,Nan-yuehHuai-jang(677-744)ofHunan
andCh'ing-yuanHsing-ssu(d.740)ofKiangsi,weremadethe
missinglinksbetweenHui-nengandthetwoschoolsofCh'anthat
wouldonedaybecomeJapaneseRinzaiandSoto,respectively.
SincethelineagemostimportantfortheearlyyearsofCh'an's
GoldenAgewasthatwhichwouldonedaybetheRinzaischool,
thetraditionofHuai-jangwillbeexaminedherefirst.Asnoted
above,althoughthelegendsaysthatHuai-jangoncestudied
undertheSixthPatriarch,Hui-neng,supportinghistorical
evidenceisnotreadilyfound.However,heisthoughttohave
studiedunderanotherfolloweroftheFifthPatriarchHung-jenand
tohavebeenapartofthegeneralsceneofSouthernCh'an.
5
His
actualfunctionmayhavebeentosupplyadirectlineofdescent
betweenHui-nengandthemanwhowastobethecreatorof
RinzaiZenasweknowittoday.
ThatmanisthefamousMa-tsuTao-i(709-788),whoevenif
notadirectspiritualdescendantofHui-nengwascertainlya
productofthesameexcitingperiodofintellectualferment.
Accordingtothemoreorlesscontemporaryrecordleftbythe
northernhistorianTsung-mi,Ma-tsu(whichmeans"Patriarch
Ma")wasanativeofSzechuanwhowasordainedamonkatan
earlyagebyaKoreanmasterinhishomeprovince.
6
YoungMa
traveledon,aswascommonwithbeginningCh'anmonks,and
(sosaythelaterlegends)finallycametothemonasteryofHuai-
jang,locatedonMt.Nan-yueh.Thestoryoftheirfirstencounter
becameastandardamonglaterCh'anmasters,foritisa
particularlyeffectivediscreditingofthatonetimeCh'anmainstay,
meditation,whichbecameanathematothemorerevolutionary
Southernschool.
Asthestorygoes,Huai-jangonedaycameuponMa-tsu
absorbedinmeditationandproceededtoquestionthepurposeof
hislongboutsofdhyana.Ma-tsuimmediatelyreplied,"Iwantto
becomeaBuddha,anenlightenedbeing."
Sayingnothing,Huai-jangquietlypickedupabrickand
startedrubbingitonastone.AfteratimeMa-tsu'scuriosity
bestedhimandheinquired,"Whyareyourubbingthatbrickona
stone?"
Huai-jangreplied,"Iampolishingitintoamirror."
Ma-tsuprobablyknewbythistimethathehadbeensetup,
buthehadtofollowthrough:"Buthowcanyoumakeamirrorby
polishingabrickonastone?"
Thecelebratedanswerwas:"Howcanyoubecome
enlightenedbysittinginmeditation?"
Thepoint,drivenhometimeandagainthroughouttheeighth
century,wasthatenlightenmentisanactive,notapassive,
condition.AndMa-tsuhimselfwastobecometheforemost
exponentofenlightenmentasanaturalpartoflife.
Ma-tsualwaysmadeaprofoundimpressiononhis
contemporaries,andnosmallpartmaybeattributabletohis
peculiarphysicaltraits.AsTheTransmissionoftheLamp
describeshim:

Inappearanceandbearinghewasmoststriking.Heglaredasa
tigerdoesandheambledlikeacow.Hecouldtouchhisnosewith
histongue,andonthesolesofhisfeetwerewheel-shapedmarks
[physicalqualitiesalsoattributedtotheBuddha].Duringthe
period[of713-41]hestudiedthedhyana...underMasterHuai-
jang,whothenhadninedisciples.Oftheseonly[Ma-tsu]received
thesacredmindseal.
7

However,hisrealimmortalityderivesfromhiscontributiontothe
arsenalofmethodsforshockingnovicesintoenlightenment.Itwill
berecalledthatthelegendarySixthPatriarch,Hui-neng,
neglectedtoexplainexactlywhatapersonshoulddoto"seeinto
one'sownnature."Ma-tsuapparentlywasthefirstmasterwho
developednon-meditativetricksfornudgingadiscipleintothe
stateof"no-thought."Hewasanexperimenter,andhepioneered
anumberofmethodsthatlaterwereperfectedbyhisfollowers
andthedescendantsofhisfollowers.Hewasthefirstmasterto
askanoviceanunanswerablequestion,andthenwhilethe
personstruggledforananswer,toshoutinhisear(helikedthe
syllable"Ho!")hopingtojoltthepupilintoanon-dualisticmind
state.Anothersimilartechniquewastocalloutsomeone'sname
justasthepersonwasleavingtheroom,asurprisethatseemed
tobringthepersonupshortandcausehimtosuddenly
experiencehisoriginalnature.Asimilardevicewastodeliverthe
studentasharpblowasheponderedapoint,usingviolenceto
focushisattentioncompletelyonrealityandabortratiocination.
Othertricksincludedrespondingtoaquestionwithaseemingly
irrelevantanswer,causingthestudenttosensetheirrelevancyof
hisquestion.Hewouldalsosometimessendapupilona"goose
chase"betweenhimselfandsomeotherenlightenedindividualat
themonastery,perhapsinthehopethatbouncingthenovicefrom
onepersonalitytoanotherwouldsomehowshakehis
complacency.Whateverthetechnique,hisgoalwasalwaysto
forceanovicetouncoverhisoriginalnatureforhimself.Hedid
thisbynevergivingastraightanswerorapredictableresponse
andthereforeneverallowingadiscipletolapseintoapassive
mentalmode.
Ma-tsualsoseemstohavesimplifiedtheideaofwhat
constitutesenlightenment.Ashedefinedit,"seeingintoone's
ownnature"simplymeantunderstanding(intuitively,not
rationally)whoyouareandwhatyouare.Thistruthcouldbe
taughtwithwhatevermethodseemedappropriateatagiven
moment.AsHuShihsoeloquentlydescribeshisteaching,

"...anygestureormotion,orevensilence,mightbeusedto
communicateatruth.[RecalltheBuddhaonceenlighteneda
followerbyholdingupaflower.]Ma-tsudevelopedthisideaintoa
pedagogicalmethodforthenewZen.Thereisnoneedtoseek
anyspecialfacultyinthemindfortheenlightenment.Every
behavioristhemind,themanifestationoftheBuddha-nature.
Snappingafinger,frowningorstretchingthebrow,coughing,
smiling,anger,sorrow,ordesire...isthefunctioningofthe
Buddhahead:itistheTao,theWay.Thereisnoneedtoperform
anyspecialact,beitdhyanaorworship,inordertoachievethe
Tao.TobenaturalistheWay.Walknaturally,sitnaturally,sleep
naturally,livenaturallythatistheWay.Letthemindbefree:do
notpurposelydoevil;norpurposelydogood.ThereisnoLawto
abide,noBuddhahoodtoattain.Maintainafreemindandclingto
nothing:thatisTao."
8

ThusitseemsthatthemostpreeminentCh'anmasterofthe
eighthcenturynotonlyrepudiatedalltheapparatusoftraditional
Buddhism,healsosimplifiedenlightenmentdowntoaquite
secularconditionofacceptanceofthenaturalstateofhuman
affairs.Forinstance,althoughhewasfamiliarwiththegreat
Mahayanasutras,Ma-tsunevermentionsHui-nengorthe
DiamondSutra.HisCh'an,expressedinsimpleeveryday
language,seemsmerelysomanywaysoffindingoutwhoyouare
andwhatyouare.Furthermore,thereseemstobenothing
specificallythatyoucandotoacceleratetheoccurrenceof
suddenenlightenment,otherthanusetraditionalpracticesto
makeyourpsycheasuncomplicatedaspossibleandthenwaitfor
themomenttostrike(he,ofcourse,experimentedtofindwaysto
acceleratethearrivalofthatmoment).Buthehasnothing
encouragingtosayabouttheeffectivenessofmeditationasan
aidtofindingthedesirednon-rationalinsight,whichhesometimes
describedusingtheborrowedterm"Tao":
CultivationisofnousefortheattainmentofTao.Theonly
thingthatonecandoistobefreeofdefilement.Whenone's
mindisstainedwiththoughtsoflifeanddeath,ordeliberate
action,thatisdefilement.ThegraspingoftheTruthisthefunction
ofeveryday-mindedness.Everyday-mindednessisfreefrom
intentionalaction,freefromconceptsofrightandwrong,taking
andgiving,thefiniteortheinfinite....Allourdailyactivities
walking,standing,sitting,lyingdownallresponsetosituations,
ourdealingswithcircumstancesastheyarise:allthisisTao.
9

Ma-tsueventuallyleftHuai-jang(if,infact,heevermethimin
thefirstplace)andpresidedoveracommunityofCh'andisciples
atK'ai-yuantempleinKiangsi.Thiswastobetheincubatorfor
thegreatestthinkersoftheeighthcentury,andthesettingfor
someofthefinestCh'ananecdotes.Theanecdote,incidentally,is
theperfectCh'anteachingdevice,sinceitforcesthelistenerto
finditsmeaninginhisowninnerexperience.Thesermon
providedthetheoreticalbasisforanidea,buttheanecdote
showedthetheoryinactionandmadethelistenershareinareal
experience,ifonlyvicariously.Butfirstwewillbeginwitha
sermoncreditedtohim,inwhichhesummarizesthephilosophical
positionheheld.Therewasnothingparticularlynewabouthis
understanding;itwashismethodthatwasnovel.Hissermon
said,inessence,thatrealityismerelyourmind,andthat
enlightenmentcomprisedthenonrationalrecognitionofthis.

AllofyoushouldrealizethatyourownmindisBuddha,thatis,
thismindisBuddha'sMind....ThosewhoseekfortheTruth
shouldrealizethatthereisnothingtoseek.ThereisnoBuddha
butMind;thereisnoMindbutBuddha.
10

Againthereisthecounselagainstdiscriminationsbetweengood
andevil,sincetheoriginalMindtranscendsthese:

Donotchoosewhatisgood,norrejectwhatisevil,butratherbe
freefrompurityanddefilement.Thenyouwillrealizethe
emptinessofsin.
11

Thisisnotapreachmentofvalues;ratheritistheinsightthat
thereisarealitybeyondourpunydiscriminations.Ifyoucan
achievethislargerperspective,thengoodandevilbecomean
inconsequentialpartofthelargerflowoflife.
Hissermonthenreturnstothethemeofthemindasthe
arbiterofreality,recallingtheVoidofNagarjunaandpointingout
thateventheworkingsofthemindareephemeralandpossessno
self-nature.

Thoughtsperpetuallychangeandcannotbegraspedbecause
theypossessnoself-nature.TheTripleWorld[ofdesire,form,
andbeyond-form]isnothingmorethanone'smind.The
multitudinousuniverseisnothingbutthetestimonyofone
Dharma[truth].Whatareseenasformsarethereflectionsofthe
mind.Theminddoesnotexistbyitself;itsexistenceismanifested
throughforms....Ifyouareawareofthismind,youwilldress,
eat,andactspontaneouslyinlifeasittranspires,andthereby
cultivateyourspiritualnature.ThereisnothingmorethatIcan
teachyou.
12

Theessenceofthisteachingisthatrealityis,forus,merelywhat
ourmindsaysitis,and"enlightenment"or"becomingaBuddha"
ismerelycomingtotermswithourselvesandwiththistrickymind
thatconstantlydevisesourrealityforus.
Thiscredoisrememberedmostvividlyintwoanecdotesthat
werelaterenshrinedinafamouscollectionofkoanscalledthe
Wu-menKuan(orMumonkaninJapanese).Inbothofthese
anecdotes,Ma-tsuisasked,"WhatisBuddha?"meaningwhatis
thespiritualitythatallseek.Inonehereplied,"MindisBuddha"
(Mumonkan,Case30),andintheotheranecdotehesaid,"No
mind,noBuddha"(Mumonkan,Case33),whichmerelyaffirms
thatspiritualityisinthemind,andforitsrealizationonemust
realizethemind.
13
Ineitherinstanceheismerelyfollowingthe
earlierideathatthereisnorealityandthusnoenlightenment
outsidethemind.
ThesetwoexchangesarepartofasingleanecdoteofMa-tsu
recordedinthechronicles.

AmonkaskedwhytheMastermaintained,"TheMindisthe
Buddha."TheMasteranswered,"BecauseIwanttostopthe
cryingofababy."Themonkpersisted,"Whenthecryinghas
stopped,whatisitthen?""NotMind,notBuddha,"wasthe
answer."Howdoyouteachamanwhodoesnotupholdeitherof
these?"TheMastersaid,"Iwouldtellhim,'Notthings.'"The
monkagainquestioned,"Ifyoumetamanfreefromattachmentto
allthings,whatwouldyoutellhim?"TheMasterreplied,"Iwould
lethimexperiencetheGreatTao."
14

AsthescholarJohnWuhaspointedout,"Thisdialogue
revealsanimportantsecretaboutMa-tsu'sartofteaching.
Sometimesheusedapositiveformula,sometimesheuseda
negativeformula.Onthesurfacetheyarecontradictorytoeach
other.Butwhenwerememberthathewasusingthemin
answeringpersonsofdifferentgradesofattainmentsand
intelligence,thecontradictiondisappearsatonceinthelightofa
higherunityofpurpose,whichwasinallcasestoleadthe
questionertotranscendhispresentstate."
15
Anotherexampleofa
seeminglycontradictorypositionisrecordedasakoaninanother
famouscollection,theBlueCliffRecord(Case3).Inthis
anecdote,Ma-tsuisaskedonedayabouthishealth,andhe
respondedwith,"Sun-facedBuddhas,Moon-facedBuddhas."
16

AccordingtoaBuddhisttradition,aSun-facedBuddhalivesfor
eighteenhundredyears,aMoon-facedBuddhalivesonlyaday
andanight.Perhapshewasproposingthesetwocontradictory
casestodemonstratetheirrelevanceofaninquiryafterhis
physicalstate.Itwouldhavebeenfarbetterifthequestionhad
concernedhismind.
AstorydescribinghowMa-tsuhandledotherteacherswho
wanderedbydepictsverywellthewaythathecouldundermine
logicandcategorization.Inaparticularlyfamousanecdote,a
visitingteacherproposedaconditionofduality,acondition
equivalenttothatofaswitchthatcanbeeitherofforon.Having
permittedtheteachertoadoptthisveryun-Zenposition,Ma-tsu
proceedstodemolishhim.Thestorygoesasfollows:

AmonkwholecturedonBuddhismcametotheMasterand
asked,"WhatistheteachingadvocatedbytheCh'anmasters?"
Ma-tsuposedacounterquestion:"Whatteachingsdoyou
maintain?"Themonkrepliedthathehadlecturedonmorethan
twentysutrasandsastras.TheMasterexclaimed,"Areyounota
lion?"Themonksaid,"Idonotventuretosaythat."TheMaster
puffedtwiceandthemonkcommented,"Thisisthewaytoteach
Ch'an."Ma-tsuretorted,"Whatwaydoyoumean?"andthemonk
said,"Thewaythelionleavestheden."TheMasterbecame
silent.Immediatelythemonkremarked,"Thisisalsothewayof
Ch'anteaching."AtthistheMasteragainasked,"Whatwaydo
youmean?""Thelionremainsinhisden.""Whenthereisneither
goingoutnorremainingin,whatwaywouldyousaythiswas?"
Themonkmadenoanswer....
17

Ma-tsuhadposedaseeminglyunanswerablequestion,atleasta
questionthatlogiccouldnotanswer.Thisprovocativeexchange,
latertobeknownasamondo,wasanewteachingtechniquethat
departedsignificantlyfromtheearliermethodsofHui-nengand
Shen-hui,whomountedaplatform,gaveasermon,andthen
politelyreceivedquestionsfromtheaudience.
ButhowdidMa-tsuhandlethisquestionwhenitwas
presentedtohim?Hefellbackonthefactthatrealityiswhatwe
makeit,andallthingsreturntothemind.Heoncehandled
essentiallythesamequestionthatheputtothevisitingmonk,
showinghowitcanbedone.HisresponseistheessenceofZen.

AmonkoncedrewfourlinesinfrontofMa-tsu.Thetoplinewas
longandtheremainingthreewereshort.Hethendemandedof
theMaster,"Besidessayingthatonelineislongandtheother
threeareshort,whatelsecouldyousay?"Ma-tsudrewoneline
onthegroundandsaid,"Thiscouldbecalledeitherlongorshort.
Thatismyanswer."
18

Languageisdeceptive.Butifitisusedtoconstructananti-logical
question,itcanequallybeusedtoconstructananti-logicalreply.
Ma-tsudiscoveredandrefinedwhatseemstohaveeluded
theearlierteacherssuchasHui-nengandHuai-jang:namely,the
triggermechanismforsuddenenlightenment.Asnotedearlier,he
originatedtheuseofshoutingandblowstoprecipitateenlighten-
ment,techniquestobecomecelebratedinlaterdecadesinthe
handsofmensuchasHuang-poandLin-chi,masterswho
shapedtheRinzaisect.Asatypicalexample,thereisthestoryof
amonkcomingtohimtoask,"Whatwasthepurposeof
Bodhidharma'scomingfromtheWest?"whichisCh'anparlance
for"WhatisthebasicprincipleofZen?"Asthemonkbowed
reverentlybeforetheoldmasterwaitingforthereplythatwould
bringitalltogether,Ma-tsuknockedhimtotheground,saying,"If
Idonotstrikeyou,peoplealloverthecountrywilllaughatme."
Thehaplessmonkpickedhimselfupoffthegroundandsuddenly
realizinghehadjusttastedtheonlyrealitythereiswas
enlightenedonthespot.
19
Obviously,everyboxerdoesnot
experienceenlightenmentwhenhereceivesaknockoutpunch.
Theblowofenlightenmentismeanttorattlethequestioningmind
andtodisrupt,ifonlyforaninstant,itsclingingtoabstractionsand
logic.Itseemsalmostasthoughenlightenmentwereaphysical
phenomenonthatsometimescanbestbeachievedbyaphysical
processsuchasabloworashout.
Theviolenceseemedtoworkbothways,forthemonksoften
gavehimadoseofhisownmedicine.Anexampleisreportedin
thefollowingstory:

IthappenedoncethathisdiscipleYin-fengwaspushingalonga
cart,whileMa-tsuwassittingontheroadwithhisfeetstretched
out.Yin-fengrequestedhimtodrawbackhisfeet,butMa-tsu
said,"Whatisstretchedoutisnottobedrawnbackagain!"Yin-
fengretorted,"Onceadvanced,thereisnoturningbackward!''
Disregardingthemaster,hekeptpushingthecartuntilitranover
andinjuredhisfeet.Ma-tsureturnedtothehallwithanaxeinhis
hand,saying,"Lettheonewhoafewmomentsagoinjuredmy
feetwithhiscartcomeforward!"Yin-feng,nottobedaunted,
cameforwardstretchinghisneckinfrontofthemaster.The
master[peacefully]putdownhisaxe.
20

Thesignificanceofthisstory,ifithasanysignificance,isthatit
conveystheatmosphereofCh'anmonasteriesaround750.It
demonstratesthattheleaderofamonasteryhadtowinhisspurs.
Hehadtobetougher,moreaudacious,andfasterthananybody
else.
DuringtheT'angitwascommontousetheoxasametaphor
forallthatisuncontrollableinhumannature.Theoxwasnot
necessarilybad;itjusthadtobegoverned.Therigorwithwhich
thiscontrolwasappliedatMa-tsu'smonasteryisillustratedinthe
storyconcerningoneofthedisciples,aformerhunterwhoMa-tsu
encounteredonedayworkinginthemonasterykitchen.
"Whatareyoudoing?"askedthemasteraquestionthat
nevergotastraightanswerfromanenlightenedCh'anmonk.
"Iamherdinganox,"themanreplied,ametaphoricalwayof
sayinghewastryingtodisciplinehimself."Andhow,"shotback
Ma-tsu,"doyougoabouttendingit?"Themonkreplied,
"Wheneveritstartstogotograss[i.e.,self-indulgence],Iyankit
backbythenostrils[thetenderpartofthegreatanimal]."
TowhichMa-tsuadmiringlyreplied,"Ifyoureallycandothat
byyourself,thenImayaswellretire."
21

Thisstoryillustratestheemphasisonself-controlthatwasa
partoftheCh'anmonasteries.Yetself-controlwasonlytobe
practicedforwhatitgaveinreturn.Therewerenovalue
judgmentsorrulesthathadtobefollowed.Thepointwastodo
whatseemedthemostrewarding.Forexample,thereisastory
thatalocalgovernoraskedMa-tsu,"Master,shouldIeatmeat
anddrinkwine?"Themasterdidnotgivehimareplythatimplied
avaluejudgment,butratheroutlinedtherewardsofthetwo
possiblepaths:"Toeatanddrinkisyournaturalright,toabstain
frommeatandwineisyourchanceforgreaterblessedness."
22

Ma-tsuoftenusedthestructureoflanguage,withitsnatural
capacityforparallels,asateachingtoolinitself.

Anothertimeamonkasked,whatisthemeaningofBodhidharma
comingfromtheWest?""Whatisthemeaning[ofyourasking]at
thismoment?"repliedtheMaster.
23

Themonkwasinterestedinabstractissues(usingtheCh'an
metaphorforenlightenment'smeaning);Ma-tsuremindedhimthat
theonlyrealitythatmatteredwashisownbeing,hisownneeds.
Andhediditusingalmostidenticallanguage.
Ma-tsuwasconstantlytestinghisdisciples,keepingthemon
theirtoesandreinforcingtheirenlightenment.Thereisthestory
thatoneeveningwhileenjoyingthemoonlightwiththreeofhis
disciples(includingthetwomostfamous,Huai-haiandNan-
ch'uan),heaskedthemthequestion"whatshouldwedoright
now,thisverymoment?"atypicalZenchallenge.Oneofthe
monkssaid,"Itwouldbebesttobestudyingthesutrasofthe
ancientswhohaveachievedenlightenment."ThemonkHuai-hai,
whowaslatertoreceiveMa-tsu'smantle,countered,"Itwouldbe
goodtopracticemeditation."
AtthatpointNan-ch'uan,thethirdmonk,simplyrose,shook
thesleevesofhisrobe,andsilentlywalkedaway.Ma-tsu
acknowledgedthisastherightansweranddeclared,"Thesutra
scripturesarereturnabletotheBuddhistcanon,andmeditationto
theundifferentiatedocean,butNan-ch'uanaloneleapsoverand
transcendsthese."
24
Nan-ch'uan'sresponsewasatriumphof
physicalactionandsimplicityoverreligiosityandabstraction.
Ma-tsuisreportedinthechroniclestohavehad139enlightened
disciples,manyofwhomwentontobecomeCh'anleadersin
theirowndistricts.ThemostoutstandingwerethemonksHuai-hai
andNan-ch'uanandalaymannamedP'angallthreeofwhom
aretodayrememberedinanecdotesthathavebecomeCh'an
scriptures.Butotherswereprobablyjustasactiveand
enlightened.SouthernCh'anwasexpanding,withmountaintop
retreatsblossomingeverywhere.Manyteachersprobablyhave
beenforgottenonlybecausetheyhadnodiscipleswhotookthe
painstotranscribeandpreservetheirteachings.Ma-tsuhimself
alsoapparentlywrotenothing,buthewasmorefortunateinhis
disciples.Inanycase,hereportedlydiedinthetypicalCh'anway.
Hepredictedhisdeathamonthinadvance,andwhenthetime
came,hebathed,assumedthemeditationposture,andsilently
passedon.

ChapterSeven ChapterSeven ChapterSeven ChapterSeven

HUAI HUAI HUAI HUAI- -- -HAI: HAI: HAI: HAI:
FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN

AmongthemanycelebrateddisciplesofMa-tsu,themanwhose
influencehasbeenmostpervasivethroughoutthesucceeding
centurieswasPo-changHuai-hai(720-814).Heisthemaster
creditedwithfoundingthefirstwhollyCh'anmonastery,with
devisingaspecialsetofrulesforCh'andiscipline,andwithwriting
acloselyarguedtreatiseonsuddenenlightenment.WhereasMa-
tsuandothersofhisdisciplessuchasNan-ch'uanexperimented
withwaystohelpnovicesbreakthroughthebarrierofreason,
Huai-haiexaminedthephenomenonofenlightenmentitselfand
describedthementalstateofpreparednessnecessarytoreach
theOtherShore.Huai-haihasbeensomewhatunjustifiably
neglectedbythemodernZenmovement,perhapsbecausehis
expositorystyledidnotlenditselftomemorableanecdotesor
koancases.
TheaccountsofHuai-hai'soriginarecontradictory,buthe
seemstohavebegunhisBuddhiststudiesearly,becomingthe
pupilofamasternamedTao-chihinasmalltowninthepresent-
dayprovinceofChekiang.
1
(Itwasthismasterwhogavehimthe
religiousnameHuai-hai,or"OceanofWisdom.")Afterhecameto
maturity,thestorygoes,heheardofthegreatmasterMa-tsuin
theprovinceofKiangsi,andhetraveledtheretostudy.
AmongthemanyanecdotessurroundingHuai-hai'sstaywith
Ma-tsu,perhapsthefinestisthatoftheauspiciousfirstencounter.
ThestorysaysthatwhenHuai-haiarrived,theoldmaster
immediatelyaskedwhatprevioustemplehehadtraveledfrom,
followedby:"Whatdoyoucomeheretofind?"
Huai-haireplied,"Ihavecometodiscoverthetruthof
Buddha."
TothisMa-tsureplied,"Whatcanyouexpecttolearnfrom
me?Whydoyouignorethetreasureinyourownhouseand
wandersofarabroad?"
Understandablypuzzled,Huai-haiasked,"Whatisthis
treasurethatIhavebeenignoring?"
Towhichcamethecelebratedreply:"Theonewhoquestions
meatthismomentisyourtreasure.Everythingiscompleteinit.It
islackinginnothing,andfurthermorethethingsitpossessesare
inexhaustible.Consideringthatyoucanusethistreasurefreely,
whythendoyoupersistinwanderingabroad?"Itissaidthatwith
thesewordsHuai-haisuddenlyhadanintuitive,non-rational
acquaintancewithhisownmind.
2

AmongtheotherclassictalesofHuai-hai'sapprenticeship
underMa-tsuistheoftenrepeatedaccountofthedaythetwoof
themwerewalkingtogetheralongapathwhensuddenlyaflockof
migratorygeesewasheardpassingoverhead.Ma-tsuturnedto
hispupilandasked,"Whatwasthatsound?"Huai-haiinnocently
replied,"Itwasthecryofwildgeese."Ma-tsupausedandthen
demandedofhispupil,"Wherehavetheygone?"Huai-haisaid,
"Theyhaveflownaway."
Thiswasanunacceptablydrab,straightforwardanswerfora
Zenman,andindisgustMa-tsuwhirled,grabbedHuai-hai'snose,
andtwistedituntilhisdisciplecriedoutinpanic,causingMa-tsu
toobserve,"Soyouthoughttheyhadflownaway.Yettheywere
hereallthetime."
3

Thelegendssaythatthisexchange,inthetypicalharshstyle
ofMa-tsu,causedHuai-haitoconfronthisoriginalnature.What
Ma-tsuhaddonewastogivehispupilavividlessoninthe
conceptofanindivisibleunitywhichpervadestheworld;thingsdo
notcomeandgotheyaretherealways,partofapermanent
fabric.Huai-haiwasbeinginvitedtostopviewingtheworldasa
fragmentedcollectionofelementsandseeitratherasaunified
whole.
Theinteractionsofmasterandnovicewerealwaysdynamic.
Forexample,anotherstorysaysthatonedayMa-tsuaskedHuai-
haihowhewouldteachCh'an.Huai-hairespondedbyholdingup
adustwhiskvertically.Ma-tsucontinuedbyaskinghim,"Isthisall
thereis?Istherenothingmore?"Huai-hairepliedbythrowing
downthewhisk.(Oneinterpreterhassaidthatraisingthedust
whiskrevealedthemind'sfunction,whereasthrowingitdown
returnedfunctiontothemind'ssubstance.)
4
Accordingtosome
versionsofthisepisode,Ma-tsurespondedbyshoutingatthetop
ofhislungs,renderingHuai-haideafforthreedays.Thisshoutis
saidtohavebeentheoccasionofHuai-hai'sfinalenlightenment.
Huai-haiseemstohavebeenakindlyman,warmand
personable,notgiventotheroughhousemethodsofsomeofhis
contemporaries.Insteadofflamboyance,wefindafriendlytype
whoconcentratedonguidingacommunityofdisciples(some-
timescalleda"Zenforest")andgivingahelpinghandtoall.We
willpassoverthemanyotheranecdotesinvolvinghisstaywith
Ma-tsuandturninsteadtohismoresignificantcontributionstothe
growthofCh'an.
5
Thesefallintotwomajorcategories:First,he
foundedthefirstwhollyCh'anmonasteryandforitformulateda
setofmonasticrulesthataretodaystillrespectedinZen
monasteries;andsecond,hewasoneofthefirstSouthernCh'an
masterstoexplorethepsychologyof"suddenenlightenment"and
towritealucidanalysisofthementalpreparationitrequired.
BeforedetailingHuai-hai'scontributiontomonasticCh'an,
perhapsitwouldbewelltorecallbrieflythecharacterofthe
traditionalBuddhistmonasteryinChinaduringtheT'ang(618-
907)era.Buddhistmonasterieshadlongbeengovernedbyaset
ofrulesknownasthevinaya.Theserulesprescribedeverything
fromthecoloroftherobesforthepriesthoodtothepenalties
attachedtoeatingonionsorgarlic(forbiddenprimarilybecause
theywerethoughttobestimulants,notnecessarilybecauseof
theirsocialliabilitiesinclosequarters).Therewerealsosome
specificandquitesolemncommandmentsforexample,monksor
nunscouldbeexpelledfromthecommunityforstealing,killing,
lying,orsexualcongress.OriginatinginIndia,theseruleshad
beensubsequentlytransplantedtoChina,wheretheygradually
weremadeevenmorestrict,althoughtheirenforcement
apparentlywasnotalwaysrigorous.Perhapsbecauseofthis
laxitytheT'angregimeestablishedpenaltiesevenmoresevere
thanthoseimposedbytheBuddhistauthorities.Forexample,
whereasthevinayaindirectlycountenancedtheeatingofmeat
(throughtheloopholethatallcharitablegiftsmustbeaccepted
sincetheygivethelaitymerit,andifagifthappenedtobemeatit
stillhadtobeconsumedforthesakeofthedonor),theT'ang
governmentprescribedthirtydaysofhardlaborformonkscaught
partaking.SincecitizensenteringBuddhistordersweretakenoff
thetaxrolls,thegovernmenttookpainstoensurethatmonastic
lifewasrigorousenoughtodiscouragesimpletaxdodgers.
7

AlthoughtheChineseBuddhistschoolswerealmostallmembers
ofthesideofBuddhismknownasMahayana,theyapparently
followedtherulesofTheravadaBuddhism,sincethelatterwere
clearerandmoreeasilyunderstood.
8
Huai-haidecidedtomerge
thetwosetsofrulesandfromthemtodeviseanewsetof
guidelinesspecificallyforCh'an,therebycreatingacodeof
monasticdisciplinethateventuallywouldruleZenbehavior
throughouttheworld.
TherecordconcerninghowtheCh'anmonasticsystem
initiallywasestablishedislessdetailedthanwemightwish.The
legendaryFourthPatriarch,Tao-hsin,wassaidtohavebeenthe
firstdhyanamastertosettledowninoneplaceandnurturea
bandofdisciples.Dhyanateachersseemtohaveallied
themselveswiththeconventionalBuddhistsinthedecadesthat
followed,livingintheirmonasteriesmuchasthehermitcrabfinds
ahomeintheshellsofotherspecies.Iftheirnumberswerelarge
theymighthavetheirownseparatequarters,buttheystillhadto
respecttherulesoftheirhostsect,whichmoreoftenthannotwas
theVinayaschool.
9
Gradually,however,atransformation
occurred,asCh'anmastersbecameincreasinglydistinguishable
fromtheleadersofothersectsandCh'anitselfgrewtoincreasing
proportions,particularlyinthesouth.
ItisnotsurprisingthatthemanwhomademonasticCh'ana
realitywasMa-tsu'spupilPo-changHuai-hai.Intherecorded
anecdotesHuai-haiischaracterizedasalevel-headed,pragmatic
manwhomonecaneasilyimaginehavingsuperioradministrative
ability.AsJohnWucharacterizeshisrules,"Itwasthisrule[of
Huai-hai]thatinstitutedforthefirsttimetheZenmonasticsystem.
Initsemphasisonmoraldisciplineanditsmatteroffactness,itis
comparabletotheHolyRuleofSt.Benedict.Thedutiesofthe
Abbotandvariousfunctionariesunderhimaremeticulously
defined.Thedailylifeofthemonksisregulatedindetail.Of
particularinterestaretheritesoftakingvowsandtheuniversal
dutyofworkinginthefields."
10

Itisdifficulttosayexactlywhatwasthenatureoftherules
Huai-haiformulated,sincehisoriginalpreceptshavebeenrecast
anumberoftimesdownthroughtheyears,withtheearliest
survivingversionbeingthatpreservedina1282ChineseYuan
Dynastydocumentcalled"theHolyRuleofPo-chang[Huai-hai]."
Ifwelookbeyondthedetails,however,weseethathisemphasis
onthecreationofaself-supportingmonasticestablishmentwasin
asenseafurthersinicizationofIndianBuddhism,throughthe
rejectionofbeggingastheprimarymeansofsupport.(Begging
wasnotabandonedentirely,sinceitisvaluableforteaching
humility;insteaditwasretainedinaregulated,symbolicform,but
madeasecondlineofeconomicdefense.)Themonasterieswere
intendedtosurviveontheirown,sinceHuai-haiinsistedthat
meditationandworshipbeintegratedwithphysicallabor.
WhereastheidealIndianholymanwasonewhoreliedon
begging,Huai-haibelievedthatinChinaitwasholiertoworkfora
living.Thiswasthecoreofhisteachings,assymbolizedinhis
famousmanifesto:"Adaywithoutworkisadaywithoutfood."
Nothingcouldhavebeenmoresympatheticallyreceivedamong
theChinese,andHuai-haiisprobablyrightlycreditedwith
inoculatingCh'anagainstthegovernmentalpersecutionof845
thatdestroyedsomanyotherBuddhistsects.Hepracticedwhat
hepreached,andevenwhenhereachedoldagehecontinuedto
toilinthefields.Infact,hisdisciplesfinallybecamesoconcerned
forhishealththattheytooktheunprecedentedstepofhidinghis
gardeninghoe.Buttruetohisrule,herefusedtoeatuntilitwas
returned.
PerhapswecaninfersomethingofHuai-hai'sregulations
fromtheroutineincontemporaryZenmonasteries(oftheRinzai
sect).
11
Monksrisewellbeforelight(beforetheycanseethelines
inthepalmoftheirhand),andaftertheirmorningtoiletthey
gatherinthemainhallforsunrisedevotionsinthiscaserapid
chantingofscriptures,adevicemorefordevelopingpowersof
concentrationthanforpiety.Theythenreturntothemeditation
hall,wherechantingresumes.Nextcomesbreakfast,usually
plainricewithamodestvegetablegarnish,andthenbacktothe
meditationhallforceremonialteaandannouncementsofthe
day'sschedule.Afterwardeachmonkmeetsindividuallywiththe
masterinhisquarters,wherethemonk'senlightenmentistested
andakoanmaybeassigned.(Themaster,incidentally,enjoysa
privateroom;themonkssleeptogetherinacommonhall,
arrangedaccordingtorank.)Afterthis,themonksattendtothe
gardenandgroundsofthemonastery,andlaterinthemorning
theremaybebeggingorvisitstolaypatronsfordonations.After
lunch(themainmeal;itsleftoversaresupper)thereismorework
inthegardenofthemonastery,plantingandharvesting,aswell
asrepairingthebuildingsorothermaintenancechores.Lateron
theremaybemorechanting,aswellascleaningandupkeepof
theinteriorofthebuildings.Andinbetweentheremaybe
meditation.Thenasnightfalldescendstheeveningbellringsout
tosignifytheworkday'sending.Duringtheeveningthemonk
maymeditatemoreorreceivefurtherinstructionfromthemaster
orhisbrothers.Finally,lateintheevening,tobedattheendofa
longday.Itshouldbenotedthattherearealsomanyspecialdays
onwhichmeals,ceremonies,oractivitiesmayassumeadifferent
character.
ItissignificantthatthemonasteriesofearlyCh'anaresaid
nottohavehadaBuddhahalloraplaceforworship;ratherthey
hadonlyaDharmaorlecturehall,inwhichthemastergaveatalk,
followedbysharpexchangeswithhisdisciples,whooftenwere
rowdyandsometimesleftatwilltodemonstratetheir
independenceofmind.Thesewereplacesofirreverenceand
unfetteredintellectualinquiry;andapparentlytherewasno
enforcedstudyofthetraditionalBuddhistliterature.With
monasteriesoftheirownwheretheycoulddoastheypleased,
theCh'anmastersfoundtheirrebellioncomplete.Theirsnowwas
anunhamperedsearchfortheperennialphilosophy.
Withthisinmindwemaynowturntothepsychological
teachingsofthelawgiverHuai-hai.Unlikethepiecemealstoryof
hiscontributiontomonasticlife,whichispreservedinspiritmore
thaninletter,thewritingsonenlightenmentthatbearhisname
areratherfirmlyattributed.Thisis,infact,asignificantnew
aspectofCh'anhistory,sincehisworkrepresentsoneofthe
oldestdocumentsactuallycomposedbyamasterascompared
toasermontranscribedandeditedbysomefollower.According
totheextantwritings,afterHuai-haihadstudiedwithMa-tsufor
severalyears,hereturnedtohishometempletocareforhisfirst
master,Tao-chih,whowasbythenagedandillanactofduty
anyChinesewouldimmediatelyunderstand.Itwasduringthis
returnvisitwithhisoldmasterthathecomposedatreatisesetting
forththetheoreticalbasisofsuddenenlightenment.Itissaidthat
whenthisdocumentwasshowntoMa-tsu,hecomparedHuai-hai
toagreatpearlwhoselusterpenetratedalltimeandspace.
(Curiously,Ma-tsuhimselfappearsnottohavemadeagreatfuss
aboutthemeaningofsuddenenlightenment,seeminglytakingthe
"theory"forgrantedandmovingalongtothe"practice.")
"TheZenTeachingofHuai-haionSuddenIllumination"was
composedintheformofanimaginaryquestion-and-answer
session,inwhichHuai-haieffectivelyinterviewedhimselfonthe
questionofsuddenenlightenmentandthespecificproblemsa
personmightencounterintryingtoprepareforit.Hestressedthat
oneofthemostimportantthingstodowastosuspendmaking
valuejudgmentsaboutthings,sincethisleadsalmostdirectlyto
splittingthingsintocampsofgoodandbad,likesanddislikes.
Thisopensonetotheworldofcategoriesanddualities,justthe
oppositefromoneness.AccordingtoHuai-hai,thefirstthingtodo
isstrivefor:

...totalrelinquishmentofideasastothedualnatureofgoodand
bad,beingandnon-being,loveandaversion,voidandnon-void,
concentrationanddistraction,pureandimpure.Bygivingallof
themup,weattaintoastateinwhichalloppositesareseenas
void....Onceweattainthatstate,notasingleformcanbe
discerned.Why?Becauseourself-natureisimmaterialanddoes
notcatchasinglethingforeigntoitself.Thatwhichcontainsno
singlethingistrueReality....
12

Thedesiretoavoidloveandaversionisinextricablytiedwith
thefreedomfromdistinctions,duality,judgments,orprejudices:
Wisdommeanstheabilitytodistinguisheverysortofgoodand
evil;dhyanameansthat,thoughmakingthesedistinctions,you
remainwhollyunaffectedbyloveoraversionforthem.
13

Elsewherehedescribesthisgoalas:

Beingabletobeholdmen,womenandallthevarioussortsof
appearanceswhileremainingasfreefromloveandaversionasif
theywereactuallynotseenatall....
14

Inthismannerwecanoperateontheprincipleofunity,evenina
worldwhereappearanceshavemultiplicity.
Buthowexactlycanwesaythatallthingsareone?Itisnot
somethingthatcanbefullyunderstoodwiththerationalmind,and
initiallyitmustbetakenpartlyonfaith,asaholdingactionuntilwe
canunderstanditintuitively.HistranslatorJohnBlofeldusesthe
traditionalBuddhistanalogyofthesea,whichisbothconstantly
changingandyeteternallychangeless:"Contemplationofthe
movementandshiftingcompositionofsea-wavesisauseful
symbolicalapproach;for,notonlyarethewavesandthesea
identicalinsubstance,butalsoagivenwavedoesnotpreserveits
individualidentityforasinglemomentasthewatercomposingit
isneverforaninstantentirelythesame;thus,bythetimeit
reachesusfromadistance,everydropitcontainswillbeother
thanthedropscomposingitwhenwesawitfirst.Ontheother
hand,sea-waterissea-waterandthewaveisentirelycomposed
ofthat.Eachwaveisvoidamerefluctuatingappearance
identicalinsubstancewitheveryotherwaveandwiththeentire
ocean...."
15
Wavesareaperfectmetaphorfortheideaof
everythingandnothingatonce,sincetheyarebothephemeral
andpartofalargerreality,thesea,outofwhichtheyemerge,
assumeaphysicalappearance,andthendissolve.Theyseemto
exist,yetyoucannotgraspandholdthem.Theyarebothexisting
andnonexistent.ThustheyresembletheVoid,akindofenergy
thatmanifestsitselfthroughdiverseillusoryobjectsofthesenses,
butwhichisitselfungraspable,changelessunity.Withthisin
mind,perhapsitiseasiertounderstandHuai-haiwhenhe
declares:

ThenatureoftheAbsoluteisvoidandyetnotvoid.Howso?The
marvellous"substance"oftheAbsolute,havingneitherformnor
shape,isthereforeundiscoverable;henceitisvoid.Nevertheless,
thatimmaterial,formless"substance"containsfunctionsas
numerousasthesandsoftheGanges,functionswhichrespond
unfailinglytocircumstances,soitisalsodescribedasnotvoid.
16

ByfocusingonthisideaofunityinanAbsolute,wealso
interactwithourownperceptionoftime.Sinceitisimportantthat
themindnotdwellonanything,naturallyenoughthisappliesto
timeaswellasspace.

Ifyouwanttounderstandthenon-dwellingmindveryclearly,
whileyouareactuallysittinginmeditation,youmustbecognizant
onlyofthemind....Whateverispastispast,sodonotsitin
judgmentuponit;forwhenmindingaboutthepastceasesof
itself,itcanbesaidthatthereisnolongeranypast.Whateveris
inthefutureisnothereyet,sodonotdirectyourhopesand
longingstowardsit;for,whenmindingaboutthefutureceasesof
itself,itcanbesaidthatthereisnofuture.Whateverispresentis
nowathand;justbeconsciousofyournon-attachmentto
everythingnon-attachmentinthesenseofnotallowinganylove
oraversionforanythingtoenteryourmind;for,whenmindingthe
presentceasesofitself,wemaysaythatthereisnopresent.
17

Hehastakentheideaofthe"now"toaninterestingnew
dimension.Bycuttingoffthoughtsofpastandfuture,younotonly
saveyourselfmentalanguish,youalsonolongerneeddistinguish
theideaofthe"present"...andyouhavejusteliminatedamajor
aspectofattachment.
Huai-haiisnotblindtothedifficultyofsuchrigorousmind
control,andheofferssomeofthefirstpracticaladvicefroma
Ch'anmasterforcontrollingthemind.Notsurprisingly,itisan
admonitiontostoptryingsohard,tojustfocusongoalsrather
thanforcingthemind'sbehavior.Forexample,ifyouare
meditatingandyourmindwantstomeanderandlookfor
somethingtodwellon,whatshouldyoudo?

Shouldyourmindwanderaway,donotfollowit,whereuponyour
wanderingmindwillstopwanderingofitsownaccord.Should
yourminddesiretolingersomewhere,donotfollowitanddonot
dwellthere,whereuponyourmind'squestingforadwellingplace
willceaseofitsownaccord.Thereby,youwillcometopossessa
non-dwellingmindamindwhichremainsinthestateofnon-
dwelling.Ifyouarefullyawareinyourselfofanon-dwellingmind,
youwilldiscoverthatthereisjustthefactofdwelling,withnothing
todwelluponornottodwellupon.Thisfullawarenessinyourself
ofaminddwellinguponnothingisknownashavingaclear
perceptionofyourownmindor,inotherwords,ashavingaclear
perceptionofyourownnature.
18

Bywayofwrappinguphistreatise,hesummarizeshistechnique
forsuddenilluminationinaboldmanifesto:

Youshouldknowthatsettingforththeprincipleofdeliverancein
itsentiretyamountsonlytothisWHENTHINGSHAPPEN,MAKE
NORESPONSE:KEEPYOURMINDSFROMDWELLINGON
ANYTHINGWHATSOEVER:KEEPTHEMFOREVERSTILLAS
THEVOIDANDUTTERLYPURE.
19

Perhapsitistimeweaskedwhatexactlyisthepointofall
this.Whenwehaveachievedhisgoal,wehaveeffectivelycutoff
allattachments,rationality,discernment,values,sensations.But
whywouldwewanttodothisinthefirstplace?Huai-haianswers
thatbyreleasingourselvesfromthisenslavingbondagetoour
egoanditsattachments,webecomethemastersofourown
being,freetoexperiencetheworldbutnolongeratitsmercy.And
furthermorewenolongerhaveeventothinkaboutbeinginthe
stateof"no-thought."Itisthisnaturalstateofwisdomthatisour
goal.

Concentration(dhyana)involvesthestillingofyourmind...so
thatyouremainwhollyunmovedbysurroundingphenomena.
Wisdommeansthatyourstillnessofmindisnotdisturbedbyyour
givinganythoughttothatstillness,thatyourpurityisunmarredby
yourentertaininganythoughtofpurityandthat,inthemidstof
suchpairsofoppositesasgoodandevil,youareableto
distinguishbetweenthemwithoutbeingstainedbythemand,in
thisway,toreachthestateofbeingperfectlyateaseandfreeof
alldependence.
20

Thisisthestatecalledenlightenment,anewwayof
experiencingrealitythatreliesentirelyuponintuition.Thenwe
realizethatallthistimeourrationalmindhasbeenleadingus
along,tellingusthatappearancesarerealandyetkeepingus
fromreallyexperiencingthingsfirsthand,sincetherationalmind
believesinnames,categories,duality.Consequently,beforethis
suddenmomentofintuitiveunderstanding,wesawtheworldas
throughaglassdarkly,withourselvesassubjectandthefalsely
perceivedexteriorworldasobject.Afterthisexperiencewesee
thingsclearly,butweperceivethemforwhattheyreallyare
creationsofmindasdevoidofgenuinesubstanceastheworldwe
createinourdreamsortheocean'swavesthatwecanseebut
cannothold.Knowingthis,wecanregardtheworld
dispassionately,nolongercaughtinthewebofegoinvolvement
thatenslavesthosenotyetenlightened.Sincethiswholeworld
viewonlycanbeunderstoodintuitively,itisnotsurprisingthatit
mustoneday"dawnonyou"whenyouleastexpect,likeasudden
inspirationthathitsyouafterlogichasfailed.Huai-hai's
instructionsareintendedtobepreparationsforthismoment,
attributestoadoptthatwillmakeyoureadyandreceptivewhen
your"sudden"enlightenmenthits.
Huai-hai'sconceptofsuddenenlightenmentwasquite
straightforward,anditapparentlywasnotabsolutelynecessary
thatmeditationbeemployed.(Infact,hehasdefineddhyanaasa
stateofmind,notanaction.)Enlightenmentisreleasefromthe
ego,theprimarythingstandinginthewayofmentalpeaceina
worldofgettingandspending,ofconflictandcompetition.The
ancientCh'anmastersknewwellthegriefsandmentaldistress
thathaunttheheartofman,andthinkerssuchasHuai-hai
exploreditscuremorefullythanwerealizetoday.

ChapterEight ChapterEight ChapterEight ChapterEight

NAN NAN NAN NAN- -- -CHUANANDCHAO CHUANANDCHAO CHUANANDCHAO CHUANANDCHAO- -- -CHOU: CHOU: CHOU: CHOU:
MASTER MASTER MASTER MASTERSOFTHEIRRATIONAL SOFTHEIRRATIONAL SOFTHEIRRATIONAL SOFTHEIRRATIONAL

Nan Nan Nan Nan- -- -chuanPu chuanPu chuanPu chuanPu- -- -yuan yuan yuan yuan

Thebest-remembereddiscipleofMa-tsuwasNan-ch'uanP'u-
yuan(748-835),founderofafamousmonasteryandabrilliantif
short-livedlineagewhosefinestexamplewashispupilChao-chou
Ts'ung-shen(778-897).TheTransmissionoftheLampreports
thatNan-ch'uanwasbornintheNorthChinaprovinceofHonan.
1

Hebeganstudyofmeditationatageten,andaccordingtothe
BiographiesofEminentMonkscompiledintheSung(Sungkao-
sengchuan)hewenttostudyBuddhismonMt.Sung,near
Loyang,whenhewasthirtyandbecameapriestoftraditional
Buddhism,apparentlyoftheVinayaschool.
2
Afterhisordination,
hetraveledtovariousofthebetter-knownmonasteries,perfected
hisknowledgeofBuddhistscriptures,andlandedfinallyatthe
mountainestablishmentoftheCh'anmasterMa-tsu.
Thelegendsaysthatalthoughtherewereeighthundred
followersofMa-tsu,theprecociousNan-ch'uanwasimmediately
elevatedtothepositionoftheforemostdisciple,andnoneofthe
othersventuredtodebatewithhim.
3
Hefinallyachievedhis
completeenlightenmentundertheoldmaster.Itisnotclearwhen
hearrivedorhowlonghestayedwithMa-tsu,buthereportedly
leftthemonasteryin795ashenearedfiftyandfoundedhisown
communityonMt.Nan-ch'uan,alocationinAnhweiprovince
northofKiangsi,buildingtheoriginallodgingwithhisownhands
andattractingseveralhundreddisciples.Hismostfamous
follower,asidefromthelatermasterChao-chou,wasthelayman
LuHsuan,theprovincialgovernoroftheHsuandistrict.Thestory
saysthatafterresidinginhismountainretreatforthirtyyears,
withoutonceventuringout,hefinallyaccededtotherequestsof
thegovernortocomedownandteachCh'antothepeopleonthe
plain.HethusenjoyedagreatfameasateacherofCh'an,
althoughtodayheisrememberedbyanecdotesratherthanby
anyattributedwritings.
Thegovernorseemstohavebeenpuzzledbysomeofthe
teachingsofSeng-chao(384-414),theearly,pre-Ch'anBuddhist.
HespecificallyaskedNan-ch'uanthemeaningofastatementin
TheBookofChaothatallthingscomefromthesamesourceand
accordinglytherecanbenodifferencebetweenrightandwrong,
whicharethemselvesthesame,byvirtueofacommonorigin.
ThestorysaysthatNan-ch'uanpointedtoapatchofpeoniesin
thegardenandsaid,"Governor,whenpeopleofthepresentday
seetheseblossoms,itisasiftheyseetheminadream."
4

Thepointseernstobethattheunenlightenedcannotfully
perceivetheflowerasitreallyis,cannotexperienceitdirectlyand
purely.Insteaditisapproachedasanobjectapartfromthe
viewer,thesubject.Itisnotseenasanextensionofhisorher
ownreality.Theordinarymindpermitsthisdichotomyofnature,
butintheZenmind,manandflowerbecomeone,mergedintoa
seamlessfabricoflife.Thisisthekindofstatementthatinlater
yearswouldbeisolatedfromthechroniclesandmadeintoa
"publiccase"orkoan,ateachingdevicefornovices.Itsmeaning
isnotmeanttobediscernedthroughthelogicalprocesses,and
evenlessthroughthemediumoflanguage.Whenalatermaster
wasaskedwhatNan-ch'uanhadmeant,heansweredwiththe
equallyenigmatic"Passmeabrick."
5

Theothercelebratedstoryaboutthegovernorisperhaps
easiertounderstand.ThestorysaysthatonedayLuHsuan
posedthefollowingproblemtoNan-ch'uan:"WhatifItoldyouthat
amanhadraisedagooseinabottle,watchingitgrowuntilone
dayherealizedthatithadgrowntoolargetopassthroughthe
bottle'sneck?Sincehedidnotwanttobreakthebottleorkillthe
goose,howwouldhegetitout?"Nan-ch'uanbeganquietly,"My
esteemedgovernor,"andthenheshouted,"THEGOOSEIS
OUT!"ThestorysaysthatLuHsuansuddenlywasenlightenedon
thespot.
6
Nan-ch'uanhadshownthatonewhoposeda
hypotheticalquestioncouldbeansweredbyanequally
hypotheticalresponse.ThereisacommonCh'an(andTaoist)
referencetoatruthbeingcaughtinthenetofwords.HereNan-
ch'uanshowshowtoextracttruthfromverbalencumbrances.
Anotheranecdoterecountsasimilarincident:

AmonksaidtoNan-ch'uan,"Thereisajewelinthesky;howcan
wegetholdofit?"Nan-ch'uansaid,"Cutdownbamboosand
makealadder,putitupinthesky,andgetholdofit!''Themonk
said,"Howcantheladderbeputupinthesky?"Nan-ch'uansaid,
"Howcanyoudoubtyourgettingholdofthejewel?"
7

ManyofhisfinestexchangeswithpupilsarepreservedinThe
TransmissionoftheLamp.Formaximumimpactitisperhapsbest
toleanbackandlethiswordplaywashovertherationalmindlike
acool,cleansingsurf.AswiththeTaoistChuangTzu,thebest
waytocomprehendthisantilogicalphenomenonistoforgetabout
tryingtograspitintellectually,foronlythencanweunderstand.

TheGovernorsaid,"Thereisapieceofstoneinmyhouse.
Sometimesitstandsupandsometimesitliesdown.Now,canit
becarvedintotheimageofBuddha?""Yes,itispossible,"
answeredtheMaster."Butitisimpossibletodoso?"countered
theGovernor."Itisimpossible!Itisimpossible!"exclaimedthe
Master.
8

Thisdialoguesoundsalmostasthoughitwerefroman
undiscoveredscenefromWaitingforGodot,asVladimirand
Estragontestthemeaninglessnessoflanguage.Andforpure
Ionesco,itishardtotopthefollowingincident:

OnceMasterNan-ch'uantoldKuei-tsungandMa-yuthathewas
goingtotakethemwithhimtovisitNan-yangHui-chung,the
NationalTeacher.Beforetheybegantheirjourney,Nan-ch'uan
drewacircleontheroadandsaid,"Assoonasyougivearight
answerwewillbeonourway."ThereuponKuei-tsungsatdown
insidethecircleandMa-yubowedinwoman'sfashion.The
Mastersaidtothem,"Judgingbythisanswer,itwillnotbe
necessarytogo."
9

TheattitudeofNan-ch'uantowardconventionalpieties,aswellas
towardthesocietal,rationalisticconcernsofConfucianism,are
perhapsbestillustratedbythefarewellhegavetohis
distinguishedfollower:

WhenGovernorLuwasabouttoreturntohisofficeinHsuan-
cheng,hecametobidtheMastergood-bye.Thelatteraskedhim,
"Governor,youaregoingbacktothecapital.Howwillyougovern
thepeople?"TheGovernorreplied,"Iwillgovernthemthrough
wisdom."TheMasterremarked,"Ifthisistrue,thepeoplewill
sufferforit."
10

Nan-ch'uanhadarefreshinglackofpompositythatwouldhave
wellservedagoodmanyotherZenmasters,ancientandmodern.

WhentheMasterwaswashinghisclothes,amonksaid,"Master!
Youstillarenotfreefrom'this'?"MasterNan-ch'uanreplied,lifting
theclothes,"Whatcanyoudoabout'this'?"
11

ThiscallstomindtheanecdoteconcerningAlexandertheGreat,
whowhenaskedifhewasagodashadbeenwidelyreported,
respondedbysuggestingthatthequestionbedirectedtotheman
whocarriedouthischamberpot.
HisattitudetowardthegreatCh'anteachersofthepast
seemssimilarlylackinginawe.

Amonkinquired,"Frompatriarchtopatriarchthereisa
transmission.Whatisitthattheytransmittooneanother?"The
Mastersaid,"One,two,three,four,five."Themonkasked,"What
isthatwhichwaspossessedbytheancients?"TheMastersaid,
"Whenitcanbepossessed,Iwilltellyou."Themonksaid
dubiously,"Master,whyshouldyoulie?"TheMasterreplied,"Ido
notlie.[TheSixthPatriarchHui-neng]lied."
12

Nan-ch'uanwasaccustomedtotherough-and-tumbleofMa-
tsu'smonastery,aplaceofshouting,beating,harangues,insults,
"mindless"interviews,misleadingclues,andmind-fatiguing
"irrelevancies."Yetitwasalldonewithahighintensityand
intendedforthequitenoblepurposeofforcingadiscipletofind
hisownfirstnature,hisownenlightenment.Themonasteryasit
developedunderthesewildmenofSouthernCh'anwasnothing
lessthanahigh-pressurecellforthosewhochosetoenter.
Althoughthesenewtechniquesforshakingnonintellectual
insightsintoCh'annoviceswereessentiallytheinventionofMa-
tsu,theyweretransplanted,refined,andexpandedbymenlike
Nan-ch'uan,whosenewmonasteryseemstohavehadthesame
deadly-seriouszaninessasMa-tsu's.

Chao Chao Chao Chao- -- -chouTsung chouTsung chouTsung chouTsung- -- -shen shen shen shen

SomeofthemostinstructiveanecdotesassociatedwithNan-
ch'uanarethoseinvolvinghisstarpupil,Chao-chouTs'ung-shen
(778-897),whocametobeoneofthemajorfiguresoftheGolden
AgeofCh'anandoneofthebest-rememberedofthewild
Southernmasters.AlthoughhisrealnamewasTs'ung-shen,heis
rememberedinhistory(asaremanyCh'anmasters)bythename
ofthemountainwhereheheldforthduringhismatureyears.He
wasborninTs'ao-chouinShantungandearlyonbecamea
novicemonkatalocalmonastery.However,theurgetotravel
wasirresistibleandheleftbeforebeingordained,arrivingatNan-
ch'uan'smonasterywhilestillalad.Thetraditionalfirstexchange
typifiestheirlongandfruitfulrelationship.Nan-ch'uanopenedwith
thestandardquestion:

"Wherehaveyoujustcomefrom?"
"IhavejustleftShui-hsiang[namedforafamousstateof
Buddha]."
"HaveyouseenthestandingimageofBuddha?"
"WhatIseeisnotastandingimageofBuddhabutasupine
EnlightenedOne!"
"Areyouyourownmasterornot?"
"Yes,Iam.[i.e.,Ialreadyhaveamaster.]"
"Whereisthismasterofyours?"
"Inthemiddleofthewintertheweatherbecomesbitterlycold.
Iwishallblessingsonyou,sir."
Atthis,Nan-ch'uandecidedthatthisvisitorwaspromising
andpermittedhimtobecomehisdisciple.
13

Chao-chou'sstrangeanswerseemstohavebeenhisownwayof
signifyinghehadchosenNan-ch'uanashisfuturemaster.Nan-
ch'uan,forhisownpart,seemstohaverecognizedinthis
quizzicalreparteeallthemakingsofagreatCh'anworthy.
TheexploitsofNan-ch'uanandChao-chouformthecoreof
thegreatanecdotalliteratureofCh'an'sGoldenAge.Neitherwas
agreatinnovator,agreatwriter,oragreatorganizer,buttogether
theywereabletoexplorethehighestlimitsofthedialogueasa
vehicleforenlightenment.Andtheirdialogues,incidentally,did
notalwaysnecessarilyrequirewords.

Oneday,inthemonasteryofNan-chu'an,themonksoftheeast
andwestwinghadadisputeoverthepossessionofacat.They
allcametoNan-ch'uanforarbitration.Holdingaknifeinonehand
andthecatintheother,Nan-ch'uansaid,"Ifanyoneofyoucan
saytherightthing,thiscatwillbesaved;otherwiseitwillbecut
intotwopieces."Noneofthemonkscouldsayanything.Nan-
ch'uanthenkilledthecat.Intheevening,whenChao-chou
returnedtothemonastery,Nan-ch'uanaskedhimwhathewould
havesaidhadhebeenthereatthetime.Chao-choutookoffhis
strawsandals,putthemuponhishead,andwalkedout.
WhereuponNan-ch'uancommented,"Oh,ifonlyyouhadbeen
here,thecatwouldhavebeensaved."
14

Chao-chou'sresponseusednolanguageandwasdevoidof
distinctions,beingneitherpositivenornegative.Thisisoneofthe
mostcelebratedstoriesinTheTransmissionoftheLamp,and
onethatisprobablyricherifweavoidsubjectingittotoomuch
commentary.
Thepointwasspecificallyintendedtobeassimpleas
possible,butthisverysimplicityisdisturbingtothecomplicated
intellectualmind.Thereisaparticularlytellingstoryofthe
exchangeChao-chouheldwithNan-ch'uanconcerningtheTao,
meaningthewaytoenlightenment:

WhenChao-chouaskedhismaster,"WhatistheTao?"thelatter
replied,"Taoisnothingelsethantheordinarymind.""Isthereany
waytoapproachit?"pursuedChao-choufurther."Onceyou
intendtoapproachit,"saidNan-ch'uan,"youareonthewrong
track.""Barringconsciousintention,"thedisciplecontinuedto
inquire,"howcanweattaintoaknowledgeoftheTao?"Tothis
themasterreplied,"Taobelongsneithertoknowledgenortono-
knowledge.Forknowledgeisbutillusiveperception,whileno-
knowledgeismereconfusion.Ifyoureallyattaintrue
comprehensionoftheTao,unshadowedbytheslightestdoubt,
yourvisionwillbeliketheinfinitespace,freeofalllimitsand
obstacles.Itstruthorfalsehoodcannotbeestablishedartificially
byexternalproofs."AtthesewordsChao-choucametoan
enlightenment.Onlyafterthisdidhetakehisvowsandbecomea
professedmonk.
15

Nan-ch'uan'sassertionthatTaoisnothingelsethantheordinary
mind,butthatitcannotbereachedbydeliberatesearching,isthe
longstandingcommonplaceofCh'an.However,hehereaddsan
interestingnewassertion:Heclaimsherethatalthoughthe
personfindingthisenlightenmenthasnodoubtofitsreality,it
cannotbeprovedordisprovedbyanyobjectivetests.Thereisno
waythattheenlightenedpersoncanbeshownobjectivelytohave
achievedhisgoal.TheCh'anmasterscouldtestenlightenmentby
matchingtheclaimant'sillogicagainsttheirown;ifhis"craziness"
matched,thenthedisciplepassed.Butthereis,bydefinition,no
objectivetestofenlightenment.Butthen,howdoyoutestthe
ultimaterealizationthatthereisnothingtorealizeotherthanwhat
youknewallalong?Quitesimply,themaster'sintuitionisthefinal
authority.
Theirdialoguesfrequentlywerefullofelectricity,aswitness
anotherexchangethatendedquitedifferently:

Chao-chouasked,"Taoisnotexternaltothings;theexternalityof
thingsisnotTao.ThenwhatistheTaothatisbeyondthings?"
Themasterstruckhim.ThereuponChao-choutookholdofthe
stickandsaid,"Fromnowon,donotstrikeamanbymistake."
TheMastersaid,"Wecaneasilydifferentiatebetweenadragon
andasnake,butnobodycanfoolaCh'anmonk."
10

Chao-chouhereseemstobedeclaringtoNan-ch'uanthathis
enlightenmentisgenuine.AndNan-ch'uan,forhispart,is
assertingthattheMaster'sjudgment,notthemonk's,isthefinal
criterion.InanotherincidentChao-chouactuallyhasthelast
word.

OnceNan-ch'uansaidtoChao-chou,"Nowadaysitisbesttolive
andworkamongmembersofadifferentspeciesfromus."(This
recallstheBuddhistproverb:Itiseasiertosavethebeaststhanto
savemankind.)Chao-chou,however,thoughtotherwise.Hesaid,
"Leavingalonethequestionof'different,'letmeaskyouwhatis
'species'anyway?"Nan-ch'uanputbothofhishandsonthe
ground,toindicatethespeciesofthequadrupeds.Chao-chou,
approachinghimfrombehind,trampledhimtotheground,and
thenranintotheNirvanaHallcrying,"Irepent,Irepent."Nan-
ch'uan,whoappreciatedhisactoftrampling,didnotunderstand
thereasonofhisrepentance.Sohesenthisattendanttoaskthe
disciplewhatwasherepentingfor.Chao-choureplied,"Irepent
thatIdidnottramplehimtwiceover."
17

Inspiteofsuchoccasionalburstsofexuberance,Chao-chou
seemsoveralltohavebeencomparativelymild-manneredfora
Ch'anmaster.Herarelychosetoberateorbeathisdisciples,as
didMa-tsuorhisownmaster,Nan-ch'uan.Inmanyways,Chao-
chouwasthefinesthopeforthelineageofNan-ch'uan,buthe
seemsnottohavebeenoverlyconcernedwithitscontinuation.In
fact,itissomewhatironicthatHuai-hai,whowasmorean
organizerthanacreator,endedupwithalineageperpetuatinghis
linedowntothepresentday,whereasNan-ch'uan'slineage
effectivelyendedwithhisdiscipleChao-chou,althoughbothmen
wereremarkableteachers.Infact,Chao-choualmostneverdid
settledowntorunamonastery.AfterNan-ch'uandiedhe
resumedhistravelsandformanyyearsroamedacrossChina,
visitingwithotherCh'anmasters.Heseemstohavegradually
workedhiswaybacknorth,foritwasinthenorththatherealized
hismostlastingfameandinfluence.Buthisreputationwas
gainedbeforehehadamonasteryofhisownandwithouttheaid
ofpermanentdisciples.Therealacclaimseemstohavebeen
associatedwithajourneytoafamousBuddhistpilgrimagesite,
Mt.Wut'ai,inthenortheasternedgeofShensiprovince,wherehe
preachedasermonthatbroughthimwiderecognition.Although
helovednothingmorethanwanderingthecraggymountainsof
China,friendstriedtoconvincehimtosettledownasrelatedin
anincidentwhenhewasneareighty,aftermanyyearsof
wandering:

Once,ashewasvisitingChu-yu,thelattersaid,"Amanofyour
ageshouldtrytofindaplacetosettledownandteach.""Whereis
myabidingplace?"Chao-chouaskedback."What?"saidhishost,
"Withsomanyyearsonyourhead,youhavenotevencometo
knowwhereyourpermanenthomeis!"Chao-chousaid,"Forthirty
yearsIhaveroamedfreelyonhorseback.Today,forthefirsttime
Iamkickedbyanass!"
18

Hefinallydidsettledown,ateighty,acceptinganinvitationto
comeandliveattheKuan-yinmonasteryinChao-chouin
northeasternChina,wherehestayeduntilhisdeathsomeforty
yearslater.Hislackofinterestinworldly,administrativedetailsis
illustratedbythestorythatduringhisfortyyearsasabbotofthe
monasteryheinstallednonewfurnishingsandmadenoattempt
tocollectalms.PerhapsthistellsuswhyHuai-hai'slinewonthe
day.YetChao-chouwasthepopularfavorite.Hispreferencefor
colloquiallanguageendearedhimtothepeople.Hetriedto
demonstratethatenlightenmentcanbefoundandsubsequently
heightenedthroughordinaryeverydayactivities.Thefollowing
anecdotesuggestshisideaofBuddhismhadlittletodowiththe
Buddha:

MasterChao-chouwasaskedbyamonk,"WhoistheBuddha?"
"Theoneintheshrine,"wastheanswer."Isn'titaclaystatuethat
sitsintheshrine?"themonkwenton.
"Yes,thatisright."
"ThenwhoistheBuddha?"themonkrepeated.
"Theoneintheshrine,"repliedtheMaster.
Amonkasked,"Whatismyownself?"
"Haveyoufinishedyourricegruel?"askedtheMaster.
"Yes,Ihavefinishedit,"repliedthemonk.
"Thengoandwashyourdishes,"saidtheMaster.
Whenthemonkheardthis,hewassuddenlyawakened.
19

Thethrustofthisanecdoteisthatthroughtheeverydaydoing
ofwhatneedstobedone,wecanfindauthenticvaluesandour
originalnature.AsthemodernscholarChangChung-yuanpoints
out,"ThissimpleactivityoftheCh'anmonk,washingthedishes
aftereatinggruel,isthemostordinarything,thesortofactivity
thatiscompletelyspontaneousandrequiresnomentaleffort.
Whileengagedinit,amanisfreefromassertionandnegation."
20

Whenwearedoingmanualtasksweexperiencethem
directly;wedonothavetointellectualizeaboutthem.Thisacting
withoutthought,withoutjudgmentsofgoodorbad,isinfacta
parableofenlightenment.SoitwasthatChao-choucouldso
effectivelyuserotetasksasateachingdevice,fortheyshoweda
novicehowhecouldfreehismindfromitsenslavementto
opinionsandvalues.Thisstressonthemeaningfulnessofdaily
manualactivities,asdistinctfromphilosophicalspeculation,
seemstohavebeenthemajorpositionofChao-chou.This
attitudeisparticularlyborneoutinanothercelebratedChao-chou
anecdote.

Onemorning,asChao-chouwasreceivingnewarrivals,heasked
oneofthem,"Haveyoubeenherebefore?""Yes,"thelatter
replied."Helpyourselftoacupoftea,"hesaid.Thenheasked
another,"Haveyoubeenherebefore?""No,YourReverence,this
ismyfirstvisithere."Chao-chouagainsaid,"Helpyourselftoa
cupoftea."ThePriorofthemonasterytookChao-choutotask,
saying,"Theonehadbeenherebefore,andyougavehimacup
oftea.Theotherhadnotbeenhere,andyougavehimlikewisea
cupoftea.Whatisthemeaningofthis?"Chao-choucalledout,
"Prior!""Yes,"respondedthePrior."Helpyourselftoacupof
tea!"
21

Behindthispossiblydeceptivesimplicity,however,theremust
havebeenapenetratingintelligence,foraverylargenumberof
hisanecdoteswereimportantenoughtobecomeenshrinedin
thosefamouscollectionsofkoanstheMumonkanandtheBlue
CliffRecord.Oneofthebestknownisthefollowing:

Amonkasked,"SinceallthingsreturntoOne,wheredoesthis
Onereturnto?""WhenIwasinTsing-chou,Ihadarobemade
whichweighedsevenchin[pounds]"repliedtheMaster.
22

Theanswerisaperfectexampleof"no-thought,"theanti-
logicconditioninwhichrationalityisdisengaged.Toattemptto
subjectittoanalysiswouldbetomisstheentirepoint.
Anevenmorefamouskoan,andonethathasbecomethe
traditionalstartingpointforbeginners,isthefollowing:

AmonkaskedChao-chou,"HasadogtheBuddhaNature?"
Chao-chouanswered,"Mu."
23

Herethewordmu,meaning"nothingness"or"un,"isan
elegantresolutionofaperplexingZendilemma.HadChao-chou
answeredintheaffirmative,hewouldhavebeentacitlyinstigating
adualisticviewoftheuniverse,inwhichadogandamanare
allowedtobediscussedasseparateobjects.Buttohave
respondednegativelywouldhavebeentoevenmorestrongly
betraytheZenteachingoftheOnenesspermeatingallthings.An
answerwascalledfor,butnotanexplanation.Sothemaster
respondedwithanonwordasoundthathasbeenadoptedin
laterZenpracticeassymbolicoftheunityofallthings.
ThiswisdommadeChao-chousuchalegendinhisown
lifetimethatmanymonksfromthesouthcamenorthtotrytotest
him,buthealwaysoutwittedthem,evenwhenhewaswellpasta
hundred.Perhapsitwouldbewelltoroundouthisstorywitha
garlandofsomeoftheexchangeshehadwithnewmonks:

Anewarrivalsaidapologeticallytothemaster,"Ihavecomehere
empty-handed!""Layitdownthen!"saidthemaster."SinceIhave
broughtnothingwithme,whatcanIlaydown?"askedthevisitor.
"Thengooncarryingit!"saidthemaster.
24

OnedayChao-choufelldowninthesnow,andcalledout,"Help
meup!Helpmeup!"Amonkcameandlaydownbesidehim.
Chao-chougotupandwentaway.
25

Amonkasked,"Whenabeggarcomes,whatshallwegivehim?"
Themasteranswered,"Heislackinginnothing."
26

Whenamonkaskedhim,"Whatistherealsignificanceof
Bodhidharma'scomingfromthewest?"hisanswerwas,"The
cypresstreeinthecourtyard."Whenthemonkprotestedthat
Chao-chouwasonlyreferringtoamereobject,theAbbotsaid,
"No,Iamnotreferringyoutoanobject."Themonkthenrepeated
againthequestion."Thecypresstreeinthecourtyard!"saidthe
Abbotoncemore.
27

Amonkbesoughthimtotellhimthemostvitallyimportant
principleofCh'an.Themasterexcusedhimselfbysaying,"Imust
nowgotomakewater.ThinkevensuchatriflingthingIhaveto
doinperson."
28

Chao-chouwasofauniquebreedof"GoldenAge"masters,who
createdCh'an'sfinestmoment.EvenChao-chouknewthis,forhe
isquotedasrecognizingthatCh'anhadalreadypassedthrough
itsmostdynamicepoch.

"Ninetyyearsago,"hesaid,"Isawmorethaneightyenlightened
mastersinthelineageofMa-tsu;allofthemwerecreativespirits.
Oflateyears,thepursuitofCh'anhasbecomemoreandmore
trivializedandramified.Removedeverfartherfromtheoriginal
spiritofmenofsupremewisdom,theprocessofdegenerationwill
goonfromgenerationtogeneration."
29

Chao-choudiedinhisonehundredandtwentiethyear,surelyone
ofthemostvenerableCh'anmasters.Fortunatelyhispessimistic
assessmentofCh'an'sfuturewasonlypartlycorrect.Althoughhe
himselfhadnoillustriousheirs,therewereotherSouthernCh'an
masterswhowouldextendthelineageofMa-tsuintowhatwould
onedaybetheRinzaischool,amongthesealaymannamed
P'angandthemasterHuang-po.

ChapterNine ChapterNine ChapterNine ChapterNine

P'ANGANDHAN P'ANGANDHAN P'ANGANDHAN P'ANGANDHAN- -- -SHAN: SHAN: SHAN: SHAN:
LAYMANANDPOET LAYMANANDPOET LAYMANANDPOET LAYMANANDPOET

Han-shan

Eachofthebetter-knowndisciplesofMa-tsuexemplifiedsome
particularaspectofCh'an:WhereasPo-changHuai-haiadvanced
Ch'an'sorganizationalandanalyticalside,Nan-ch'uanembodied
theillogical,psychologicallyjoltingapproachtotheteaching.But
whatabouttheCh'anoutsidethemonasteries?DidMa-tsu's
influenceextendtothelaycommunity?Althoughlittlehasbeen
preservedtohelpanswerthesequestions,wedohavethestories
oftwoCh'anpoetswhooperatedoutsidethemonasticsystem:
LaymanP'ang(740?-811)andHan-shan(760?-840?).Theywere
partofamovementcalledchu-shih,laybelieverswhoweredrawn
toBuddhismbutrejectedtheformalpractices,preferringto
remainoutsidetheestablishmentandseekenlightenmentontheir
own.
1
However,P'angstudiedunderMa-tsuhimself,andHan-
shansometimesechoedthemaster'steachingsinhisverse.

LaymanPang LaymanPang LaymanPang LaymanPang

ThemanknowntohistoryasLaymanP'angwasborninthe
mid-eighthcentury.
2
HegrewtomanhoodinthecityofHeng-
yang,wherehisConfucianistfatherservedasamiddle-level
official.Althoughhewaseducatedinalltheclassics,hebecame
apracticingBuddhistearlyandneverfalteredinhisdevotion.
Sometimeaftermarryinghebecamesoobsessedwiththeclassic
Chineseidealofaspiritual-poetichermitagethatheactuallyhada
thatchedcottagebuiltadjacenttohishouse.Herehespenttime
withhiswifeandnowadaughterandsonmeditating,composing
poetry,andengagingincharacteristicallyChinesemusings.A
storyrelatesthathewassittinginhisthatchedcottageoneday
whenhebecameexasperatedwiththedifficultiesofhispathand
declared,"Howdifficultitis!Howdifficultitis!Mystudiesarelike
dryingthefibersoftenthousandpoundsofflaxbyhangingthem
inthesun."Hiswifeoverheardthisoutburstandcontradictedhim,
"Easy,easy,easy.It'sliketouchingyourfeettothegroundwhen
yougetoutofbed.Ihavefoundtheteachingrightinthetopsof
floweringplants."Hisdaughter,Ling-chao,heardbothoutbursts
andshowedthemthetruthwithherassertion,"Mystudyisneither
difficultnoreasy.WhenIamhungryIeat.WhenIamtiredIrest."
3

Thenoneday,thoughttohavebeensometimebetweenthe
years785and790,P'angdecidedtogothefinalstepandsever
histieswiththematerialismthatweighedhimdown.After
donatinghishouseforatemple,heloadedhisremaining
possessionsintoaboatwhichheproceededtomaneuverinto
themiddleofariverandsink.
Wedonotknowifhiswifeandsonwelcomedthisfinal
freedomfrommaterialenslavement,buthisdaughterseemsto
haveapproved,forshehelpedhimwendhisnow-penuriousway
throughtheworldbyassistinghiminmakingandsellingbamboo
householdarticles.Freeatlast,P'angtraveledaboutfromplace
toplacewithnofixedabode,living,sothelegendssay,"likea
leaf."TheimageofP'angandhisdaughterasitinerantpeddlers,
wanderingfromplacetoplace,madeasearingimpressiononthe
Chinesemind,andforcenturieshehasbeenadmiredinChina
admired,butnotnecessarilyemulated.
WhomdidP'anggotovisit?Heseemstohaveknown
personallyeverymajorCh'anfigureinChina.Thefirstmaster
visitedwasthefamousShih-t'ou(700-790),sometimerivalofMa-
tsu.(ItwillberecalledthattheSixthPatriarch,Hui-neng,had
amonghisdisciplesamastercalledHuai-jang(677-744),teacher
ofMa-tsuandheadofthelineageofnowJapaneseRinzai.
AnotheroftheSixthPatriarch'slegendaryfollowerswasHsing-
ssu[d.740],whosepupilShih-t'ouisconnectedtothelinethat
becameJapaneseSoto.Ma-tsuandShih-t'ouheadedthetwo
majormovementsofSouthernCh'anintheeighthcentury.)
4
In
786P'angappearedattheretreatofShih-t'ouonthemountain
calledNan-yueh.HegreetedShih-t'oubyaskinghimoneofthe
standardCh'anquestions,whichShih-t'ouansweredbyquietly
placingahandoverP'ang'smouthcausingtheLayman'sfirst
enlightenmentexperience.P'angstudiedunderShih-t'ou
althoughprobablyinanonmonasticcapacityforsometime,until
onedayShih-t'oudecidedtotesthim.
"Tellme,"beganShih-t'ou,"howhaveyoupracticedCh'an
aftercomingheretothismountain?"
P'angshotbackinacharacteristicmanner,saying,"Thereis
reallynothingwordscanrevealaboutmydailylife."
Shih-t'oucontinued,"ItisjustbecauseIknowwordscannot
thatIaskyounow."
Atthis,P'angwasmovedtoofferaverse:

Mydailyactivitiesarenotunusual,
I'mjustnaturallyinharmonywiththem.
Graspingnothing,discardingnothing,
Ineveryplacethere'snohindrance,noconflict.
[My]supernaturalpowerandmarvelousactivity:
Drawingwaterandcarryingfirewood.(5)

Thedeclarationthatdrawingwaterandcarryingfirewood
weremiraculousactsdemonstratedP'ang'sunderstandingof
"everyday-mindedness"theteachingofno-teaching,the
approachofno-approach.
6
ThestorysaysthatShih-t'ou
acknowledgedtheLayman'senlightenment,andwentonto
inquirewhetherP'angwishedtoexchangehispauper'srobeof
whiteforamonk'sraimentofblack.P'angreputedlyanswered
himwithanabrupt"IwilldowhatIlike."Apparentlyconcluding
thathehadabsorbedallofShih-t'ou'steaching,P'angaroseand
absentedhimself,headingforKiangsiandthemasterMa-tsu.
P'ang'sadventureswithMa-tsuarenotparticularlywell
recorded,giventhetwoyearshereportedlystudiedunderthe
master.However,theaccountoftheirmeetinghasbecomea
Ch'anstandard.Accordingtothestory,P'angaskedMa-tsu,
"Whatkindofmanishewhohasnocompanionamongall
things?"
Ma-tsuanswered,"Afteryouswallowallthewaterinthe
WestRiverinonegulp,Iwilltellyou."ItissaidthatwhenP'ang
heardthis,hewassuddenlyawareoftheessenceofCh'an.
7

Ifthisexchangeseemspuzzling,withitssubtlewordplaythat
weavesinandoutbetweenrealismandsymbolism,whatabout
anotherrecordedexchangebetweenthetwo:

OnedaytheLaymanaddressedMa-tsu,saying:"Amanof
unobscuredoriginalnatureasksyoupleasetolookupward."
Ma-tsulookedstraightdown.
TheLaymansaid:"Youaloneplaymarvelouslyonthe
stringlessch'in[lute]."
Ma-tsulookedstraightup.
TheLaymanbowedlow.Ma-tsureturnedtohisquarters.
"Justnowbungledittryingtobesmart,"thensaidthe
Layman.
8

ThemodernmasterCharlesLukspeculatesthatP'ang's
requesttoMa-tsutolookupatanenlightenedmanwasintended
totraptheoldmaster:"InreplyMa-tsulookeddowntorevealthe
functioningoftheenlightenedmind.P'angthenpraisedthe
masterforplayingsowellonthestringlesslute.ThereatMa-tsu
lookeduptoreturnfunctioningtotheenlightenedmind....In
Ch'anparlance,lookingdownis'function,'whichmeansthemind
wanderingoutsidetodeliverlivingbeings,andlookingupis
returningfunctionto'substance'(themind)aftertheworkof
salvationhasbeendone.P'ang'sactofprostratingis'function'
andMa-tsu'sreturntotheabbot'sroommeansreturningfunction
to'substance'toendthedialogue,fornothingfurthercanbe
addedtorevealsubstanceandfunction."
9

AlthoughtheLaymandeclinedmonasticorders,he
apparentlycouldholdhisownwiththebestofMa-tsu'sfollowers,
aswellaswithotherCh'anmonksheencounteredinhistravels.
Oftenmonkssoughthimoutmerelytomatchwits.Atypical
exchangeisreportedwithafollowerofShih-t'ounamedP'u-chi,
whooncecametotestP'ang:

OnedayP'u-chivisitedtheLayman.
"IrecallthatwhenIwasinmymother'swombIhadacertain
word,"saidtheLayman."I'llshowittoyou,butyoumustn'tholdit
asaprinciple."
"You'restillseparatedfromlife,"saidP'u-chi.
"Ijustsaidyoumustn'tholditasaprinciple,"rejoinedthe
Layman.
"HowcanInotbeawedbyawordthatastoundspeople?"
saidP'u-chi.
"Understandingsuchasyoursisenoughtoastonishpeople,"
repliedtheLayman.
"Theverystatement'don'tholditasaprinciple'hasbecome
aprinciple,"saidP'u-chi.
"You'reseparatednotonlybyoneortwolives,"saidthe
Layman.
"It'sallrightforyoutoreprovearice-gruel[-eating]monk
[likeme],"returnedP'u-chi.
TheLaymansnappedhisfingersthreetimes.
10

Theprecisemeaningofthisexchangewillnotbetackled
here,butP'angapparentlycameoffontop.Nowandthen,
however,P'angseemstohavebeenequaledorbested.Thereis
astoryofanexchangehehadwithoneofthemonksatMa-tsu's
monastery,namedShih-lin.

OnedayShih-linsaidtotheLayman:"IhaveaquestionI'dliketo
ask.Don'tspareyourwords."
"Pleasegoon,"saidtheLayman.
"Howyoudosparewords!"exclaimedShih-lin.
"Unwittinglybythisdiscussionwe'vefallenintoasnare[of
words],"saidtheLayman.
Shih-lincoveredhisears.
"Youadept,youadept!"criedtheLayman.
11

AnothertimeP'angisreminiscentofChao-chouindemonstrating
thatitispossibletoholdone'sownwithouttheuseofwords.

TheLaymanwasoncelyingonhiscouchreadingasutra.A
monksawhimandsaid:"Layman!Youmustmaintaindignity
whenreadingasutra."
TheLaymanraiseduponeleg.
Themonkhadnothingtosay.
12

LaymanP'angstudiedunderMa-tsufortwoyears,buthefinally
decidedtoresumehislifeasawanderingstudentofCh'an.He
leftMa-tsudeclaringthefamilyhissourceofstrength,orsoit
wouldseemfromhispartingversepresentedtothemaster.

I'veaboywhohasnobride,
I'veagirlwhohasnogroom;
Formingahappyfamilycircle,
WespeakaboutBirthless.
13

Andoffhewenttotravel,acompletelyenlightenedmanafterhis
stayinKiangsi.Heturnedincreasinglytopoetryduringthese
yearsofwanderingacrossthecentralpartofChina,composing
someofhismostsensitiveverse.Onepoeminparticularseems
tocapturethecarefreespiritoftheseyearsofwanderings:

Thewiseman,perceivingwealthandlust,
Knowsthemtobeemptyillusion;
Foodandclothessustainbodyandlife
Iadviseyoutolearnbeingasis.
Whenit'stime,Imovemyhermitageandgo,
Andthere'snothingtobeleftbehind.
14

OneofLaymanP'ang'smostenduringcompanionswasthe
monkTan-hsiaT'ien-jan,knownforhisirreverence.Thefollowing
istypicaloftheexchangesrecordedbetweenthetwo:

WhentheLaymanwaswalkingwithTan-hsiaonedayhesaw
adeeppoolofclearwater.Pointingtoitwithhishand,hesaid:
"Beingasitiswecan'tdifferentiateit."
"Ofcoursewecan't,"repliedTan-hsia.
TheLaymanscoopedupandthrewtwohandfulsofwateron
Tan-hsia.
"Don'tdothat,don'tdothat!"criedTan-hsia.
"Ihaveto,Ihaveto!"exclaimedtheLayman.
WhereuponTan-hsiascoopedupandthrewthreehandfulsof
waterontheLayman,saying:"Whatcanyoudonow?"
"Nothingelse,"repliedtheLayman.
"Oneseldomwinsbyafluke,"saidTan-hsia.
"Wholostbyafluke?"returnedtheLayman.
15

Toattempttoexplicatethisexchangewouldbetoridethewind.
Theyareinacompletelydifferentrealityfromthatinwhichmere
booksarewrittenandread.
WhatoccupiedMadamP'angduringtheLayman's
wanderingsisnotknown.However,sheseemswellonthewayto
enlightenmentherself.Astorysaysthatonedayshewenttoa
Buddhisttempletomakeanofferingoffood.Thepriestaskedher
thepurposeoftheofferingsothathecouldpostthecustomary
noticeidentifyingthenameofadonorandthedateandpurpose
ofthegift.Thiswascalled"transferringmerit,"sincethe
knowledgeofhergooddeedwouldbe"transferred"fromherself
toothers.ItisreportedthatMrs.P'angtookhercomb,stuckitin
thebackofherhair,andannouncedtothestunnedpriest,
"Transferenceofmeritisaccomplished."
16
Sheseemedapartof
P'ang'senlightenment,evenifnotacompanioninhistravels.
EventuallyP'angandhisdaughter,Ling-chao,endedupback
inthenorth,nearHsiang-yang,thecityofhisbirth,whichhehad
leftwhenaverysmallchild.Butinsteadofmovingintothetown,
theylivedinacaveabouttwentymilestothesouth.Andtothis
caveoftenjourneyedadistinguishedvisitorPrefectYuTiof
Hsiangprovince,animportantofficialwhohadlearnedofP'ang's
verseandhisreputationforCh'anteaching.Originallyavicious
andarrogantdictatorwhodelightedinpersecutingBuddhists,he
hadbeenconvertedbyaCh'anmonkandhadbecomeastrong
supporterofthefaith.Infact,itisYuTiwhomwemustthankfor
ourknowledgeofP'ang,foritwashewhocollectedthepoetry
andstoriesoftheLaymanafterhisdeath.
P'anglivedinhiscavewithLing-chaofortwoyears,andthen
hesuddenlydeclaredthatitwastimetodie.Inadramatic
gesture,heassumedameditatingpostureandaskedLing-chao
togooutsideandtellhimwhenthesunreachedhighnoon,at
whichtimehewouldpasson.Shewentout,butquicklyreturned
toannouncethatitwasalreadynoonbutthattherewasan
eclipse.P'angjumpedupandranouttoseethisevent,butwhile
hewasgoneLing-chaoseatedherselfinhisplace,foldedher
hands,anddiedherself.P'angreturnedfromherdiversionary
announcement,sawwhathadhappened,anddeclared,"Herway
wasalwaysswift.Nowshehasgoneaheadofme."Inrespecthe
postponedhisowndeathforaweek.
17

Hearingofthisepisode,PrefectYuTirushedtothescene.
TheLaymanaddressedhimwith,"Iprayyoutoholdallthatis
thoughttoberealasempty,andnevertakethatwhichisempty
asbeingreal.Farewell.Theworldismerelyashadow,an
echo."
18
Hethenlaidhisheadontheprefect'skneeanddied.He
leftarequestthathisbodybecrematedandhisashesscattered
acrossthewatersofnearbylakesandrivers.
WhenP'ang'swifeheardofthedeathofherhusbandand
daughter,shesaid,"Thatstupidgirlandignorantoldmanhave
goneawaywithouttellingme.Howunbearable."
19
Shethen
relayedthenewstoherson,whowasinthefieldshoeing.Hetoo
subsequentlydiedmiraculously,whilestillstandingup.Forher
ownpart,MadamP'angjourneyedaboutthecountrysidebidding
herfriendsfarewell,andthensecludedherself,whereitwas
neverknown.AndwithherpassingendsthesagaofLayman
P'ang.Thisreal-lifeindividualwashonoredasChina'sanswerto
themythicalIndianbusinessmanVimalakirti,whocombined
enlightenmentwiththelifeofthemarket.

HanShan HanShan HanShan HanShan

AnevenmoreelusivefigureisthehermitHan-shan,whose
namemeans"ColdMountain,"thesitewherehesupposedly
resided.Heisanalmosttotallylengendarycharacter,forwe
actuallyknownothingforsureaboutwhenhelived(thecurrent
bestguessislateeighthtoearlyninthcentury).Almosteverything
knownabouthimhasbeengleanedfromhispoemsandfroma
presumablycontemporaneousprefacetothesepoemscomposed
byamysterioushanduntraceabletoanyhistoricalChinese
individual.Hiswassomeofthemostconfessional,yetjoyous,
versepennedinT'angChina,andhehasbeenclaimedbythe
Ch'anistsasoneoftheirsalthoughhemightjustaseasilyhave
beenaTaoistconversantinBuddhistjargon.Han-shanembodied
thearchetypalherooftheChineseimagination:amemberofthe
ruralgentrywhogaveuphisstaidfamilylifeandsomesortof
scholarlycareertobecomeawanderingpoet.Ashedescribeshis
ownearlylifeintheyearsbeforehiswanderings:

FrommyfatherandmotherIinheritedlandenough
Andneednotenvyothers'orchardsandfields
Creak,creakgoesthesoundofmywife'sloom;
Backandforthmychildrenprattleattheirplay.
***
ThemountainfruitschildinhandIpluck;
MypaddyfieldalongwithmywifeIhoe.
AndwhathaveIgotinsidemyhouse?
Nothingatallbutonestandofbooks.
20

Sowehaveagentlemanscholar,comfortablywelloff,withwife
andchildrenandanidylliclifeundisturbedbytheincursionsofthe
world.Itisalltooperfectbyhalf,andsureenoughsometime
beforehisthirtiethyearhislifewasdisruptedbyan(undescribed)
eventsocatastrophicthathiswifeandfamilyturnedhimout:

ItookalongbookswhenIhoedthefields,
Inmyyouth,whenIlivedwithmyolderbrother.
Thenpeoplebegantotalk;
Evenmywifeturnedagainstme.
NowI'vebrokenmytieswiththeworldofreddust;
IspendmytimewanderingandreadallIwant.
Whowilllendadipperofwater
Tosaveafishinacarriagerut.
21

Justwhenthissadeventtookplacewedonotknow.However,by
thetimeHan-shanwasthirtyhefoundhimselfonColdMountain,
partoftheT'ien-taimountainrangeandnearthetownofT'ang-
hsing.

ThirtyyearsagoIwasbornintotheworld.
Athousand,tenthousandmilesI'veroamed,
Byriverswherethegreengrassliesthick,
Beyondtheborderwheretheredsandsfly.
Ibrewedpotionsinavainsearchforlifeeverlasting.
Ireadbooks,Isangsongsofhistory,
AndtodayI'vecomehometoColdMountain
Topillowmyheadonthestreamandwashmyears.
22

Hedescribedhislifeinthemountainsinanumberofverses
thatoftenseemmoreTaoistthanBuddhist.Oneofthemost
lyricalfollows:

EversincethetimewhenIhidintheColdMountain
Ihavekeptalivebyeatingthemountainfruits.
Fromdaytodaywhatistheretotroubleme?
Thismylifefollowsadestinedcourse.
Thedaysandmonthsflowceaselessasastream;
Ourtimeisbriefastheflashstruckonastone.
IfHeavenandEarthshift,thenletthemshift;
Ishallstillbesittinghappyamongtherocks.
23

Hewasacontradictoryindividual,oneminutesolemninhis
searchforMind,andthenextminuteabuoyantbonvivant,writing
versesthatseemalmostaT'angversionofourowncarpediem:

Ofcoursetherearesomepeoplewhoarecarefulofmoney,
ButnotIamongthem.
BecauseIdancetoomuch,mygarmentofthinclothisworn.
Mybottleisempty,forIspurtoutthewinewhenwesing.
Eatafullmeal.
Don'ttireyourfeet.
Thedaywhenweedsaresproutingthroughyourskull,
Youwillregretwhatyouhavebeen.
24

Thelifehedescribesforhimselfisoneimmersedinpoetry.
Heisthecompleatpoet,whoseonlyconcerniswriting(not
publishing)verse.

OnceatColdMountain,troublescease
Nomoretangled,hung-upmind,
Iidlyscribblepoemsontherockcliff,
Takingwhatevercomes,likeadriftingboat.
25

Butifhispoemswerewrittenonarockcliff,howthenwere
theypreserved?Thereonhangsatale,ormorelikelyalegend.At
someunknowntime,Han-shan'sverses(somethreehundred)
werecollectedandsuppliedwitha"preface."
26
Thepersonwho
takescreditforsavingHan-shanfromacountrypoet'soblivion
identifieshimselfasLu-ch'iuYin,ahighofficial.Asithappens,the
T'angChinesewereveryfussyaboutkeepingrecordsonsuch
thingsashighofficials,andaLu-ch'iuYinisnotremembered
amongtheirranks.Consequently,somehavespeculatedthatthe
authoroftheprefacewasinfactaBuddhistpriestwhowishedto
remainanonymous.Atanyrate,accordingtothestory,ourofficial
firstheardofHan-shanuponbecomingilljustbeforeaplanned
triptoanewprefectureand,afterfailingtobehelpedbyadoctor,
wascuredbyawanderingpriest,whothentoldhimthatinthe
prefectureofhisdestinationhewouldneedfurtherprotectionfrom
bodilyills.Lu-ch'iuYinaskedhimforthenameofamaster,and
thepriesttoldhimtobeonthelookoutfortwoeccentric-appearing
kitchenservantsattheKuo-ch'ingmonasterydininghall,named
Han-shanandShih-te.
Whenhearrivedathisnewpost,heimmediatelysoughtout
thismonasteryandwasamazedtolearnthestorywastrue.
Peoplearoundthetemplesaid,"Yes,thereisaHan-shan.He
livesaloneinthehillsataplacecalledColdMountain,buthe
oftencomesdowntothetempletovisithisfriend,Shih-te.The
cook,Shih-te,itturnedout,savedleftoversforhisfriendHan-
shan,whowouldcomeandtakethemawayinabambootube,
merrilylaughingandjokingalongthelengthofthetempleveranda
ashecartedawayhisbooty.Oncethemonkscaughthimand
exposedhissystem,butheonlylaughedallthemore.His
appearancewasthatofastarvingbeggar,buthiswisdomwas
thatofamanofenlightenment.
Lu-ch'iuYinanxiouslypressedontothekitchen,wheresure
enoughhefoundHan-shanandShih-te,tendingthestovesand
warmingthemselvesoverthefire.Whenhebowedlowtothem,
theybrokeintogalesoflaughterandshouted"HO"backathim.
Theothermonkswerescandalizedandwonderedaloudwhya
distinguishedofficialwouldbowtoapairofne'er-do-wells.But
beforehecouldexplain,thepairclaspedhandsandboltedoutof
thetemple.(ThegigglingHan-shanandShih-tebecameastaple
ofZenartforamillenniumthereafter.)Determinedtoretrieve
them,hearrangedforthemonasterytoprovidethempermanent
accommodationsandleftapackageofclothesandincensefor
them.Whentheyfailedtoreappear,hehadabearercarryhis
giftsandaccompanyhimupintothemountains.Finallythey
glimpsedHan-shan,whoyelled,"Thief!Thief!"atthemand
retreatedtotheopeningofacave.Hethenbadethemfarewell
with,"Eachofyoumenshouldstrivetoyourutmost!"Whereupon
hedisappearedintothecave,whichitselfthencloseduponhim,
leavingnotrace.TheprefacesaysHan-shanwasneverseen
again.InhomagethedisappointedLu-ch'iuYinhadhispoems
collectedfromwheretheyhadbeencomposedonscrapsof
bamboo,wood,stones,cliffs,andonthewallsofhouses.Thus
therecametobethecollectedoeuvreofHan-shan.
Han-shan'spoemssupportatleastpartofthissomewhat
fancifulstory.HedoesseemtohavebeenBuddhistinoutlook,
andasoneofhistranslators,BurtonWatson,hasdeclared,"...
tojudgefromhispoetry,Han-shanwasafolloweroftheCh'an
sect,whichplacedgreatemphasisonindividualeffortandwas
lesswaryofemotionalismthanearlierBuddhismhadbeen....
Thoughhewritesattimesinamoodofserenity,atothertimeshe
appearsdespondent,angry,arrogant,orwildlyelated...,"
27

AsdidLaymanP'ang,Han-shanseemstohavebelievedthat
theWayisfoundineveryday-mindedness,apointofviewmost
forcefullyexpoundedbyMa-tsu.AsHan-shandeclaresinoneof
hispoems:

Asforme,IdelightintheeverydayWay,
Amongmist-wrappedvinesandrockycaves.
HereinthewildernessIamcompletelyfree,
Withmyfriends,thewhiteclouds,idlingforever.
Thereareroads,buttheydonotreachtheworld;
SinceIammindless,whocanrousemythoughts?
OnabedofstoneIsit,aloneinthenight,
WhiletheroundmoonclimbsupColdMountain.
28

Manyofhisversesreinforcethebeliefthathewasindeeda
followerofSouthernCh'an.Forexample,heseemedtobelieve
thattheminditselfistheBuddhathatallseek.

Talkingaboutfoodwon'tmakeyoufull,
Babblingofclotheswon'tkeepoutthecold.
Abowlofriceiswhatfillsthebelly;
Ittakesasuitofclothingtomakeyouwarm.
Andyet,withoutstoppingtoconsiderthis,
YoucomplainthatBuddhaishardtofind.
Turnyourmindwithin!Thereheis!
Whylookforhimabroad?
29

Interestinglyenough,forallhisrathertraditionalCh'an
sentimentsandadmonitions,hewasmuchmoreintouchwith
humanconcernsthanweremostfollowersofCh'an.Forone
thing,helivedaloneinthemountains,anisolatedasceticcutoff
fromhumancontact,andtheresultinglonelinesswassomething
thosecaughtupintheriotousgive-and-takeofaCh'anmonastery
neverknew.Hegivesvoicetothislonelinessinatouchingpoem.

IlookfaroffatT'ien-t'ai'ssummit,
Aloneandhighabovethecrowdingpeaks.
Pinesandbamboossinginthewindthatswaysthem
Seatideswashbeneaththeshiningmoon.
Igazeatthemountain'sgreenbordersbelow
Anddiscussphilosophywiththewhiteclouds.
Inthewilderness,mountainsandseasareallright,
ButIwishIhadacompanioninmysearchfortheWay.
30

Theadmissionoflonelinessandnear-despairinmanyofhis
verseshasalwaysbeenatroublesomepointforZen
commentators.Theenlightenedmanissupposedtobeimmune
tothemisgivingsoftheheart,focusedasheisononenessand
nondistinction.ButHan-shanworriedagoodbitaboutoldage,
andhealsomissedhisfamily,asheadmits,albeitthroughthe
mediumofadream:

LastnightinadreamIreturnedtomyoldhome
Andsawmywifeweavingatherloom.
Sheheldhershuttlepoised,asthoughlostinthought,
Asthoughshehadnostrengthtoliftitfurther.
Icalled.Sheturnedherheadtolook,
Buthereyeswereblankshedidn'tknowme.
Somanyyearswe'vebeenparted
Thehairatmytempleshaslostitsoldcolor.
31

Butperhapsitisthisnon-Ch'anquality,thismortaltouch,that
elevatesHan-shantotherankofagreatlyricalpoet.Heactually
managestobebothaplausibleBuddhistandavulnerablehuman
being.FewotherpoetsinChineselettersmanagedtocombine
genuineBuddhismwithsuchmemorableverse.AsBurton
Watsonhasobserved,"Intheworksofmostfirst-rateChinese
poets,Buddhismfiguresveryslightly,usuallyaslittlemorethana
vaguemoodofresignationorapicturesqueembellishmentinthe
landscapethemountaintemplefallingintomelancholyruin,the
oldmonkonevisitsonanoutinginthehills.Han-shan,however,
isastrikingexceptiontothisrule.Thecollectionofpoetry
attributedtohim...ispermeatedwithdeepandcompelling
religiousfeeling.Forthisreasonheholdsaplaceofspecial
importanceinChineseliterature.Heprovedthatitwaspossibleto
writegreatpoetryonBuddhist,aswellasConfucianandTaoist,
themes;thatthecoldabstractionsofMahayanaphilosophycould
betransformedintopersonalandimpassionedliterature....The
languageofhispoemsissimple,oftencolloquialorevenslangy.
..[but]manyofhisimagesandtermsaredrawnfromthe
BuddhistsutrasorthesayingsoftheSouthernSchoolofZen,
whosedoctrineoftheBuddhaaspresentinthemindsofallmen
ofBuddhaastheminditselfhesooftenrefersto.Atthesame
timeheissolidlywithintheChinesepoetictradition,hislanguage
againandagainechoingtheworksofearlierpoets...."
32

WithHan-shanwereturnrepeatedlytotheworldofCold
Mountain,whichwasasanotherofhistranslators,ArthurWaley,
haspointedoutasmuchastateofmindasalocality.Itwasthis,
togetherwithhisadvicetolookwithin,thatfinallygivesHan-shan
hishauntingvoiceofCh'an.Heseemsnottohavecaredforthe
supercilious"masters"whodominatedthecompetitiveworldof
themonasteries.Heinvitedthemtojoinhimintherigorousbut
rewardingworldof"ColdMountain,"wherethemindwasBuddha
andtheheartwashome.

WhenmenseeHan-shan
Theyallsayhe'scrazy
Andnotmuchtolookat
Dressedinragsandhides.
Theydon'tgetwhatIsay
&Idon'ttalktheirlanguage.
AllIcansaytothoseImeet:
"TryandmakeittoColdMountain."
33

ChapterTen ChapterTen ChapterTen ChapterTen

HUANG HUANG HUANG HUANG- -- -PO: PO: PO: PO:
MASTEROFTHEUNIVERSALMIND MASTEROFTHEUNIVERSALMIND MASTEROFTHEUNIVERSALMIND MASTEROFTHEUNIVERSALMIND

PerhapsthemostthoughtfulZenphilosopherofthemallwas
Huang-po(d.850?),whopickedupwheretheearlierteachers
hadleftoffandbroughttoaclosethegreatcreativeeraofCh'an.
Healsostoodattheveryedgeofthetumultuouswatershedin
ChineseBuddhism,barelylivingpastthe845GreatPersecution
thatsmashedthepowerofalltheBuddhistschoolsexceptthatof
thereclusiveSouthernCh'anists.
OriginallynamedHsi-yun,themastermovedatayoungage
fromhisbirthplaceinpresent-dayFukientoMt.Huang-pointhe
sameprovince,thelocalethatgavehimhisCh'antitle.His
biographydeclaresthathisvoicewasarticulateandmellifluous,
hischaracteropenandsimple.
1
Helaterdecidedtomakea
pilgrimagetoseethefamousMa-tsu,butwhenhearrivedin
Kiangsihewastoldthatthemasterhaddied.
2
Po-changHuai-hai
wasstillthere,however,andconsequentlyHuang-posettled
downtostudywithhiminstead.
Huang-poisknowntoustodayprimarilythroughtheaccident
ofhavingafollowerobsessedbythewrittenword.Thisman,Pei
Hsiu,wasalsoahighChineseofficialwhoservedasgovernorin
twooftheprovinceswhereHuang-poatvarioustimesresided.He
studiedunderHuang-pobothtimes(alldayandnight,sohe
claimed)andlaterproducedananecdotalsummaryofthe
master'steachingsnowknownasOntheTransmissionofMind.
3

Thisdocumentwasextensive,representingoneofthemost
detaileddescriptionsofanearlymaster'sthoughts.PeiHsiualso
reportsinhispreface(dated858)thathesenthisworkbackto
KuangT'angmonasteryonMt.Huang-potohaveitauthenticated
bytheoldmonkstherewhostillrememberedthesayingsofthe
master.
4

BythetimeofHuang-potheissueof"gradual"versus
"sudden"enlightenmentwasdecisivelyresolvedinfavorofthe
latter.Hethereforeturnedinsteadtotwomajorremaining
questions:1)howenlightenmentfitsintothementalworld,and2)
howthisintuitiveinsightcanbetransmitted.Beforehewas
throughhehadadvancedtheseissuessignificantlyandhadlaid
thephilosophicalbasisforthenextphaseofCh'aninChinatobe
dominatedbytheschoolofhispupilLin-chi.
Huang-postruggledwithafundamentaldilemmaofCh'an:
howthewordlesswisdomofintuitioncanbepassedfrom
generationtogeneration.Enlightenmentnecessarilyhastobe
intuitive,andthatmeanstraditionalteachingmethodsare
useless.Therearenoconceptualformulationsor"concepts."Itis
bydefinitionwordless.Ithastoberealizedintuitivelybythe
novice,byhimself.Themastershadisolatedatypeofknowledge
thatwordscouldnottransmit.Itwasthistransmissionofwordless
insight,ofMind,thatobsessedHuang-po.
HisteachingsarewellsummarizedbyhisbiographerPei
Hsiu,whodeclared:"Holdinginesteemonlytheintuitivemethod
oftheHighestVehicle,whichcannotbecommunicatedinwords,
hetaughtnothingbutthedoctrineoftheOneMind;holdingthat
thereisnothingelsetoteach,inthatbothmindandsubstanceare
void....TothosewhohaverealizedthenatureofReality,there
isnothingoldornew,andconceptionsofshallownessanddepth
aremeaningless.Thosewhospeakofitdonotattempttoexplain
it,establishnosects,andopennodoorsorwindows.Thatwhich
isbeforeyouisit.Begintoreasonaboutitandyouwillatoncefall
intoerror."
5

Heseemstohavebeenpreoccupiedwiththeissueof
transmissionevenduringtheearlydaysofstudyingunderHuai-
hai.Hisveryfirstquestiontotheoldermasterreportedlywas
"HowdidtheearlyCh'anmastersguidetheirfollowers?"Huai-hai
answeredthisveryun-Ch'anquestionwithsilence,animplied
rebuke.WhenHuang-popressedthepoint,Huai-haicalledhima
disappointingdiscipleandsaidhehadbestbewareorhe(Huang-
po)wouldbethemanwholostCh'an.
6

Inalaterepisode,however,Huai-haidesignatesHuang-poas
asuccessorinDharma,viaafamoustransmissionexchangein
whichHuang-pofinallydemonstrateswordlesscommunication.

OnedayHuai-haiaskedHuang-po,"Wherehaveyoubeen?"
TheanswerwasthathehadbeenatthefootoftheTa-hsiung
Mountainpickingmushrooms.Huai-haicontinued,"Haveyou
seenanytigers?"Huang-poimmediatelyroaredlikeatiger.Huai-
haipickedupanaxasiftochopthetiger.Huang-posuddenly
slappedHuai-hai'sface.Huai-hailaughedheartily,andthen
returnedtohistempleandsaidtotheassembly,"Atthefootofthe
Ta-hsiungMountainthereisatiger.Youpeopleshouldwatchout.
Ihavealreadybeenbittentoday."
7

ThisenigmaticutterancebyHuai-haihasbeentakenbymany
tosignifythatHuang-powasbeingacknowledgedasaworthy
being,perhapsevenasuccessor.ThescholarChangChung-
yuanhasobservedthatthegeniusofthisresponsewasits
freedomfromthetrapoflogicalassertionornegation.
8
Theact
signifiedfreedomfromthealternativesofwordsorsilence.Could
itbethatwiththisincidentwehavefinallycapturedawordless
transmission?
Huang-poalsohadanumberofexchangesinlateryearswith
Nan-ch'uan(738-824),anotherofhisseniorswhohadstudiedat
thefeetofoldMa-tsu.AsthestoryisreportedinThe
TransmissionoftheLamp:

SometimelaterHuang-powaswithNan-ch'uan.Allthemonksin
Nan-ch'uan'smonasteryweregoingouttoharvestcabbage.Nan-
ch'uanaskedHuang-po,"Whereareyougoing?"Huang-po
answered,"Iamgoingtopickcabbage."Nan-ch'uanwenton,
"Whatdoyouusetopickcabbage?"Huang-poliftedhissickle.
Nan-ch'uanremarked,"Youtaketheobjectivepositionasaguest,
butyoudonotknowhowtopresideasahostinthesubjective
position."Huang-pothereuponknockedonthegroundthreetimes
withhissickle.
9

WhenBlofeldtranslatesthispuzzlingepisodefromOnthe
TransmissionofMind,hecommentsthathehasbeenunableto
findamodernZenmasterwhocouldexplainitsmeaning.
10
However,Nan-ch'uan'sfinalremarkquestionsthedegreeof
Huang-po'senlightenment,andsomeassumethelatterknocked
onthegroundtosignifydefeat.
11

Asdidothermasters,Huang-poalsoemployedsilenceasa
teachingdevice,usingittoteachwordlessinsightbyexample.
Oneparticularlypointedstoryinvolvesnoneotherthanhis
biographer,theofficialPeiHsiu.InPeiHsiu'sintroductiontohis
transcriptofHuang-po'steachingshesaysthattheyfirstmetin
843whenheinvitedthemastertolectureatLung-hsingTemplein
Chung-ling,thedistrictwhichhegoverned.Sixyearslater,in849,
thegovernorwasinchargeofWan-ling,andheagaininvitedthe
mastertocomeandteach,thistimeatthelocalK'ai-yantemple.
12

WhenHuang-poarrivedinWan-ling,forwhatwastobethe
secondteachingsessionwithPeiHsiu,thestorysaysthatthe
governormadethemistakeofpresentingthemasterwithawritten
expositionoftheteachingsofCh'an.Huang-pogreetedthiswith
silence,his"exposition"ofCh'an.

ThePrimeMinisterinvitedtheMastertothecityandpresented
hisownwritteninterpretationofCh'antohim.TheMastertookit
andputitonthetable.Hedidnotreadit.Afterashortsilence,he
askedthePrimeMinister,"Doyouunderstand?"Theminister
answered,"Idonotunderstand."TheMastersaid,"Itwouldbe
betterifyoucouldunderstandimmediatelythroughinner
experience.Ifitisexpressedinwords,itwon'tbeourteaching."
13

TheTransmissionoftheLampreportsthatafterthisepisodeat
Wan-ling,thespiritofHuang-po'sschoolbecamewidespread
southoftheYangtzeRiver.
14

ThisexchangebringsouttheessenceofHuang-po's
concerns.HismostinsistentconvictionwasthatCh'ancannotbe
taught,thatitmustbesomehowgainedintuitively.Hewas
contemptuousofconceptualthought,believingittobethe
greatesthindrancetoachievingintuitiveinsight.Theproblemis
themistakenbeliefthatZencansomehowbetaughtand
understoodifonlyonegraspstheconcepts.Butconceptsonly
servetoobstructintuition;Zenintuitioncanworkonlyoutside
concepts.AsHuang-pophrasedit:

SinceZenwasfirsttransmitted,ithasnevertaughtthatmen
shouldseekforlearningorformconcepts."StudyingtheWay"is
justafigureofspeech.Itisamethodofarousingpeople'sinterest
intheearlystagesoftheirdevelopment.Infact,theWayisnot
somethingwhichcanbestudied.Studyleadstotheretentionof
conceptsandsotheWayisentirelymisunderstood.
15

TheuseoftherationalmindinthestudyofCh'anisonly
meaningfulatthebeginning.Butoncethefishofintuitiveinsight
hasbeensnaredinthenetoftherationalmind'sken,thenetmust
bediscarded.Elsewherehelikenstheextendeduseofanalytical
thoughttotheshovelingofdung.
16
Concepts,itturnsout,areonly
oneofthemind'smanyconstructs.Themindalsoprovidesour
perceptionofconcreteobjects,thereby"creating"themtosuitits
needs.

Hillsarehills.Wateriswater.Monksaremonks.Laymenare
laymen.Butthesemountains,theserivers,thewholeworlditself,
togetherwiththesun,moon,andstarsnotoneofthemexists
outsideyourminds!...Phenomenadonotariseindependently,
butrelyupon(themental)environment(wecreate).
17

Sincerealityiscreatedbythemind,wewillneverknowwhat
is"real"andwhatisillusion.Examplesofthisarecommonplace.
Theelectronisbothawaveandaparticle,dependinguponour
pointofview.Whichis"reality"?Furthermore,conceptslimit.By
treatingtheworldusingrationalconstructs,weforceitintoa
limitedcage.Butwhenwedealwithitdirectly,itismuchmore
complexandauthentic.Tocontinuetheexample,theelectron
maybesomethingmuchmorecomplexthaneitherawaveora
particle,sinceitbehavesattimeslikeeitherorboth.Itmayinfact
besomethingforwhichourrationality-boundmindhasno
"concept."
Theillusoryworldwethinkweseearoundus,deceptively
broughttousbyouruntrustworthysenses,leadsustoconceptual
thoughtandtologicalcategoriesasameanstoattemptits
"understanding."Theresultingintellectualturmoilisjustthe
oppositeofthetranquilitythatisCh'an.Butavoidanceof
conceptualthoughtleadstoaserene,direct,andmeaningful
understandingoftheworldaroundus,withoutunsettlingmental
involvement.

Ordinarypeopleallindulgeinconceptualthoughtbasedon
environmentalphenomena,hencetheyfeeldesireandhatred.To
eliminateenvironmentalphenomena,justputanendtoyour
conceptualthinking.Whenthisceases,environmental
phenomenaarevoid;andwhenthesearevoid,thoughtceases.
Butifyoutrytoeliminateenvironmentwithoutfirstputtingastop
toconceptualthought,youwillnotsucceed,butmerelyincrease
itspowertodisturbyou.
18

Whatisworse,relianceonmisleadingperceptionblocksoutour
experienceofourownpuremind.

Peopleintheworldcannotidentifytheirownmind.Theybelieve
thatwhattheysee,orhear,orfeel,orknow,ismind.Theyare
blockedbythevisual,theauditory,thetactile,andthemental,so
theycannotseethebrilliantspiritoftheiroriginalmind.
19

WhenhewasaskedwhyZenstudentsshouldnotform
conceptsasotherpeopledo,hereplied,"Conceptsarerelatedto
thesenses,andwhenfeelingtakesplace,wisdomisshutout."
20

Huang-poissoadamantagainstthedeceivingworldofthe
sensesheevencomesdownhardonthepleasuresofthe
gourmet.

Thus,thereissensualeatingandwiseeating.Whenthebody
suffersthepangsofhungerandaccordinglyyouprovideitwith
food,butwithoutgreed,thatiscalledwiseeating.Ontheother
hand,ifyougluttonouslydelightinpurityandflavour,youare
permittingthedistinctionswhicharisefromwrongthinking.Merely
seekingtogratifytheorganoftastewithoutrealizingwhenyou
havetakenenoughiscalledsensualeating.
21

Thepointhereseemstobethattheuseofthesensesfor
pleasureisanabuseanddistractsonefromtheillusionofthe
world,whichitselfobscuresourmindfromus.Theidealmanhe
describesintermsofonewhocanremainpassiveevenwhen
confrontedbyamanifestationofgoodorofevil.Hecommends
thepersonwhohasthecharactertoremainaloof,evenwhenin
theBuddhistheavenortheBuddhisthell:

IfheshouldbeholdtheglorioussightofalltheBuddhascomingto
welcomehim,surroundedbyeverykindofgorgeous
manifestation,hewouldfeelnodesiretoapproachthem.Ifhe
shouldbeholdallsortsofhorrificformssurroundinghim,hewould
experiencenoterror.Hewouldjustbehimself,obliviousof
conceptualthoughtandonewiththeAbsolute.Hewouldhave
attainedthestateofunconditionedbeing.
22

Truthiselusive.Itisimpossibletofinditbylookingforit.And
theworldofthesensesandtheconceptualthoughtitengenders
areactuallyimpedimentstodiscoveringrealtruth.Heprovidesan
analogyinthestoryofamanwhosearchesabroadforsomething
thathehadallalong.

Supposeawarrior,forgettingthathewasalreadywearinghis
pearlonhisforehead,weretoseekforitelsewhere,hecould
travelthewholeworldwithoutfindingit.Butifsomeonewhoknew
whatwaswrongweretopointitouttohim,thewarriorwould
immediatelyrealizethatthepearlhadbeenthereallthetime.
23

Heconcludesthatthewarrior'sfindinghispearlhadnothingtodo
withhissearchingforit,justasthefinalrealizationofintuitive
wisdomhasnothingtodowiththegraduatedpracticeofthe
traditionalBuddhists.

So,ifyoustudentsoftheWayaremistakenaboutyourownreal
Mind...youwillindulgeinvariousachievementsandpractices
andexpecttoattainrealizationbysuchgraduatedpractices.But,
evenafteraeonsofdiligentsearching,youwillnotbeableto
attaintotheWay.Thesemethodscannotbecomparedtothe
suddeneliminationofconceptualthought,thecertainknowledge
thatthereisnothingatallwhichhasabsoluteexistence,nothing
onwhichtolayhold,nothingonwhichtorely,nothinginwhichto
abide,nothingsubjectiveorobjective.Itisbypreventingtherise
ofconceptualthoughtthatyouwillrealizeBodhi(enlightenment);
and,whenyoudo,youwilljustberealizingtheBuddhawhohas
alwaysexistedinyourownMind!
24

Thetraditionalpracticesneitherhelpnorhinderfindingtheway,
sincetheyareunrelatedtothefinalflashofsuddenenlighten-
mentwhichisinyourmindfromthebeginning,readytobe
released.
Whatthendidheteach,ifthereisnothingtobetaught?The
answerseemstobetostopseeking,foronlythendoeswisdom
come.Furthermore,tostudyadoctrineofnonattachmentputsyou
inthecompromisingpositionofbecomingattachedtononattach-
mentitself.

IfyoustudentsoftheWaywishtobecomeBuddhas,youneed
studynodoctrineswhatever,butlearnonlyhowtoavoidseeking
forandattachingyourselvestoanything....Relinquishmentof
everythingistheDharma,andhewhounderstandsthisisa
Buddha,buttherelinquishmentofALLdelusionsleavesno
Dharmaonwhichtolayhold.
25

ButjusthowdoesHuang-pomanagetopracticewhathe
preaches?

...[M]oststudentsofZenclingtoallsortsofsoundsandforms.
Whydotheynotcopymebylettingeachthoughtgoasthoughit
werenothing,orasthoughitwereapieceofrottenwood,astone,
orthecoldashesofadeadfire?Orelse,byjustmakingwhatever
slightresponseissuitedtoeachoccasion?
26

HisfinaladmonitionswereorganizedbyPeiHsiuand
summarizedinthefollowinglist,reportedasHuang-po'sanswer
tothequestionofwhatguidancehehadtoofferthosewhofound
histeachingdifficult.

IhaveNOTHINGtooffer....Allyouneedtorememberarethe
following:
First,learnhowtobeentirelyunreceptivetosensationsarising
fromexternalforms,therebypurgingyourbodiesofreceptivityto
externals.
Second,learnnottopayattentiontoanydistinctionsbetweenthis
andthatarisingfromyoursensations,therebypurgingyour
bodiesofuselessdiscernmentsbetweenonephenomenonand
another.
Third,takegreatcaretoavoiddiscriminatingintermsofpleasant
andunpleasantsensations,therebypurgingyourbodiesofvain
discriminations.
Fourth,avoidponderingthingsinyourmind,therebypurgingyour
bodiesofdiscriminatorycognition.
27

Huang-postruggledmightilywiththeproblemoftransmission.
Sincethedoctrinewaspassed"mind-to-mind,"hewasobligedto
findatransmissionthatsomehowcircumventedtheneedfor
words,somethingtobringanoviceupagainsthisownoriginal
nature.Hiscontributionherewasnotrevolutionary:Hemainly
advocatedthetechniquesperfectedbyMa-tsu,includingroars
andshouts,beatings,callingoutadisciple'snameunexpectedly,
orjustremainingsilentatacriticalmomenttounderscorethe
inabilityofwordstoassist.Healsousedthetechniqueof
continuallycontradictingapupil,untilthepupilfinallyrealizedthat
allhistalkinghadbeenjustsomanyobscuringconcepts.
Butjustwhatwasthismindthatwasbeingtransmitted?His
answerwasthatnothingwastransmitted,sincethewholepoint
wasjusttojarloosetheintuitionofthepersonbeing"taught."

OnceHuang-powasasked,"Ifyousaythatmindcanbe
transmitted,thenhowcanyousayitisnothing?"Heanswered,
"Toachievenothingistohavethemindtransmittedtoyou."The
questionerpressed,"Ifthereisnothingandnomind,thenhow
canitbetransmitted?"Huang-poanswered,"Youhaveheardthe
expression'transmissionofthemind'andsoyouthinktheremust
besomethingtransmitted.Youarewrong.ThusBodhidharma
saidthatwhenthenatureofthemindisrealized,itisnotpossible
toexpressitverbally.Clearly,then,nothingisobtainedinthe
transmissionofthemind,orifanythingisobtained,itiscertainly
notknowledge."
28

Hefinallyconcludesthatthesubjectcannotreallyevenbe
discussed,sincetherearenotermsfortheprocessthat
transpires.Justassunyatathat"emptiness"orVoidwhose
existencemeansthatconceptualthoughtisemptyandrational
constructsinadequateisnotsomethingthatcanbetransmitted
asaconcept,sotooistheDharmaorteaching,aswellasMind,
thatessencewesharewithalargerreality.Evenstatementsthat
conceptsarepointlessmustfallbackonlanguageand
consequentlyareactuallythemselvesmerelymake-do
approximations,asarealldescriptionsoftheprocessof
transmission.Hefinallygivesuponwordsentirely,declaringthat
noneofthetermshehasusedhasanymeaning.

AtransmissionofVoidcannotbemadethroughwords.A
transmissioninconcretetermscannotbetheDharma...Infact,
however,MindisnotMindandtransmissionisnotreally
transmission.
29

Hewasworkingontheveryrealproblemofthetransmission
ofunderstandingthatoperatesinapartofthemindwherespeech
andlogiccannotenter.AsJohnWuhaspointedout,inasense
Huang-pohadcomebackfullcircletotheinsightsofChuangTzu:
goodandevilaremeaningless;intuitiveknowledgeismore
profoundthanspeech-boundlogic;thereisanunderlyingunity
(forChuangTzuitwastheTaoorWay;forHuang-po,the
UniversalMind)thatrepresentstheineffableabsolute.
30

Ineffect,Huang-polaiditallout,clearedtheway,anddefined
Ch'anonceandforall.ThePerennialPhilosophywasnevermore
stronglystated.TheexperimentalageofCh'anthusdrewtoa
close,itsjobfinished.Withhisdeathatthemidpointoftheninth
century,therewaslittlemoretobeinvented.
31
Itwastimenowfor
Ch'antoformalizeitsdialectic,aswellastomeetsocietyand
makeitsmarkintheworld.ThefirstwastakencareofbyHuang-
po'sstarpupil,Lin-chi,andthesecondwasprecipitatedbythe
forcesofdestiny.
ThedeathofHuang-pocoincidedwithacriticalinstantin
Chinesehistorywhoseconsequencesforfuturegenerationswere
enormous.OncebeforeChinesepoliticshadaffectedCh'an,
producingasituationinwhichSouthernCh'anwouldstealthe
marchonNorthernCh'an.Andnowanothertraumaticepisodein
ChineseaffairswouldeffectivelydestroyallBuddhistsectsexcept
SouthernCh'an,leavingthewayclearforthispursuitofintuitive
wisdomoncerelegatedtowanderingteachersofdhyanato
becometheonlyvitalBuddhistsectleftinChina.
Asnotedpreviously,resentmenttowardBuddhismhad
alwayssmolderedinChinesesociety.Periodicallythe
conservativeChinesetriedtodrivethisforeignbeliefsystemfrom
theirsoil,orfailingthat,atleasttobringitundercontrol.Theusual
complaintsrevolvedaroundthemonasteries'holdingsoftax-free
lands,theirremovalofable-bodiedmenandwomenfromsociety
intononproductivemonasticlife,andthemonasticvowsof
celibacysoantitheticaltotheChineseidealsofthefamily.
TheCh'anmonasteries,deliberatelyornot,workedhardto
defusemanyofthesecomplaints.Indeed,somewouldsaythat
Ch'anmanagedtochangeBuddhismintosomethingtheChinese
couldpartiallystomach.Ch'anistswerejusttheoppositeof
parasiticalonsociety,sincetheypracticedPo-changHuai-hai's
injunctionofadaywithoutworkbeingadaywithoutfood.Also,
theunthinkingpietyoftraditionalBuddhistswasreviledby
Ch'anists.Furthermore,Ch'andispensedwithmuchofthe
rigmaroleandparaphernaliafavoredbytheBuddhistsectsthat
stucktoitsIndianoriginsmoreclosely.
TheresentmentfelttowardBuddhistswassummarizedina
documentissuedin819byascholar-bureaucratnamedHanYu.
32
HisrecitalofBuddhism'sfailingscamedownparticularlyhardon
thefactthattheBuddhahadnotbeenChinese.HanYu
advocatedacompletesuppressionofthispernicious
establishment:"Restoreitspeopletohumanliving!Burnits
books!Andconvertitsbuildingstohumandwellings!"
33
As
resentmenttowardtheworldlyinfluenceofBuddhismgrewduring
theninthcentury,therecametopoweranemperorwhodecided
toact.
TheEmperorWu-tsang(r.841-46)isnowthoughttohave
gonemadasapreludetohispersecutionoftheBuddhists.But
hisedictswereeffectivenonetheless.Thestatehadbegun
tighteningitsgriponBuddhismwhenhecameintopowerin841,
butinAugust845heissuedtheedictthatultimatelyhadtheeffect
ofdestroyingtraditionalBuddhismandurbanizedNorthernCh'an
inChina.Overaperiodoftwoyearshedestroyed4,600big
templesandmonasteriesandover40,000smallertemplesand
retreats.Hefreed150,000maleandfemaleslavesortemple
attendantsandevictedsome265,000monksandnuns,forcing
thembackintosecularlife.(ThiswasoutofatotalChinese
populationestimatedtobearound27million.)Andnot
incidentally,thestatereclaimedseveralmillionacresofproperty
thathadbelongedtothemonasteries.Theeffectofthiswasto
obliteratevirtuallyallthegreatBuddhistestablishments,including
theBuddhiststrongholdsinthecapitalsofChang-anandLoyang,
whichwerereducedtoonlytwotemplesandthirtymonksineach
ofthetwocities.
34

TheironyoftheGreatPersecutionwasthatitactually
seemedtoinvigorateSouthernCh'an.Foronething,theserural
Ch'anteachershadlongbeeniconoclastsandoutcasts
themselves,astheydisownedostentatioustemplesandeventhe
scriptures.Almostasmuchaphilosophyasareligion,Southern
Ch'anhadlongknownhowtodowithoutimperialfavorand
largess.Andwhenafurtheredictcamedowndemandingthatall
Buddhistparaphernalia,includingstatuesandpaintings,be
burned,theoutcastCh'anmonasterieshadtheleasttolose,since
theyhadevendoneabitofburningthemselvesifweareto
believethestoryofTan-hsia(738-824),afamousCh'anmonk
whoonceburnedaBuddhiststatueforwarmth.SouthernCh'an
teachersjustmeltedforatimebackintosecularlife,fromwhich
theyhadneverbeenfarinanycase.
35

Theresultofallthiswasthatafter846theonlysectof
BuddhismwithanystrengthatallwasruralCh'an.Chinese
BuddhismliterallybecamesynonymouswithSouthernCh'ana
farcryfromthealmostfugitiveexistenceofthesectinearlier
years.AndwhenBuddhismbecamefashionableagainduringthe
Sung,SouthernCh'anbecameahousereligion,asNorthernhad
oncebeen.TheresultwasthatCh'angraduallylostits
iconoclasticcharacter.ButoutofthislastphaseofCh'an
developedoneofthemostpowerfultoolseverforenlightenment,
thefamousZenkoan,whosecreationpreservedsomethingoutof
thedynamismofCh'an'searlycenturies.

PARTIII PARTIII PARTIII PARTIII

SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN SECTARIANISMANDTHEKOAN

...inwhichtheCh'anmovementdiversifiesintoavarietyof
schools,eachbeholdentoamasterormastersadvocatingan
individualizedpathtoenlightenment.Fromthisperiodof
personalityandexperimentationgraduallyemergetwomain
Ch'anpaths,theLin-chiandtheTs'ao-tung(latercalledRinzai
andSotoinJapan).TheLin-chischoolconcludesthat
enlightenmentcanbeprecipitatedinapreparednovicethrough
shouts,jolts,andmentalparadoxes.TheTs'ao-tungreliesmore
heavilyonthetraditionalpracticeofmeditationtogradually
releaseenlightenment.Thefaithgrowsinnumbers,butquality
declines.TomaintainCh'an'sintellectualvigor,thereemergesa
newtechnique,calledthekoan,whichusesepisodesfrom
Ch'an'sGoldenAgetochallengenovices'mentalcomplacency.
ThisinventionbecomesthehallmarkofthelaterLin-chisect,and
throughtherefinementofthekoantechniqueCh'anenjoysa
renaissanceofcreativityinChina.

ChapterEleven ChapterEleven ChapterEleven ChapterEleven

LIN LIN LIN LIN- -- -CHI: CHI: CHI: CHI:
FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN

TheGreatPersecutionof845broughttoaclosethecreative
GoldenAgeofCh'an,whilealsoleavingCh'anasthedominant
formofChineseBuddhism.Intheabsenceofanestablishment
BuddhismforCh'antodistinguishitselfagainst,thesect
proceededtoevolveitsowninternalsectarianism.Therearose
whataretodayknownasthe"fivehouses,"regionalversionsof
Ch'anthatdifferedinminorbutsignificantways.
1
Yettherewas
noanimosityamongtheschools,merelyafriendlyrivalry.Infact,
theteachersthemselvesreferredbacktotheprophecyattributed
toBodhidharmathattheflowerofdhyanaBuddhismwouldone
dayhavefivepetals.
Themasterswhofoundedthefiveschoolswereall
individualistsofidiosyncraticcharacter.Yetthetimesweresuch
thatforthemostparttheirflowersbloomedgloriouslyonlyafew
decadesbeforeslowlyfading.However,twoofthesectsdid
prosperandeventuallywentontotakeoverthegarden.These
twohouses,theLin-chiandtheTs'ao-tung,bothwereconcerned
withdialecticsandbecametheforerunnersofthetwoZensects
(RinzaiandSoto)eventuallytoflourishinJapan.Ofthetwo,the
Lin-chiismostdirectlytraceablebacktotheearliermasters,since
itsfounderactuallystudiedunderthemasterHuang-po.
ThemasterknowntodayasLin-chi(d.866?)wasborninthe
prefectureofNan-hua,inwhattodayisShantungprovince.
2
He
reportedlywasbrilliant,wellbehaved,andfilledwiththefilial
devotionexpectedofgoodChineseboys.Drawnearlyto
Buddhism,althoughnotnecessarilytoCh'an,heshavedhishead
andbecameamonkwhilestillyoung.Hisearlystudieswereof
thesutras,aswellasthevinayaorBuddhistrulesandthesastra
orcommentaries.Butinhisearlytwentieshedecidedthathewas
moreinterestedinintuitivewisdomthanorthodoxyand
consequentlytooktheroadinsearchofamaster.
ThushearrivedatthemonasteryofHuang-poalreadyafully
ordainedmonk.Buthislearningwastraditionalandhis
personalitythatofatimorousfledglingmonk.Forthreeyearshe
dutifullyattendedthemaster'ssermonsandpracticedallthe
observancesofthemountaincommunity,buthisadvancement
wasminimal.Finallytheheaddisciplesuggestedthathevisit
Huang-poforaninterviewtotrytogaininsight.Theyoungman
obliginglywentintoseethemasterandaskedhimthestandard
opener:"WhatistherealmeaningofBodhidharma'scomingfrom
theWest?"Huang-po'swordlessresponsewastolayhimlowwith
ablowofhisstick.
Lin-chiscurriedawayinperplexityandrelatedthestorytothe
headdisciple,whoencouragedhimtoreturn,whichhedidtwice
more.Buteachtimehereceivedthesameharshreception.He
wasfinallysodemoralizedthatheannouncedplanstoleavethe
monasteryandseekenlightenmentelsewhere.Theheadmonk
relatedthistoHuang-potogetherwiththeopinionthatthisyoung
noviceshowedsignificantpromise.SowhenLin-chicametobid
Huang-pofarewell,themastersympatheticallydirectedhimtothe
monasteryofakindlynearbyteacher,themasterTa-yu.
Perhapsitwasallplanned,butwhenLin-chiarrivedatthe
secondmonasteryandrelatedhisunhappytreatmentatthe
handsofHuang-pothemasterTa-yulistenedpatientlyandthen
declared,"Huang-potreatedyouwithgreatcompassion.He
merelywantedtorelieveyourdistress."UponhearingthisLin-chi
suddenlyunderstoodthatHuang-powastransmittingthe
wordlessinsighttohim,theunderstandingthatCh'anliesnotin
thewordsproducedintheabbot'sroombutratherinthe
realizationofhisintuitivemind.Itsuddenlywasallsoobviousthat
theyoungmonkcouldnotcontainhisjoyanddeclared,"So
Huang-po'sBuddhismisactuallyverysimple;there'snothingtoit
afterall!"ThisstruckthemasterTa-yuaseitherimpertinentora
significantbreakthrough,sohegrabbedLin-chiandyelled,"You
scamp!AminuteagoyoucomplainedthatHuang-po'steaching
wasimpossibletounderstandandnowyousaythereisnothingto
it.Whatisityoujustrealized?Speakquickly!"(Onlyina
spontaneousutteranceistherereal,uncalculatedevidenceof
enlightenment.)
Lin-chi'sanswerwastopummelTa-yuintheribsthreetimes
withhisfist.Theoldermasterthendischargedhim(orperhaps
kickedhimout)withtheobservation,"YourteacherisHuang-po,
andthereforeyoudonotconcernme."Thustheenlightened
youngnovicetrudgedbackupthemountaintoHuang-po's
monastery.Themastergreetedhimwiththepuzzledobservation:
"Haven'tyoucomebackabittoosoon?Youonlyjustleft."In
responseLin-chibowedandsaid,"It'sbecauseyou'vebeenso
kindtomethatIcamebacksoquickly,"andheproceededto
relatethestoryofhissuddenenlightenment.TowhichHuang-po
declared,"Whatabigmouththatoldmanhas.ThenexttimeIsee
himI'llgivehimatasteofmystaff."TothisLin-chiyelled,"Why
wait!Icangiveittoyounow,"andproceededtoslapthemaster's
face.ThestartledHuang-podeclared,"Thiscrazymonkis
pluckingthetiger'swhiskers."WhereuponLin-chiemittedthefirst
ofwhatwastobealifetimeofshouts,affirminghiswordless
insight.ThesatisfiedHuang-pocalledanattendantandsaid,
"Takethiscrazyfellowtotheassemblyhall."
Thisisaperfectexampleof"sudden"enlightenmentthattook
manyyearstoachieve.Lin-chihadbeenaplodding,earnest
youngmanuntilthemomentofhis"sudden"enlightenment,which
occurredoveraseeminglyuncalculatedremarkbyateachernot
evenhisownmaster.Infact,allHuang-pohaddonewastoassail
himwithastaff.ButLin-chiwastransformedsuddenlyfroma
milksoptothefounderofaschool,probablythegreatest
radicalizationsincetheApostlePaulwasstruckdownontheroad
toDamascus.
3
Still,Lin-chi's"sudden"enlightenmenthadcome
aboutattheendofahighlydisciplinedperiodofpreparation.As
helaterdescribedit:

InbygonedaysIdevotedmyselftothevinayaandalsodelved
intothesutrasandsastras.Later,whenIrealizedthattheywere
medicinesforsalvationanddisplaysofdoctrinesinwrittenwords,
Ionceandforallthrewthemaway,andsearchingfortheWay,I
practicedmeditation.StilllaterImetgreatteachers.Thenitwas,
withmyDharmaEyebecomingclear,thatIcoulddiscernallthe
oldteachersunderHeavenandtellthefalseonesfromthetrue.It
isnotthatIunderstoodfromthemomentIwasbornofmymother,
butthat,afterexhaustiveinvestigationandgrindingdiscipline,in
aninstantIknewofmyself.
4

Likeareformedaddict,herailedmostagainsthisownrecent
practices.Heproceededtodenounceallthetrappingsof
Buddhism,eventheCh'anPatriarchsthemselves,asheshattered
thechainsofhisformerbeliefs:

FollowersoftheWay,ifyouwantinsightintoDharmaasis,just
don'tbetakeninbythedeludedviewsofothers.Whateveryou
encounter,eitherwithinorwithout,slayitatonce:onmeetinga
buddhaslaythebuddha,onmeetingapatriarchslaythe
patriarch,onmeetinganarhatslaythearhat,onmeetingyour
parentsslayyourparents,onmeetingyourkinsmanslayyour
kinsman,andyouattainemancipation.Bynotcleavingtothings,
youfreelypassthrough.
5

Afterhisenlightenment,hehadmanyexchangeswithHuang-
poinwhichhecameoffaheadasoftenasnot.Itisalso
interestingthatmanyoftheinteractionsinvolvedthemanuallabor
ofthemonastery,anindicationofthesignificanceofworkin
Ch'anlife.OnefamousjoustbetweenLin-chiandHuang-powent
asfollows:

OnedayMasterLin-chiwentwithHuang-potodosomework
inwhichallthemonksparticipated.Lin-chifollowedhismaster
who,turninghishead,noticedthatLin-chiwascarryingnothingin
hishand.
"Whereisyourhoe?"
"Somebodytookitaway."
"Comehere:letusdiscusssomething,"commandedHuang-
poandasLin-chidrewnearer,hethrusthishoeintotheground
andcontinued,"Thereisnooneintheworldwhocanpickupmy
hoe."
However,Lin-chiseizedthetool,lifteditup,andexclaimed,
"Howthencoulditbeinmyhands?"
"Todaywehaveanotherhandwithus;itisnotnecessaryfor
metojoinin."
AndHuang-poreturnedtothetemple.
6

Thisstorycanbeinterpretedmanyways.JohnWusays,
"Obviouslyhewasusingthehoeasapointertothegreatfunction
ofteachingandtransmittingthelampofCh'an....[Thiswas]a
symbolicwayofsayingthatinamysteriousmannerthecharge
wasnowinhishands."
7
However,asFreudonceremarked
concerningthecelebratedphallicsymbolismofhisstogie,
"Sometimes,madam,it'sjustacigar,"andonesuspectsthatin
thislittleslapstickepisode,thehoemightpossiblybejustahoe.
AnotherexchangebetweenHuang-poandLin-chimayhave
moredialecticalsignificance.Accordingtothestory:

OnedayHuang-poorderedallthemonksofthetempleto
workintheteagarden.Hehimselfwasthelasttoarrive.Lin-chi
greetedhim,butstoodtherewithhishandsrestingonthehoe.
"Areyoutired?"askedHuang-po
"Ijuststartedworking;howcanyousaythatIamtired?"
Huang-poimmediatelyliftedhisstickandstruckLin-chi,who
thenseizedthestick,andwithapush,madehismasterfalltothe
ground.Huang-pocalledthesupervisortohelphimup.After
doingso,thesupervisorasked,"Master,howcanyouletsucha
madmaninsultyoulikethat?"Huang-popickedupthestickand
struckthesupervisor.Lin-chi,diggingthegroundbyhimself,
madethisremark:"Letallotherplacesusecremation;hereIwill
buryyoualive."
8

OfLin-chi'sfinalquip,whichtendstotaketheedgeoffareally
first-rateabsurdistanecdote,JohnWumakesthefollowing
observation,"Thiswasatremendousutterance,thefirstauthentic
roaring,asitwere,ofayounglion.Itwastantamounttodeclaring
thathisoldconventionalselfwasnowdeadandburied,withonly
theTrueSelflivinginhim;thatthisdeathmayandshouldtake
placelongbeforeone'sphysicaldecease;thatitiswhenthis
deathhastakenplacethatonebecomesone'sTrueSelfwhich,
beingunborn,cannotdie.Fromthattimeon,therecouldno
longerbeanydoubtinHuang-po'smindthathisdisciplewas
thoroughlyenlightened,destinedtocarryonandbrightenthe
torchofCh'an."
9
Whetherthisistrueornot,itdoesseemclear
thatLin-chi'spronouncedpersonalityappealedtooldHuang-po,
wholovedtomatchwitswithhimashecameandwentaround
themonastery.Heevenallowedtheyoungmasterlibertieshe
deniedothers.Forexample,Lin-chionceshowedupduringthe
middleofasummermeditationretreat,somethingstrictly
forbidden.Hethendecidedtoleavebeforeitwasover,something
equallyunprecedented:

Onedayafterhalfthesummersessionhadalreadypassed,
Lin-chiwentupthemountaintovisithismasterHuang-powhom
hefoundreadingasutra.Lin-chisaidtohim:
"Ithoughtyouweretheperfectman,buthereyouare
apparentlyadulloldmonk,swallowingblackbeans[Chinese
characters]."
Lin-chistayedonlyafewdaysandthenbidfarewellto
Huang-po,whosaid:
"Youcamehereafterthesummersessionhadstarted,and
nowyouareleavingbeforethesummersessionisover."
"Icameheresimplytovisityou,Master!"
Withoutado,Huang-postruckhimandchasedhimaway.
Afterhavingwalkedafewli,Lin-chibegantodoubthis
enlightenmentinCh'an,sohereturnedtoHuang-pofortherestof
thesummer.
10

SometimeafterLin-chireceivedthesealofenlightenment
fromHuang-po,hedecidedtogohisownwayanddepartedfor
theprovinceofHopei,wherehebecamethepriestofasmall
templeonthebanksofariver.Thislittletemplewascalled
"OverlookingtheFord,"orlin-chiinChinese,anditwasfromthis
localethathetookhisname.Afterhewasthereforatime,
however,somelocalfightingbrokeout,forcinghimtoabandon
hispastoralriverbanklocation.(Thisdisturbancemaywellhave
beenconnectedwiththedisruptionsofthe845persecutionof
Buddhism.)Butevenwheninthemiddleofawarheseemsto
havealwaysbeenamanofCh'an.Thereisanepisodethat
stronglyresemblestheeighteenth-centuryessayistDr.Samuel
Johnson'skickingastonetorefuteBerkeley'spropositionthat
matterisnonexistent:

OnedaytheMasterenteredanarmycamptoattendafeast.
Atthegatehesawastaffofficer.Pointingtoanopen-airpillar,he
asked:"Isthissecularorsacred?"
Theofficerhadnoreply.
Strikingthepillar,theMastersaid:"Evenifyoucouldspeak,
thisisstillonlyawoodenpost."Thenhewentin.
11

Fortunately,Ch'anwasnotasectthatrequiredalotof
paraphernalia,andLin-chimerelymovedintothenearbytown,
wherethegrandmarshaldonatedhishouseforatemple.He
evenhungupaplaquewiththename"Lin-chi,"justtomakethe
masterfeelathome.Butthingsmayhaveheateduptoomuch,for
Lin-chilatertraveledsouthtotheprefectureofHo,wherethe
governor,CounselorWang,honoredhimasamaster.Thereisa
tellingconversationbetweenthetwothatrevealsmuchaboutthe
teachingofCh'anatthetime.ApparentlytheCh'anistshad
completelyabandonedevenanypretenseoftraditional
Buddhismagainafortuitousdevelopment,consideringtraditional
Buddhism'simminentdestruction.

OnedaytheCounselorWangvisitedtheMaster.Whenhe
mettheMasterinfrontoftheMonks'Hall,heasked:"Dothe
monksofthismonasteryreadthesutras?"
"No,theydon'treadsutras,"saidtheMaster.
"Thendotheylearnmeditation?"askedtheCounselor.
"No,theydon'tlearnmeditation,"answeredtheMaster.
"Iftheyneitherreadsutrasnorlearnmeditation,whatinthe
worldaretheydoing?"askedtheCounselor.
"AllIdoismakethembecomebuddhasandpatriarchs,"said
theMaster.
12

Lin-chieventuallytraveledon,finallysettlingattheHsing-hua
templeinTamingprefecture,wherehetookuphisfinalresidence.
Itwasherethatarecordofhissermonswastranscribedbya
"humbleheir"namedTs'un-chiang.TheresultwasTheRecordof
Lin-chi,oneofthepurestexercisesinthedialecticsofthe
nondialecticalunderstanding.But,asHeinrichDumoulin
observed,"Zenhasneverexistedinpureexperienceonly,without
admixtureoftheoreticalteachingsormethodicalpractice,asit
hassometimesbeenidealized.Itcouldnotexistinthatfashion,
formysticism,likeallotherhumanexperience,isdependenton
theactualconditionsofhumanlife."
13
Indeed,Lin-chiwasoneof
thefirsttodevelopwhatmightbecalledadialecticofirrationality.
Helovedcategoriesandanalysisintheserviceofnonconceptual
inquiry,andwhathecreatedwereguidestotheunchartedseasof
theintuitivemind.
Lin-chiisbestknownforhisuseoftheshout.Hesharedthe
concernofHuang-poandMa-tsuwiththeproblemofwordless
transmissionandtotheirrepertoryofbeatingsandsilenceshe
addedtheyell,anotherwaytoaffirminsightsthatcannotbe
reasoned.Wemayspeculatethattheshoutwasratherlikea
watered-downversionofthebeating,requiringlesseffortbutstill
abletostartleatacriticalinstant.
14
Heseemstohavebeen
particularlyfondofclassifyingthingsintogroupsoffour,andone
ofhismostfamousclassificationswasoftheshoutitself.Heonce
demonstratedtheshouttoahaplessmonkasfollows:

TheMasteraskedamonk:"Sometimesashoutislikethe
jeweledswordofaspiritKing[i.e.,extremelyhardanddurable];
sometimesashoutislikethegolden-hairedlioncrouchingonthe
ground[i.e.,strong,taut,andpowerful];sometimesashoutislike
aweed-tippedfishingpole[i.e.,probingandattractingthe
unwary];andsometimesashoutdoesn'tfunctionasashout.How
doyouunderstandthis?"
Asthemonkfumbledforananswer,Lin-chigaveashout.
15

Hisphilosophyoftheshoutasadeviceforcuttingoffsequential
reasoningwasthusdemonstratedbyexample.Butthequestion
thosewhorelatethisstoryneverresolveis:Whichofthefour
shoutswastheshoutheusedonthestudent?[JohnWuinThe
GoldenAgeofZenspeculatesthatthisshoutwasofthefirst
category,sinceitwasmeantto"cutoff"themonk'ssequential
thought,butthatseemsarathersimplisticmixingofthe
metaphoricalwiththeconcrete.
16
)
Lin-chialsowasnotaversetotheuseofthestickinthe
pursuitofreality,asthefollowingexampleillustrates.Thestory
alsoshowsthattheuseofthestickwasmeaningfulonlyifitwas
unexpected.

OncetheMasteraddressedtheassembly.
"Listen,allofyou!HewhowantstolearnDharmamustnever
worryaboutthelossofhisownlife.WhenIwaswithMaster
Huang-poIaskedthreetimesfortherealmeaningofBuddhism,
andthreetimesIwasstruckasiftallreedswhippedmeinthe
wind.Iwantthoseblowsagain,butwhocangivethemtome
now?"
Amonkcameforthfromthecrowd,answering:"Icangive
themtoyou!"
MasterLin-chipickedupastickandhandedittohim.When
themonktriedtograbit,theMasterstruckhiminstead.
17

TherealsoisastoryindicatingthatLin-chibelievedthatwhenthe
shoutfailedtowork,thestickmightberequired.

TheMastertookthehighseatintheHall.Amonkasked,
"WhataboutthecardinalprincipleoftheBuddha-dharma?"
TheMasterraisedhiswhisk.
Themonkshouted.TheMasterstruckhim.
Anothermonkasked:"Whataboutthecardinalprincipleofthe
Buddha-dharma?"
AgaintheMasterraisedhiswhisk.
Themonkshouted.TheMasteralsoshouted.
Themonkfaltered;theMasterstruckhim.
18

Yetanotherseriesofexchangessoundsasimilartheme.

TheMasteraskedamonk,"Wheredoyoucomefrom?"
Themonkshouted.
Themastersalutedhimandmotionedhimtositdown.The
monkhestitated.TheMasterhithim.
Seeinganothermonkcoming,theMasterraisedhiswhisk.
Themonkbowedlow.TheMasterhithim.
Seeingstillanothermonkcoming,theMasteragainraisedhis
whisk.Themonkpaidnoattention.TheMasterhithimtoo.
19

Hewasalsochallengedbyanun,oneofthefewrecorded
instancesofamasteractuallymatchingwitswithawomanwho
hadtakenCh'anorders.

TheMasteraskedanun:"Well-comeorill-come?"
Thenunshouted.
"Goon,goon,speak!"criedtheMaster,takinguphisstick.
Againthenunshouted.TheMasterhither.
20

WhatLin-chialsobroughttoCh'anwasadialecticalinquiry
intotherelationshipbetweenmasterandpupil,togetherwitha
similaranalysisofthemindstatesthatleadtoenlightenment.He
seemsremarkablysophisticatedfortheninthcentury,andindeed
wewouldbehardpressedtofindthiskindofpsychological
analysisanywhereintheWestthatearly.Thepuzzling,
contradictoryqualityaboutallthisisthatLin-chibelievedfervently
inintuitiveintelligence,andintheuselessnessofwordseven
warningthatquestionswereirrelevant:

Doesanyonehaveaquestion?Ifso,lethimaskitnow.Butthe
instantyouopenyourmouthyouarealreadywayoff.
21

Amonghisdialecticalcreationswerevariousfourfold
categorizationsoftheintangible.Wehavealreadyseenhisfour
categoriesoftheshout.Healsocreatedthefourcategoriesof
relationshipbetweensubjectandobject,alsosometimescalled
theFourProcessesofLiberationfromSubjectivityandObjectivity.
Somebelievethisservedtostructurethe"fourstandpointsor
pointsofviewwhichLin-chiusedininstructinghisstudents."
22

Lin-chi'soriginalproposition,thebasisofallthelatercommentary,
isprovidedinTheRecordofLin-chiasfollows:

AttheeveninggatheringtheMasteraddressedtheassembly,
saying:"SometimesItakeawaymananddonottakeawaythe
surroundings;sometimesItakeawaythesurroundingsanddonot
takeawayman;sometimesItakeawaybothmanandthe
surroundings;sometimesItakeawayneithermannorthe
surroundings."
23

AsChangChung-yuandescribesthesefourarrangements,
thefirstisto"takeawaythemanbutnothisobjectivesituation,"
i.e.,totakeawayallinterpretationandjustexperiencetheworld
withoutsubjectiveassociations.
24
(Thisisquitesimilartothe
approachoftheJapanesehaikupoem,inwhichadescriptionof
somethingisprovidedcompletelydevoidofinterpretationor
explicitemotionalresponse.)
Thesecondarrangementistoletthemanremainbuttake
awayobjectivity.AsJohnWuinterpretsthis,"Inthesecondstage,
peopleofnormalvision,whoseemountainsasmountainsand
riversasrivers,mustberemindedofthepartthattheirownmind
contributestotheappearanceofthings,andthatwhatthey
naivelytakeforobjectivityisinextricablymixedwithsubjectivity.
Onceawareofsubjectivity,oneisinitiatedintothefirststagesof
Ch'an,whenonenolongerseesmountainsasmountainsand
riversasrivers."
25
ThisismerelytheCh'ancommonplacethat
"non-attachmentorobjectivityliberatesone'sselffrombondageto
theoutsideandthusleadstoenlightenment."
26
AsDumoulin
describesthese,"Inthefirstandsecondstages,illusiondeparts
firstfromthesubjectandthenfromtheobject;clingingto
subjectiveintellectualperceptionandtotheobjectiveworldis
overcome."
27

Lin-chi'sthirdstageisto"takeawayboththemanandhis
objectivesituation.Inotherwords,itisliberationfrom...the
attachmentsofbothsubjectivityandobjectivity.Lin-chi'sfamous
'Ho!'...oftenservedthispurpose."
28
Inablowofamaster'sstaff
orashoutthereisnothingonecangrasp,eitherobjectivelyor
subjectively.Thisisthenext-to-laststageintheprogression
towardliberationfromthemind'styranny.
Inthefourthstagewefindthefinalcondition,inwhich
objectivityandsubjectivityceasetobedistinguishable.Whatthis
meansisthatthereisnointellectuationatall,thattheworld
simplyis.AsDumoulindeclares,"realityiscomprehendedinits
finaloneness."
29
Orasthestorysays:Beforeenlightenment,
mountainsaremountainsandriversarerivers;duringthestudyof
Zen,mountainsarenotmountainsandriversarenotrivers;but
whentherefinallyisenlightenment,mountainsareagain
mountainsandriversarerivers.Inthisfinalstatethedistinction
andconfrontationofsubjectandobjectdissolve,aswearefinally
atonewiththenamelessworld.
AnotherofLin-chi'sfamousdialecticalcategoriesishis
"FourfoldRelationshippossibleBetweenQuestionerand
AnswererorBetweenGuestandHost."Thepointofthestructure
hesetsupistoelucidatetheinteractionofmasterandnovice,but
hedoessousingmetaphorofhostandguestwherethehost
representstheuniversalSelfandtheguesttheego-formself.
30
Lin-chi'ssermononthesubjectwentasfollows:

Atruestudentgivesashout,andtostartwithholdsouta
stickylacquertray.Theteacher,notdiscerningthatthisisan
objectivecircumstance,goesafteritandperformsalotofantics
withit.Thestudentagainshoutsbutstilltheteacherisunwillingto
letgo.Thisis...called"theguestexaminesthehost."
Sometimesateacherwillproffernothing,buttheinstanta
studentasksaquestion,robshimofit.Thestudent,havingbeen
robbed,resiststothedeathandwillnotletgo;thisiscalled"the
hostexaminestheguest."
Sometimesastudentcomesforthbeforeateacherin
conformitywithastateofpurity.Theteacher,discerningthatthis
isanobjectivecircumstance,seizesitandflingsitintoapit.
"Whatanexcellentteacher!"exclaimsthestudent,andthe
teacherreplies,"Bah!Youcan'ttellgoodfrombad!"Thereupon
thestudentmakesadeepbow;thisiscalled"thehostexamines
thehost."
Oragain,astudentwillappearbeforeateacherwearinga
cangueandboundwithchains.Theteacherfastensonstillmore
chainsandcanguesforhim.Thestudentissodelightedthathe
can'ttellwhatiswhat:thisiscalled"theguestexaminesthe
guest."
31

Inthefirstcategory,accordingtoChangChung-yuan,theego
meetstheuniversalSelf.
32
Inthesecondcategorytheuniversal
Selfencounterstheego-formself.Inthethirdcategory,the
universalSelfofonemeetstheuniversalSelfofanother,andin
thefourthcategorytheegoofoneencounterstheegoofanother.
Orifwearetointerpretthisintheconcrete,inthefirstencounter,
anenlightenedmastermeetsanunenlightenednovice;inthe
secondanenlightenednovicemeetsanunenlightenedmaster
(whichdidhappen);inthethirdanenlightenedmastermeetsan
enlightenednovice;andinthefourthcategoryanunenlightened
mastermeetsanunenlightenednovice,tothemutualdelusionof
both.
33

Lin-chihasbeencalledthemostpowerfulmasterintheentire
historyofCh'an,andnotwithoutreason.Hismindwascapableof
operatingatseverallevelssimultaneously,enablinghimto
overlayverypracticalinstructionwithacomprehensivedialectic.
Hebelievedincompletespontaneity,totalfreedomofthoughtand
deed,andateachingapproachthathasbeencalledthe
"lightning"methodbecauseitwasswiftandunpredictable.He
wasuncompromisinginhisapproach,andhewasalsoextremely
criticalofthestateofCh'aninhistimeacriticismprobably
justified.Hefoundbothmonksandmasterswanting.Itseemsthat
Ch'anhadbecomefashionable,withtheresultthattherewere
manymasterswhoweremorefollowersofthetrendthan
followersoftheWay.SowhereasHuang-pooftenrailedagainst
othersectsofBuddhism,Lin-chireservedhisireforother
followersofCh'an(therebeingfewotherBuddhistsectsleftto
criticize).
Heevendenouncedhisownstudents,whooftenmimicked
hisshoutingwithoutperceivinghisdiscernmentinitsuse.He
finallyhadtosetstandardsforthis,announcingtotheassembly
onedaythathenceforthonlythosewhocouldtelltheenlightened
fromtheunenlightenedwouldhavetherighttoshout.

"Youallimitatemyshouting,"hesaid,"butletmegiveyoua
testnow.Onepersoncomesoutfromtheeasternhall.Another
personcomesoutfromthewesternhall.Attheirmeeting,they
simultaneouslyshout.Doyoupossessenoughdiscernmentto
distinguishtheguestfromthehost[i.e.,theunenlightenedfrom
theenlightened]?Ifyouhavenosuchdiscernment,youare
forbiddenhereaftertoimitatemyshouting.
34

Hismajorconcernseemstohavebeenthathisstudentsresist
intellection.Lin-chihimselfwasabletospeculatephilosophically
whilestillanaturalman,usingconceptualthoughtonlywhenit
servedhispurpose.Butperhapshisstudentscouldnot,forhe
constantlyhadtoremindthemthatstrivingandlearningwere
counterproductive.

"FollowersofTao!"Lin-chisaid,"thewayofBuddhismadmits
ofnoartificialeffort;itonlyconsistsindoingtheordinarythings
withoutanyfussgoingtothestool,makingwater,puttingon
clothes,takingameal,sleepingwhentired.Letthefoolslaughat
me.OnlythewiseknowwhatImean."
35

Orashesaidatanothertime:

Themomentastudentblinkshiseyes,he'salreadywayoff.The
momenthetriestothink,he'salreadydiffered.Themomenthe
arousesathought,he'salreadydeviated.Butforthemanwho
understands,it'salwaysrightherebeforehiseyes.
36

Theproblem,hebelieved,wasthattoomanyteachershad
started"teaching"andexplainingratherthanforcingstudentsto
experiencetruthforthemselves.Thustheseteachershadnoright
tocriticizetheirmonks,sincetheythemselveshadfailedintheir
responsibility.

Thereareteachersallaroundwhocan'tdistinguishthefalsefrom
thetrue.Whenstudentscomeaskingabout...the[objective]
surroundingsandthe[subjective]mind,theblindoldteachers
immediatelystartexplainingtothem.Whenthey'rerailedatbythe
studentstheygrabtheirsticksandhitthem,[shouting],"What
insolenttalk!"Obviouslyyouteachersyourselvesarewithoutan
eyesoyou'venorighttogetangrywiththem.
37

Andfinally,inhisoldage,Lin-chibecamesomethingofa
monumenthimself,atestingpointforenlightenmentinaworld
wheretrueteacherswererare.Heevencomplainedaboutit.

HearingeverywhereofoldmanLin-chi,youcomehereintending
tobaitmewithdifficultquestionsandmakeitimpossibleformeto
answer.Facedwithademonstrationoftheactivityofmywhole
body,youstudentsjuststareblanklyandcan'tmoveyourmouths
atall;you'reatsuchalossyoudon'tknowhowtoanswerme.
Yougoaroundeverywherethumpingyourownchestsand
whackingyourownribs,saying,"IunderstandCh'an!Iunderstand
theWay!"Butlettwoorthreeofyoucomehereandyoucan'tdo
athing.Bah!Carryingthatbodyandmindofyours,yougoaround
everywhereflappingyourlipslikewinnowingfansanddeceiving
villagers.
38

Hisschoolprospered,becomingtheleadingexpressionof
Ch'aninChinaaswellasavitalforceintheZenthatlaterarose
amongJapan'ssamurai.Andhisdialecticalteachingsbecamethe
philosophicalbasisforlaterZen,somethinghehimselfprobably
wouldhavedeplored.(LaterteachersseemtohavegivenLin-
chi'scategoriesmoreimportancethanheactuallyintended,forhe
professedtoloathesystemsandwasinfactmuchmore
concernedwithenlightenmentaspureexperience.)Inanycase,
whenhedecidedthathisdayswerethroughheputonhisfinest
robes,seatedhimselfinthemeditationposture,madeabrief
statement,andpassedon.Theyearissaidtohavebeen866or
867.

ChapterTwelve ChapterTwelve ChapterTwelve ChapterTwelve

TUNG TUNG TUNG TUNG- -- -SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO- -- -SHAN: SHAN: SHAN: SHAN:
FOUNDERSOFSOTOZEN FOUNDERSOFSOTOZEN FOUNDERSOFSOTOZEN FOUNDERSOFSOTOZEN

Tung Tung Tung Tung- -- -shan shan shan shan

Virtuallyallthemastersencountereduptothispointhavebeen
traceabletoMa-tsu,descendantinDharmaofthelegendary
Huai-jangandhismaster,theSixthPatriarch,Hui-neng.Thiswas
thelinethatbecameJapaneseRinzaiZen,manycenturieslater.
However,Hui-nenghadanotherfollower,ashadowyfigure
rememberedasCh'ing-yuanHsing-ssu(d.740)whoselinealso
wasperpetuatedtopresent-dayJapan.
1
Hisforemostpupilwas
Shih-t'ou(700-90),andacommondescriptionoftheeighth-cen-
turyCh'anestablishmentwas:"InKiangsithemasterwasMa-tsu;
inHunanthemasterwasShih-t'ou.Peoplewentbackandforth
betweenthemallthetime,andthosewhonevermetthesetwo
greatmasterswerecompletelyignorant."
2
Shih-t'oujoustedwith
Ma-tsu,andtheyoftenswappedstudents.Ma-tsusenthispupils
ontheirwaywithawinkandtheadvicethatShih-t'ouwas
"slippery."
3
Thislegendarymasterwasforebearofthreeofthe
five"houses"ofCh'anarisingaftertheGreatPersecutionof845,
althoughtheonlyoneofthethreesurvivingistheTs'ao-tung,
whicharoseduringthelaterT'ang(618-907)andearlyFive
Dynasties(907-960)periodandremainstodayasJapaneseSoto.
OneofthecofoundersoftheTs'ao-tunghousewasknownas
Tung-shanLiang-chieh(807-869),whowasborninpresentday
Chekiangbuteventuallyfoundhiswaytowhatisnownorthern
Kiangsiprovince.
4
Asdidmostgreatmasters,hetookBuddhist
ordersearly,andoneofthemostenduringstoriesofhislifehas
himconfoundinghiseldersaneventcommontomanyspiritual
biographies.HebeganasanoviceintheVinayasect,an
organizationoftenmoreconcernedwiththeletterofthelawthan
itsspirit.OnedayhewasaskedtorecitetheHeartSutra,but
whenhecametothephrase"Thereisnoeye,ear,nose,tongue,
body,ormind,"hewonderinglytouchedhisownfaceandthen
inquiredofhismaster,"Ihaveeyes,ears,nose,tongue,andso
forth;how,then,canthesutrasaytherearenosuchthings?"
5
The
Vinayamasterwasdumbfoundedbyhisiconoclasmand
suggestedthathisbentofmindwouldbemorereadilycultivated
intheCh'ansect.SooffhewenttoMt.Sung,wherehe
subsequentlywasordainedattheprecociousageoftwenty-one.
AfterwardhetraveledacrossChina,typicalforyoungmonks
oftheage.Ironicallyenough,consideringthathislineeventually
rivaledMa-tsu's,hisfirststopwasthemonasteryofNan-ch'uan,
oneoftheforemostdisciplesofMa-tsu.Ashearrived,Nan-ch'uan
wasannouncingamemorialservicetobeconductedthenextday
ontheanniversaryofhismaster'sdeath,astandardChinese
custom.

Nan-ch'uanremarked,"WhenweservefoodforMasterMa-tsu
tomorrow,Idowonderwhetherhewillcomeforit."Noneofthe
monksmadeareplybut[Tung-shan]cameforthoutofthecrowd
andsaid,"Assoonashehascompanionshewillcome."Hearing
this,Nan-ch'uanpraisedhim:"Althoughthismanisyoung,heis
worthyofbeingtrained.''[Tung-shan]saidtohim,"Master,you
shouldnotmakeaslaveoutofanhonorableperson."
6

Tung-shanstudiedbrieflywithNan-ch'uanmakinganamefor
himselfintheprocessandthentraveledon.Helaterlandedatthe
monasteryofateachernamedYun-yen,butafterasuccessful
periodofstudyheannouncedhisintentiontoagaincontinue
downtheroad.Yun-yen,however,protestedlosinghisstarpupil.

"Afteryouleavehere,itwillbeveryhardforustoseeeach
otheragain,"saidMasterYun-yen.
"Itwillbeveryhardforusnottoseeeachotheragain,"
answered[Tung-shan]....ThenYun-yensaidtohim,"Youmust
beverycareful,asyouarecarryingthisgreatthing."
[Tung-shan]waspuzzled.Laterwhenhewascrossingthe
waterandsawhisimagereflected,hesuddenlyunderstoodthe
teachingofYun-yen.
7

Bytheyear860Tung-shanhadamonasteryofhisownand
wasbesiegedbydisciples.HesubsequentlymovedtoTung-shan
(Mt.Tung)inwhatistodayKiangsiprovince,thelocalethat
providedhishistoricname.HisrespectforYun-yen'senigmatic
wisdomwasexplainedyearslater.

Oneday,whentheMasterwasconductingtheannual
memorialserviceforMasterYun-yen,amonkaskedhim:
"WhatinstructiondidyoureceivefromthelateMasterYun-
yen?"
"AlthoughIwastherewithhim,hegavemenoinstruction,"
answeredtheMaster.
"Thenwhyshouldyouconductthememorialserviceforhim,if
hedidnotinstructyou?"persistedthemonk....
"Itisneitherforhismoralcharacternorhisteachingof
DharmathatIrespecthim.WhatIconsiderimportantisthathe
nevertoldmeanythingopenly."
8

YetTung-shandoesnotseemcompletelyagainstthe
cultivationofenlightenment,asweresomeoftheother,more
radicalCh'anists.Take,forexample,thefollowingreported
encounter:

Agovernmentofficerwantedtoknowwhethertherewasanyone
approachingCh'anthroughcultivation.TheMasteranswered:
"Whenyoubecomealaborer,thentherewillbesomeonetodo
cultivation."
9

Theofficer'squestionwouldhaveelicitedashoutfromLin-chi,a
blowfromHuang-po,andadvicefromChao-choutogowashhis
ricebowl.
AlthoughTung-shanmayhaveavoidedthedeliberate
absurditiesoftheLin-chimasters,hisutterancesareoften
puzzlingnonetheless.Partofthereasonisthathepreferredthe
metaphortotheconcreteexample.Unlikethereparteeofthe
absurdistLin-chimasters,hisexchangesarenotdeliberately
illogical.Insteadwefindasimplereluctancetosayanything
straight.Butifyoufollowthesymboliclanguage,yourealizeitis
merelyanothercleverwayofneverteachingwithwords,whilestill
usinglanguage.Hisfrequentspeakinginmetaphorscanbe
appreciatedbythefollowingexchange,whichuseslanguage
emeshedinsymbols.

Monk:"WithwhatmanofTaoshouldoneassociate,sothatone
willhearconstantlywhatonehasneverheard?"
TheMaster:"Thatwhichisunderthesamecoverletwithyou."
Monk:"Thisisstillwhatyou,Master,canhearyourself.Whatisit
thatonewillhearconstantlywhichonehasneverheard?"
TheMaster:"Itisnotthesameaswoodandstone."...
Monk:"Whoisheinourcountrythatholdsaswordinhishand?"
TheMaster:"ItisTs'ao-shan."
Monk:"Whomdoyouwanttokill?"
TheMaster:"Allthosewhoarealivewilldie."
Monk:"Whenyouhappentomeetyourparents,whatshould
youdo?"
TheMaster:"Whyshouldyouhaveanychoice?"
Monk:"Howaboutyourself?"
TheMaster:"Whocandoanythingtome?"
Monk:"Whyshouldyounotkillyourself,too?"
TheMaster:"ThereisnoplaceonwhichIcanlaymy
hands."
10

TheCh'anteachersdeliberatelyavoidedspecifics,since
thesemightcausestudentstostartworryingabouttheprecise
definitionofwordsandendupboggeddowninconceptual
quandries,neglectingtheirrealnaturewhichcannotbereached
usingwords.
11
Butfurtherthanthis,themonkthinkshewilltrap
themasterbyaskinghimifhisinjunctiontokillincludeshisown
parents.(RememberLin-chi's"Onmeetingyourparents,slay
yourparents.")ButTung-shanansweredbyaccusingthemonk
indirectlyofmakingdiscriminations.Asforself-murder,Tung-
shanmaintainshisimmaterialself-natureisindestructible.
12

ThedialecticofTung-shan,subsequentlyelaboratedbyhis
starpupil,Ts'ao-shan,representsoneofthelastgreat
expressionsofChinesemetaphysicalthought.Hedefineda
systemoffivepositionsorrelationsbetweentheParticularor
RelativeandtheUniversalorAbsolute,definedasfollows.
13

Inthefirststate,calledtheUniversalwithintheParticular,the
Absoluteishiddenandobscuredbyourpreoccupationwiththe
worldofappearances.However,theworldofappearancesisin
factapartofthelargerworldofAbsolutereality.Whenwehave
achievedatrueunderstandingoftheobjectiveworldwerealize
thatitisnomorerealthanoursensesmakeit,andconsequently
itrepresentsnotabsoluterealitybutmerelyourperception.This
realizationleadstothesecondphase.
Inthesecondstate,calledtheParticularwithintheUniversal,
werecognizethatobjectiverealitymustalwaysbeperceived
throughoursubjectiveapparatus,justastheAbsolutemustbe
approachedthroughtherelative,sinceallparticularitiesmerely
exemplifytheAbsolute.Evengoodandbadarepartofthissame
Universality.Itisallreal,butsimplythatnovaluesareattached,
sinceitisallpartofexistence.This,saysthescholarJohnWu,is
thestateofenlightenment.
14

Indialecticalterms,thisroundsoutthecomparisonofthe
ParticularandtheUniversal,witheachshowntobepartofthe
other.Buttheymustultimatelyberesolvedbackintosunyata,the
Voidthatencompasseseverything.NeithertheUniversalor
Absolute,northeparticularsthatgiveitphysicalform,arethe
ultimatereality.Theybotharemerelysystemsintheall-encom-
passingVoid.
Thethirdandfourthstageshedefinesexemplifyachieving
enlightenmentbyUniversalityaloneandachievingenlightenment
byParticularityalone.Thethirdstage,enlightenmentthrough
Universality,leadsonetomeditateontheAbsolute,uponthe
singlewordlesstruththatdefinestheparticulararoundusaspart
ofitself.(ItsoundsremarkablysimilartotheTao.)Thismeditation
isdonewithoutprops,language,oranyofthephysicalworld(the
particular)surroundingus.
EnlightenmentthroughtheParticular,throughexperiencewith
thephenomenalworld,wasthefourthstage.Thisreceivedthe
mostattentionfromtheLin-chisectwhosemasterswouldanswer
thequestion"WhatisthemeaningofCh'an?"with"Thecypress
treeinthecourtyard"or"Threepoundsofflax."
15

Atthefifthstage,enlightenmentreachestheVoid,thestate
thatcannotbecontainedinaconcept,sinceallconceptsare
insideit.Whenyoufinallyreachthisstateofwordlessinsight,you
realizethatbothwordsandwordlessnessaremerelypartofthis
largerreality.Actionandnonactionareequallylegitimate
responsestotheworld.Tung-shandemonstratedthiswhenhe
wasasked,"Whenasnakeisswallowingafrog,shouldyousave
thefrog'slife?"Tothisheanswered,"Tosavethefrogistobe
blind[i.e.,toultimateonenessandthereforetodiscriminate
betweenfrogandsnake];nottosavethefrogisnottoletform
andshadowappear[i.e.,toignorethephenomena].
16
Perhaps
Tung-shanwasdemonstratingthathewasfreeofdiscrimination
betweeneitheroption.
17

Thequestionofthesubjectiveandtheobjective,the
UniversalandtheParticular,permeatedTung-shan'steachings.

OncetheMasteraskedamonkwhathisnamewas.The
monkansweredthathisnamewasso-and-so.TheMasterthen
asked:"Whatoneisyourrealself?"
"Theonewhoisjustfacingyou."
"Whatapity!Whatapity!Themenofthepresentdayareall
likethis.Theytakewhatisinthefrontofanassoratthebackofa
horseandcallitthemselves.Thisillustratesthedownfallof
Buddhism.Ifyoucannotrecognizeyourrealselfobjectively,how
canyouseeyourrealselfsubjectively?"
"Howdoyouseeyourrealselfsubjectively?"themonk
immediatelyasked.
"Youhavetotellmethatyourself."
"IfIweretotellyoumyself,itwouldbeseeingmyself
objectively.Whatistheselfthatisknownsubjectively?"
"Totalkaboutitinsuchawayiseasytodo,buttocontinue
ourtalkingmakesitimpossibletoreachthetruth."
18

Therealsoisapoem,knownasthePao-chingSan-mei,
traditionallyattributedtoTung-shan.
19
Onequatrainwillgivethe
flavoroftheverse:

Themanofwoodsings,
Thewomanofstonegetsupanddances,
Thiscannotbedonebypassionorlearning,
Itcannotbedonebyreasoning.
20

ThishasbeeninterpretedastheideaofUniversalitypenetrating
intoParticularity.Thewoodenmansingingandthestonemaiden
dancingareexplainedasevidenceofthepowerofUniversality.
21
Tung-shanhadanumberofdistinguishingqualities.Heoften
usedTaoistlanguageinhisteachings,quotingChuangTzuto
makeapoint.Reportedlyheneverusedtheshoutorthestickto
shockanoviceintoself-awareness.Andwhereashisdialogues
oftenusedmetaphorsthatatfirstappearobscure,therearenever
thedeliberateabsurditiesoftheLin-chimasters,whofrequently
answeredaperfectlyreasonablequestionwithadeliberateinanity
merelytodemonstratetheabsurdityofwords.UnliketheLin-chi
masters,heseemslessconcernedwiththeprocessof
transmissionthanwithwhatexactlyistransmitted.Tung-shan
viewedwordsasdidChuangTzu,namelyasthenetinwhichto
catchthefish.WhereastheLin-chimastersviewedenlightenment
asatotality,Tung-shanteachersbelievedthatenlightenment
arrivedinstages,andtheywereconcernedwithidentifyingwhat
thesestageswere.Thiswas,infact,thepurposeofhisfive
categoriesofParticularityandUniversality,whichbecameapart
ofthehistoricdialecticofZenenlightenment.Ironically,withthe
emergenceoftheideaofstages,weseembacktoaconceptof
"gradual"enlightenmentarrivedatbecausetheChinesemind
couldnotresisttheoreticalspeculations.
Tung-shan'sdeathbedscenewasalmostworthyofcomic
opera.Onedayinthethirdmonthof869hemadeknownhis
resolvetodieand,shavinghisheadanddonninghisformal
robes,orderedthegongtobestruckasheseatedhimselfin
meditation.Buthisdisciplesbegansobbingsodisturbinglythathe
finallydespairedofdyinginpeaceand,openinghiseyes,chided
them.

ThosewhoareBuddhistsshouldnotattachthemselvesto
externalities.Thisistherealself-cultivation.Inlivingtheywork
hard;indeaththeyareatrest.Whyshouldtherebeanygrief?
22

Hetheninstructedtheheadmonktoprepare"offeringsoffoodto
ignorance"foreveryoneatthemonastery,intendingtoshameall
thosewhostillclungtotheemotionsoftheflesh.Themonkstook
afullweektopreparethemeal,knowingitwastobehislast
supper.Andsureenough,upondininghebadethemfarewelland,
afteraceremonialbath,passedon.
ThemostfamousdiscipleofTung-shan,MasterTs'ao-shan
(840-901),wasbornasPen-chiontheFukiencoast.Passing
throughanearlyinterestinConfucianism,helefthomeat
nineteenandbecameaBuddhist.Hewasordainedatagetwenty-
fiveandseemstohavefoundfrequentoccasiontoVisitTung-
shan.ThenonedaytheyhadanencounterthatcatapultedTs'ao-
shanintothepositionoffavoredpupil.Theexchangebeganwith
aquestionbyTung-shan:

"Whatisyourname?"
"Mynameis[Ts'ao-shan]."
"SaysomethingtowardUltimateReality."
"Iwillnotsayanything."
"Whydon'tyouspeakofit?"
"Itisnotcalled[Ts'ao-shan]."
23

ItissaidthatTung-shangaveTs'ao-shanprivateinstructionafter
thisandregardedhiscapabilityhighly.Theanecdote,ifwemay
ventureaguess,seemstoassertthattheUniversalcannotbe
reachedthroughlanguage,andhencehecouldonlyconverse
abouthisobjective,physicalform.
Afterseveralyearsofstudy,Ts'ao-shandecidedtostrikeout
onhisown,andheannouncedthisintentiontoTung-shan.The
oldermastertheninquired:

"Whereareyougoing?"
"Igowhereitischangeless."
"Howcanyougowhereitischangeless?"
"Mygoingisnochange.
24

Ts'ao-shansubsequentlylefthismasterandwentwanderingand
teaching.Finally,inlatesummerof901,thestorysaysthatTs'ao-
shanoneeveninginquiredaboutthedate,andearlythenext
morninghedied.
AlthoughtherecordedexchangesbetweenTung-shanand
Ts'ao-shanarelimitedtothetworatherbriefencountersgiven,
theyoungermasteractuallyseemstohavebeenthemovingforce
behindthedialecticalconstructionsoftheTs'ao-tungschool.The
ancientrecords,suchasTheTransmissionoftheLamp,all
declarethatTs'ao-shanwasinspiredbytheFiveStatesof
UniversalityandParticularitytobecomeagreatBuddhist.As
Dumoulinjudges,"Itwas[Ts'ao-shan]whofirst,inthespiritofand
inaccordancewiththemaster'steachings,arrangedthefive
ranksintheirtransmutedformandexplainedtheminmanyways.
...Thefundamentalprinciples,however,stemfrom[Tung-shan],
whoforthatreasonmustbeconsideredtobetheiroriginator."
25

TheultimateconcernofboththeTs'ao-tungandLin-chi
doctrineswasenlightenment.ThedifferencewasthatTs'ao-tung
mastersbelievedquietmeditationwastheway,ratherthanthe
mind-shatteringtechniquesofLin-chi.Ts'ao-tung(SotoZen)
strivestosoothethespiritratherthandeliberatelyinstigate
psychicturmoil,assometimesdoestheLin-chi(Rinzai).Theaim
istobeintheworldbutnotofit;tooccupythephysicalworldbut
transcenditmentally,aloofandserene.
AfurtherdifferencehasbeenidentifiedbytheBritishscholar
SirCharlesEliot,whoconcludesthatwhereasLin-chi"regardsthe
knowledgeoftheBuddhanature...asanendinitself,all-
satisfyingandall-engrossing,the[Ts'ao-tung]...heldthatitis
necessarytohaveenlightenmentafterEnlightenment,thatisto
saythattheinnerilluminationmustdisplayitselfinagoodlife."
26
ThusEliotsuggeststheTs'ao-tungtooksomethingofaninterest
inwhatyoudo,indistinctiontotheLin-chischool,whichpreferred
tofocusoninnerwisdom.
TheTs'ao-tungsect,atleastinitsearlyforms,wasfullyas
dialecticalinoutlookaswastheLin-chi.Inthisitwasmerely
carryingon,tosomeextent,theexampleofitsforebearShih-t'ou,
whowashimselfrememberedasdeeplyinterestedintheoretical
andintellectualspeculations.TodaytheTs'ao-tungsectis
differentiatedfromtheLin-chiprimarilybyitsmethodsforteaching
novices.Thereisnodisagreementaboutthegoal,merelyabout
thepath.
ItisinterestingthatthewholebusinessoftheFiveRanks
seemsnottohavesurvivedtheSungDynasty.Ts'ao-tung'sreal
contributionwasessentiallytorevivetheapproachofNorthern
Ch'an,withitsstressonmeditation,intellectualinquiry,stagesof
enlightenment,andtheideathatCh'anisnotentirelyinner-
directedbutmayalsohavesomeplaceintheworldatlarge.This
istherealachievementofTs'ao-tung,andthequalitythatenabled
ittosurviveandbecomeSoto.

ChapterThirteen ChapterThirteen ChapterThirteen ChapterThirteen

KUEI KUEI KUEI KUEI- -- -SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN- -- -MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA- -- -YEN: YEN: YEN: YEN:
THREEMINORHOUSES THREEMINORHOUSES THREEMINORHOUSES THREEMINORHOUSES

Yun-men(left)

The"fivehouses"orsectsofCh'anthataroseaftertheGreat
Persecutionof845didnotallappearsimultaneously,nordidthey
enjoyequalinfluence.WhereastheLin-chiandtheTs'ao-tung
weredestinedtosurviveandfindtheirwaytoJapan,thethree
otherhousesweretreatedlesskindlybyhistory.Nonetheless,in
thesearchforenlightenment,eachofthethreeotherhouses
contributedtechniques,insights,andoriginalideasthatenriched
theZentradition.Itiswiththestoriesofthemasterswhofounded
thethreeextincthousesthatwecloseouttheeraprecedingthe
SungDynastyandtheriseofthekoan.



KUEI KUEI KUEI KUEI- -- -SHAN,FO SHAN,FO SHAN,FO SHAN,FOUNDEROFTHEKUEI UNDEROFTHEKUEI UNDEROFTHEKUEI UNDEROFTHEKUEI- -- -YANGSECT YANGSECT YANGSECT YANGSECT

Thisearliestofthefivehouseswasfoundedbyacontemporaryof
Huang-poandfolloweroftheMa-tsutraditionknownbythename
Kuei-shan(771-853).Underhisoriginalname,Ling-yu,heleft
homeatfifteentobecomeamonk,studyingunderalocalVinaya
masterinpresent-dayFukienprovince.Helaterwasordainedat
Hangchow,whereheassiduouslyabsorbedthevinayaandsutras
ofbothTheravadaandMahayana.
1
Thenatagetwenty-threehe
traveledtoKiangsiandbecameapupilofthefamousCh'an
lawgiverPo-changHuai-hai.
ThemomentofKuei-shan'senlightenmentatthehandsof
Huai-haiisaZenclassic.Asthestorygoes:

Onedayashewaswaitingupon[Huai-hai],thelatteraskedhim
topokethestove,toseewhethertherewasanyfireleftinit.Kuei-
shanpokedbutfoundnofire.[Huai-hai]rosetopokeithimself,
andsucceededindiscoveringalittlespark.Showingittohis
disciple,heasked,"Isthisnotfire?"ThereuponKuei-shan
becameenlightened.
2

Justwhythisseeminglytrivialincidentshouldtriggerenlighten-
mentisclearlyamatterthatmustbeapproachedintuitively.
3

Kuei-shanreceivedhisnamefromMt.Kuei,wherehewas
senttofoundamonasterybyPo-changHuai-hai.The
circumstancesofhisselectionrevealalmostmorethanwewould
wishtoknowabouttheCh'anmonasticworldatthebeginningof
theninthcentury.IthappenedthatHuai-haiwasconsideringthe
ideaoffoundinganewmonasteryonMt.KueiinHunanprovince.
However,hewasuncertainwhethertheventurewouldflourish,
andconsequentlyheturnedforadvicetoawandering
fortunetellernamedSsu-ma.
4
ThisseerrespondedthatMt.Kuei
wasanideallocationandwouldsupportfifteenhundredmonks.
However,Huai-haihimselfwouldnotprosperthere,since"You
areabony,asceticmananditisafleshy,sensuousmountain."
Theadvicewastofindsomebodyelse.
Huai-haiconsentedandbegancallinginhiscandidatesfor
Ssu-matoexamine.Thefirsttobesummonedwasthehead
monkwhomSsu-maaskedtoproduceadeepcoughandthen
walkseveralsteps.Thewizenedoldmysticwatchedcarefullyand
thenwhisperedtoHuai-haithatthiswasnottheman.Nexttobe
calledinwasKuei-shan,currentlyadministratorofthemonastery.
Ssu-matookonelookandnoddedhisapprovaltoHuai-hai.That
nightHuai-haisummonedKuei-shanandassignedhisnew
mission:"GotoMt.Kueiandfoundthemonasterythatwill
perpetuatemyteachings."
Whentheheadmonkdiscoveredhehadbeenpassedover
hewasoutragedandatthenextmorning'sconvocation
demandedthatHuai-haijustifythisslight.Themasterreplied:

"Ifyoucanmakeanoutstandingresponseinfrontofthe
assembly,youshallreceivetheappointment."[Huai-hai]then
pointedtoapitcherandsaidtohim,"Donotcallthisapitcher.
What,instead,shouldyoucallit?"[Theheadmonk]answered,"It
cannotbecalledawoodenwedge."Master[Huai-hai]didnot
acceptthis,andturnedto[Kuei-shan],demandinghisanswer.
[Kuei-shan]kickedthepitcherandknockeditover.Master[Huai-
hai]laughedandsaid,"OurheadmonkhaslosthisbidforMount
Kuei."
5

Theheadmonk'sreplyhadbeenintellectualizingwordplay,
caughtupintheworldofnamesandcategories.Kuei-shan'sreply
wasspontaneous,wordless,anddevoidofdistinctions.Hiswasa
mindthatcouldtranscendrationality.
Kuei-shandidestablishthemonasteryandfromitashort-
livedschool.However,Kuei-shan'smemorywasperpetuated
largelythroughabrilliantpupillaterknownasYang-shan(807-
883)owingtohisfoundingamonasteryonMt.YanginKiangsi
province.TogethertheirteachingsbecameknownastheKuei-
yangschool,thefirstofthe"fivehouses."
TheexchangesbetweenKuei-shanandYang-shanreported
inTheTransmissionoftheLampareamongthemostelectricin
allCh'an.Inthefollowingtheyjoustoverthedistinctionbetween
functionofwisdom(whichisrevealedthroughaction)and
substanceorself-nature(whichisrevealedthroughnonaction).

Oncewhenallthemonkswereoutpickingtealeavesthe
MastersaidtoYang-shan,"Alldayaswewerepickingtealeaves
Ihaveheardyourvoice,butIhavenotseenyouyourself.Show
meyouroriginalself."Yang-shanthereuponshooktheteatree.
TheMastersaid,"Youhaveattainedonlythefunction,notthe
substance."Yang-shanremarked,"Idonotknowhowyou
yourselfwouldanswerthequestion."TheMasterwassilentfora
time.Yang-shancommented,"You,Master,haveattainedonly
thesubstance,notthefunction."MasterKuei-shanresponded,"I
absolveyoufromtwentyblows!"
6

Commentatorsdifferonwhowonthisexchangeandwhether
Kuei-shanwasreallysatisfied.Anotherstoryrelatessimilarfast-
wittedbutseriousrepartee.

TwoCh'anmonkscamefrom[arival]communityandsaid,
"ThereisnotamanherewhocanunderstandCh'an."Later,when
allthemonkswentouttogatherfirewood,Yang-shansawthe
two,whowereresting;hetookapieceoffirewoodandasked
them,"Canyoutalk(aboutit)?"Asbothremainedsilent,Yang-
shansaidtothem,"Donotsaythatthereisnooneherewhocan
understandCh'an."
Whenhereturnedtothemonastery,Yang-shanreportedto
themaster,"Today,twoCh'anmonkswereexposedbyme."The
masterasked,"Howdidyouexposethem?"Yang-shanrelated
theincidentandthemastersaid,"Ihavenowexposedyouas
well."
7

ThetranslatorCharlesLuksuggeststhatKuei-shanhad
"exposed"Yang-shanbyshowingthathestilldistinguished
betweenhimselfandtheothermonks.
Yetanotherstory,reminiscentofNan-ch'uan,further
dramatizestheschool'steachingofnondiscrimination.Thereport
recountsapresentthatKuei-shansenttoYang-shan,nowalsoa
masterandco-founderoftheirschool:

Kuei-shansent[Yang-shan]aparcelcontainingamirror.When
hewenttothehall,[Yang-shan]heldupthemirrorandsaidtothe
assembly,"PleasesaywhetherthisisKuei-shan'sorYang-shan's
mirror.Ifsomeonecangiveacorrectreply,Iwillnotsmashit."As
nooneanswered,themastersmashedthemirror.
8

Kuei-shan'sanswertoonepupilwhorequestedthathe
"explain"Ch'antohimwastodeclare:

IfIshouldexpounditexplicitlyforyou,inthefutureyouwill
reproachmeforit.Anyway,whateverIspeakstillbelongstome
andhasnothingtodowithyou.
9

Thismonk,wholaterbecamethefamousmasterHsiang-yen,
subsequentlyburnedhissutrasandwanderedthecountrysidein
despair.Thenonedaywhilecuttinggrasshenickedapieceof
brokentileagainstsomebamboo,producingasharpsnapthat
suddenlytriggeredhisenlightenment.Inelationhehurriedbackto
hiscellintheabandonedmonasterywherehewaslivingand
burnedincensetoKuei-shan,declaring,"Ifyouhadbrokenthe
secrettomethen,howcouldIhaveexperiencedthewonderful
eventoftoday."
10

TherealcontributionoftheKuei-yangsectisagreedtobethe
finaldistinctionYang-shanmadebetweentheCh'anofmeditation
(basedontheLankavataraSutra)andinstantaneousCh'an(that
completelydivorcedfromthesutras).InthisfinalrevisionofCh'an
history,"traditional"or"Patriarchal"Ch'anwasredefinedasthe
anti-sutraestablishmentoftheSouthernschool,whilethe
teachingoftheLankavatara,whichactuallyhadbeenthebasisof
thefaithuntilthemiddleoftheeighthcentury,wasscornedasan
aberration.Heemphasized,inasense,Ch'an'sultimate
disowningofBuddhismthroughanew,manufactured"history."
Kuei-shandiedintheprescribedmanner:Afteraritual
ablutionheseatedhimselfinthemeditationpostureandpassed
onwithasmile.HewasburiedonMt.Kuei,homeofhis
monastery.HisfollowersandthoseofhispupilYang-shan
composedtheKuei-yangschool,anearlyattempttoformalizethe
anti-sutrapositionofMa-tsu.
11
However,theyweresupplantedby
othermuchmoresuccessfulfollowersofHuai-hai,suchas
Huang-poandLin-chi,whoseschoolbecametherealperpetuator
ofMa-tsu'siconoclasm.

THEYUN THEYUN THEYUN THEYUN- -- -MENSECT MENSECT MENSECT MENSECT

TheMasterYun-men(862/4-949)wasborninKiangsuprovince
(somesayChekiang)toafamilywhosecircumstancesforced
themtoplacehiminaVinayatempleasanovice.Buthis
inquiringmindeventuallyturnedtoCh'an,andoffhewenttoa
master,withhisfirsttargetbeingthefamousMu-chou,discipleof
Huang-po.(Mu-chouisrememberedasthemonkwhosentLin-
chiinforhisfirstthreewitheringinterviewswithHuang-po.)For
twodaysrunning,Yun-mentriedtogainentrytoseethemaster,
buteachtimehewasejected.Thethirddayhesucceededin
reachingMu-chou,whograbbedhimanddemanded,"Speak!
Speak!"ButbeforeYun-mencouldopenhismouth,themaster
shovedhimoutoftheroomandslammedthedoor,catchinghis
legandbreakingitintheprocess.Theunexpectedboltofpain
shootingthroughYun-men'sbodysuddenlybroughthisfirst
enlightenment.
12

Hejourneyedon,studyingwithseveralfamousmasters,until
finallyheinheritedamonasteryfromaretiringmasterwhosensed
hisgenius.Yun-menwasoneofthebest-knownfiguresfrom
Ch'an'swaningGoldenAge,andstoriesofhisexchangeswith
monksbecameamajorsourceofkoans.
13
Heloathedwordsand
forbadehisfollowerstotakenotesorwritedownhissermons.
(However,histalksweresecretlyrecordedbyafollowerwho
attendedinapaperrobeandkeptnotesonthegarment.)Asdid
theearliermasters,hestruggledmightilywiththeproblemofhow
topreventnovicesfrombecomingattachedtohiswordsand
phrases.

[Yun-men]cametotheassemblyagainandsaid:"Myworkhereis
somethingthatIcannothelp.WhenItellyoutopenetratedirectly
intoallthingsandtobenon-attachedtothem,Ihavealready
concealedwhatiswithinyou.Yetyouallcontinuelookingfor
Ch'anamongmywords,sothatyoumayachieveenlightenment.
Withmyriaddeviationsandartificialities,youraiseendless
questionsandarguments.Thus,youmerelygaintemporary
satisfactionsfromverbalcontests,repeatedlyquarrelwithwords,
anddeviateevenfurtherfromCh'an.Whenwillyouobtainit,and
rest?"
14

Hefirmlybelievedthatallteachingwasuseless;thatall
explanationsdomoreharmthangood;andthat,infact,nothing
worthwhilecaneverbetaught.

TheMastersaid,"IfIshouldgiveyouastatementthatwould
teachyouhowtoachieveCh'animmediately,dirtwouldalready
bespreadontopofyourhead....TograspCh'an,youmust
experienceit.Ifyouhavenotexperiencedit,donotpretendto
know.Youshouldwithdrawinwardlyandsearchfortheground
uponwhichyoustand;therebyyouwillfindoutwhatTruthis."
15

OneofYun-men'ssermonsrevealsmuchaboutthegrowing
painsofCh'an.Theseriousnessofthenovicesseemstohave
beensteadilydeteriorating,andhischaracterizationoftherun-of-
the-millnovicesofhistimepresentsapictureofwaning
dynamism.Successwasclearlybringingamorefrivolousstudent
tothemonasteries,andwesenseherethewarningofamanwho
rightlyfearedforthefuturequalityofCh'an.

Furthermore,somemonks,idleandnotseriousintheirstudies,
gathertogethertryingtolearnthesayingsoftheancients,and
attempttorevealtheirownnaturethroughmemorizing,imagining,
prophesying.Thesepeopleoftenclaimthattheyunderstandwhat
Dharmais.Whattheyactuallydoissimplytalkthemselvesinto
endlessentanglementsandusemeditationtopassthetime.
16

Healsofeltthetraditionalpilgrimagesfrommastertomaster
hadbecomehardlymorethanaglorifiedversionofsightseeing.

Donotwasteyourtimewanderingthousandsof[miles],through
thistownandthat,withyourstaffonyourshoulder,winteringin
oneplaceandspendingthesummerinanother.Donotseekout
beautifulmountainsandriverstocontemplate....[T]he
fundamentalthingforyoutodoistoobtaintheessenceofCh'an.
Thenyourtravelswillnothavebeeninvain.Ifyoufindawayto
guideyourunderstandingunderaseveremaster...wakeup,
hangupyourbowl-bag,andbreakyourstaff.Spendtenortwenty
yearsofstudyunderhimuntilyouarethoroughlyenlightened.
17

Healsoadvisedthattheytrytosimplifytheirsearch,thattheytry
torealizehowuncomplicatedCh'anreallyis.
Letmetellyouthatanythingyoucandirectlypointatwillnotlead
youtotherighttrail....Besidesdressing,eating,movingbowels,
releasingwater,whatelseistheretodo?
18

Yun-menwasoneofthemostdynamicmastersofthelate
ninthandearlytenthcentury,providingnewtwiststothehistoric
problemofnonlanguagetransmission.Hiscelebratedsolution
wastheso-calledone-wordanswer.Severaloftheseare
preservedinthetwomajorkoancollectionsoflateryears.Twoof
thebetter-knownfollow:

AmonkaskedYun-men,"Whatistheteachingthattranscends
theBuddhaandpatriarchs?"Yun-mensaid,"Asesamebun."
19

AmonkaskedYun-men,"WhatisBuddha?"Yun-menreplied,"A
driedpieceofshit."
20

The"one-word"washisversionoftheblowandtheshout.R.H.
BlythisparticularlyfondofYun-menandsuggestshemayhave
hadthekeenestintellectofanyCh'anmasterandevengoesso
farastodeclarehimthegreatestmanChinahasproduced.
21

AttheveryleastYun-menwasinthegreattraditionofthe
iconoclasticT'angmasters,withatouchthatbearscomparisonto
Huang-po.Andheprobablywaswiseinattemptingtostop
copyists,forhisteachingseventuallywerereducedtoyetanother
abominablesystem,asseemedirresistibletotheChinese
followersofthefivehouses.Alaterdiscipleproducedwhatis
knownasthe"ThreepropositionsofthehouseofYun-men."Itis
notdifficulttoimaginethebarnyardresponseYun-menwould
havehadtothis"systematization"ofhisthought.
22
Theschoolof
this"mosteloquentofCh'anmasters"lastedthroughtheSung
dynasty,butitsfailuretofindatransplantinJapaneventually
meantthathistorywouldpassitby.Nonetheless,thecutting
intellectofYun-menwasoneofthebrightstarsinthe
constellationofCh'an,providingwhatispossiblyitspurest
antirationalstatement.

THEFA THEFA THEFA THEFA- -- -YENSECT YENSECT YENSECT YENSECT

ThemasterknownasFa-yen(885-958),founderofthethird
short-livedhouseofCh'an,neednotdetainuslong.Fa-yen's
novelmethodfortriggeringenlightenmentwastorepeatbackthe
questioner'sownquery,therebyisolatingthewordsanddraining
themoftheirmeaning.Itwashisversionoftheshout,thesilence,
thesingleword.AndwhereastheLin-chischoolwasconcerned
withtheFourProcessesofLiberationfromSubjectivityand
ObjectivityandtheTs'ao-tungschoolconstructedthefive
relationsbetweenParticularityandUniversality,theFa-yenschool
inventedtheSixAttributesofBeing.
23
TheSixAttributesofBeing
(totalityanddifferentiation,samenessanddifference,becoming
anddisappearing)wereadaptedfromthedoctrineofanother
Buddhistsect,andinfactlaterattemptsbyoneofFa-yen's
disciplestocombineCh'anandPureLandBuddhismhavebeen
creditedwithacceleratingthedisappearanceofhisschool.
AccordingtoTheTransmissionoftheLamp,themaster
rememberedasFa-yenwasbornasWen-i,nearHangchow.He
becameaCh'annoviceatagesevenandwasordainedattwenty.
LearnedinbothBuddhistandConfucianistliterature(thoughnot,
significantlyenough,intheTaoistclassics),hethengotthe
wanderlust,aswascommon,andheadedsouthtoseekoutmore
Ch'anteachers.HeendedupinKiangsiprovinceinthecityof
Fuchou,wheretoescapethefloodingsofarainstormhefound
himselfoneeveninginalocalmonastery.Hestruckupa
conversationwiththemasterthere,whosuddenlyaskedhim:

"Whereareyougoing,sir?"
"Ishallcontinuemyfoottravelsalongtheroad."
"Whatisthatwhichiscalledfoottravel?"
"Idonotknow."
"Not-knowingmostcloselyapproachestheTruth."
24

TheTransmissionoftheLampstatesthathewasenlightened
onthespotanddecidedtosettledownforaperiodofstudy.He
eventuallybecameafamousteacherhimself,shepherdingas
manyasathousandstudentsatonetime.
Oneofhismostoftenrepeatedexchangesconcernedthe
questionofthedifferencebetweenthe"moon"(i.e.,enlighten-
ment)andthe"fingerpointingatthemoon,"(i.e.,theteaching
leadingtoenlightenment).Itwasacommonobservationthat
studentsconfusedthefingerpointingatthemoonwiththemoon
itself,whichistosaytheyconfusedtalkaboutenlightenmentwith
thestate.Onedayamonkcamealongwhothoughthewassmart
enoughtogetaroundthedilemma.

Amonkasked,"Asforthefinger,Iwillnotaskyouaboutit.
Butwhatisthemoon?"
TheMastersaid,"Whereisthefingerthatyoudonotask
about?"
Sothemonkasked,"Asforthemoon,Iwillnotaskyouabout
it.Butwhatisthefinger?"
TheMastersaid,"Themoon!"
Themonkchallengedhim,"Iaskedaboutthefinger;why
shouldyouanswerme,'themoon'?"
TheMasterreplied,"Becauseyouaskedaboutthefinger."
25

Atageseventy-fourFa-yendiedinthemannerofothergreat
masters,calmlyandseatedinthemeditationposture.Partofthe
lineageofShih-t'ouandanoffshootofthebranchofCh'anthat
wouldbecomeSoto,hewasakindlyindividualwithnoneofthe
violenceandhistrionicsoftheliveliermasters.However,his
schoollastedonlybrieflybeforepassingintohistory.Nonetheless,
anumberofdisciplesinitiallyperpetuatedhismemory,andhis
wisdomispreservedinvariousSung-periodcompilationsofCh'an
sermons.

Chap Chap Chap ChapterFourteen terFourteen terFourteen terFourteen

TA TA TA TA- -- -HUI: HUI: HUI: HUI:
MASTEROFTHEKOAN MASTEROFTHEKOAN MASTEROFTHEKOAN MASTEROFTHEKOAN


Toconfrontthekoanthemostdiscussed,leastunderstood
teachingconceptoftheEastistoaddresstheveryessenceof
Zenitself.Insimpletermsthekoanismerelyabriefstoryallthe
encountersbetweentwomonksrelatedherecouldbekoans.
DuringtheSungDynasty(960-1279)thesestorieswere
organizedintocollections,commentedupon,andstructuredintoa
systemofstudywhichinvolvedmeditatingonakoanandarriving
atanintuitive"answer"acceptabletoaZenmaster.Facedwith
thethreateningintellectualismoftheSungscholars,Ch'anists
createdthekoanoutoftheexperienceoftheoldermasters,much
thewayaliferaftmightbeconstructedfromthetimbersofa
storm-tornship.Butbeforeweexaminethisraft,itwouldbewell
tolookagainattheship.
ItwillberecalledthatCh'angrewoutofbothBuddhismand
Taoism,extractingfromthemthebeliefthatafundamental
unifyingqualitytranscendsallthediversityoftheworld,including
thingsthatappeartobeopposite.However,Ch'antaughtthatthis
cannotbeunderstoodusingintellectualism,whichrationally
makesdistinctionsandrelatestotheworldbyreducingitto
conceptsandsystems.Onereasonisthatallrationalityand
conceptsaremerelypartofalarger,encompassingReality;and
tryingtoreachthisRealityintellectuallyisliketryingtodescribe
theoutsideofabuildingwhiletrappedinside.
Thereis,however,akindofthoughtnotbeholdento
concepts,systems,discriminations,orrationalitythatcanreach
thisnewunderstanding.Itisintuition,whichoperatesinamode
entirelydifferentfromrationality.Itisholistic,notlinear;itis
unself-consciousandnoncritical;anditdoesn'tbotherwithanyof
therationalsystemsofanalysiswehaveinventedforourselves.
Butsincewecan'tcallonitatourpleasure,thenextbestthingwe
candoisclearthewayforittooperatebyshuttingofftherational
partofthemind.Thenintuitionstartshesitantlycomingoutofthe
shadows.Now,ifwecarefullywaitfortherightmomentandthen
suddenlycreateadisturbancethatmomentarilyshort-circuitsthe
rationalmindthewayshocksuppressesoursenseofpaininthe
firstmomentsofaseriousaccidentwemaygetaglimpseofthe
intuitivemindinfullflower.Inthatinstantweintuitivelyunderstand
theonenessoftheworld,theVoid,thegreaterRealitythatwords
andrationalityhaveneverallowedustoexperience.
TheZenteachershaveaveryefficienttechniqueformaking
allthishappen.Theyfirstdiscreditrationalityforanoviceby
makinghimfeelfoolishforusingit.Eachtimethenovicesubmits
arationalsolutiontoakoan,hereceivesahumiliatingrebuff.
Afterawhilethestrainbeginstotell.Inthesamewaythata
militarybootcampdestroystheegoandself-identityofarecruit,
theZenmasterslowlyerodesthenovice'sconfidenceinhisown
logicalpowers.
Atthispointhisintuitivemindbeginsovercomingitsprevious
repression.Distinctionsslowlystarttoseemabsurd,because
everytimehemakesoneheisridiculed.Littlebylittlehe
dissolveshissenseofobjectandsubject,knowerandknown.The
fruitnowisalmostreadytofallfromthetree.(Although
enlightenmentcannotbemadetohappen,itcanbemade
possible.)Enteratthispointtheunexpectedblow,theshout,the
clickofbamboo,thebrokenleg.Ifthestudentiscaught
unawares,rationalitymaybemomentarilyshort-circuitedand
suddenlyheglimpsesReality.
Theironyisthatwhatheglimpsesisnodifferentfromwhathe
sawbefore,onlynowheunderstandsitintuitivelyandrealizes
howsimplisticandconfiningarerationalcategoriesanddistinc-
tions.Mountainsareonceagainmountains;riversareonceagain
rivers.Butwithonevitaldifference:Nowheisnotattachedto
them.Hetravelsthroughtheworldjustasalways,butnowheis
atonewithit:nodistinctions,nocriticaljudgments,notension.
Afterallthatpreparatorymentalanguishthereisnoapparent
externalchange.Butinternallyheisenlightened:Hethinks
differently,heunderstandsdifferently,andultimatelyhelives
differently.
Ch'anbeganbyworkingoutthequestionofwhatthis
enlightenmentreallyis.PriortoMa-tsuthesearchwasmorefor
thenatureofenlightenmentthanforitstransmission.Thiswasthe
doctrinalphaseofCh'an.Astimewentby,however,theconcern
shiftedmoreandmorefromdefiningenlightenmentwhichthe
Ch'anmastersbelievedhadbeendonesufficientlytostruggling
withtheprocess.AfterMa-tsu,Ch'anturneditsattentionto
"auxiliarymeans"forhelpingalongtransmission:paradoxical
wordsandactions,shouts,beatings,andeventuallythekoan.
1

Thekoan,then,isthefinalstepinthe"auxiliarymeans."A
succinctanalysisofthekoantechniqueisprovidedbyRuthF.
SasakiinZenDust:"Briefly,[koans]consistedofquestionsthe
earlymastershadaskedindividualstudents,togetherwiththe
answersgivenbythestudents;questionsputtothemastersby
studentsinpersonaltalksorinthecourseofthemasters'
lectures,togetherwiththemasters'answers;statementsof
formulasinwhichthemastershadpointedtotheprofound
Principle;anecdotesfromthedailylifeofthemastersinwhich
theirattitudesoractionsillustratedthefunctioningofthePrinciple;
andoccasionallyaphrasefromasutrainwhichthePrincipleor
someaspectofitwascrystallizedinwords.Bypresentinga
studentwithoneoranotherofthesekoansandobservinghis
reactiontoit,thedegreeordepthofhisrealizationcouldbe
judged.Thekoanswerethecriteriaofattainment."
2

Calledkung-aninChinese(meaninga"case"oraproblem),
thekoanwasaresponsetotwomajorchallengesthatbeset
Ch'anintheSungera:First,thelargenumberofstudentsthat
appearedatCh'anmonasteriesasaresultofthedemiseofother
sectsmeantthatsomenewmeanswasneededtopreserve
personalizedattention(somemastersreportedlyhadone
thousandoreventwothousandfollowersatamonastery);and
second,therewasanoticeabledeclineinthespontaneityofboth
novicesandmasters.Themastershadlostmuchofthecreative
fireofCh'an'sGoldenAge,andthenoviceswerecaughtupinthe
intellectual,literaryworldoftheSung,tothepointthat
intellectualismactuallythreatenedthevitalityofthesect.
Thekoan,then,wastheanswertothisdilemma.It
systematizedinstructionsuchthatlargenumbersofstudents
couldbetreatedtothefinestantirationaltraditionoftheCh'an
sect,anditrescuedthedynamismoftheearliercenturies.
Althoughmentionofkung-anoccursintheCh'anliteraturebefore
theendoftheT'angera(618-907),thereferencewastoa
master'suseofaparticularlyeffectualquestiononmorethanone
student.Thiswasstillaninstanceofamasterusinghisown
questionsorparadoxes.Thekoaninitstrueformthatis,theuse
ofaclassicincidentfromtheliterature,posedasaconundrumis
saidtohavebeencreatedwhenadescendantofLin-chi,inthe
thirdgeneration,interviewedanoviceaboutsomeofLin-chi's
sayings.
3
Thissystematicuseoftheexistingliteraturewasfound
effective,andsoonanewteachingtechniquewasinthemaking.
Examplesofclassickoansalreadyhavebeenseen
throughoutthisbook,sincemanyoftheexchangesoftheearly
masterswerelaterisolatedforuseaskung-an.Butthereare
many,manyothers,Perhapsthebest-knownkoanofalltimeis
theexchangebetweenChao-chou(778-897)andamonk:

AmonkaskedChao-chou."DoesadoghaveBuddhanature[i.e.,
isadogcapableofbeingenlightened]?"Chao-chouanswered,
Mu[awordwhosestrictmeaningis"nothingness"]."
4

Quick,whatdoesitmean?Speak!Speak!IfyouwereaCh'an
novice,amasterwouldbeglaringatyoudemandingan
immediate,intuitiveanswer.(Afavoredresolutionofthis,
incidentally,issimply"Mu,"butbellowedwithalltheforceofthe
universe'sinherentOnenessbehindit.Andifyoutrytofakeit,the
masterwillknow.)Ortakeanotherkoan,drawncompletelyat
random.

Whenthemonksassembledbeforethenoonmealtohearhis
lecture,theMasterFa-yen[885-958]pointedatthebamboo
blinds.Twomonkssimultaneouslywentandrolledthemup.Fa-
yensaid,"Onegain,oneloss."
5

Don'tthink!Respondinstantly!Don'tsayawordunlessit'sright,
Don'tmakeamovethatisn'tintuitive.Andaboveall,don't
analyze.

Yun-men[862/4-949]askedamonk,"Wherehaveyoucomehere
from?"Themonksaid,"FromHsi-ch'an."Yun-mensaid,"What
wordsarebeingofferedatHsi-ch'anthesedays?"Themonk
stretchedouthishands.Yun-menstruckhim.Themonksaid,"I
haven'tfinishedtalking."Yun-menthenextendedhisownhands.
Themonkwassilent,soYun-menstruckhim.
6

Youweren'tthere.You'renotthemonk.Butnowyou'vegotto
dosomethingtoshowthemasteryougraspwhatwentoninthat
exchange.Whatwasspontaneoustotheoldermastersyoumust
graspinasecondhand,systematizedsituation.Andifyoucan't
answerthekoanright(itshouldbestressed,incidentally,thereis
notnecessarilyafixedanswer),youhadbestgoandmeditate,try
tograspitnonintellectually,andreturntomorrowtotryagain.
Offyougotomeditateon"Mu"or"Onegain,oneloss,"and
thementaltensionstartsbuilding.Eventhoughyouknowyou
aren'tsupposedto,youanalyzeitintellectuallyfromeveryangle.
Butthatjustheightensyourexasperation.Thensuddenlyoneday
somethingdawnsonyou.Elated,yougotothemaster.Youyell
athim,orbarklikeadog,orkickhisstaff,orstandonyourhands,
orreciteapoem,ordeclare,"Thecypresstreeinthecourtyard,"
orperhapsyoujustremainsilent.Hewillknow(intuitively)ifyou
havebrokenthroughthebondsofreason,ifyouhave
transcendedtheintellect.
There'snothingquitelikethekoanintheliteratureofthe
world:historicalepisodesthathavetoberelivedintuitivelyand
respondedto.AsRuthF.Sasakinotes,"Collectionsof'oldcases,'
asthekoansweresometimescalled,aswellasattemptstoput
thekoansintoafixedformandtosystematizethemtosome
extent,werealreadybeingmadebythemiddleofthetenth
century.Wealsofindafewmastersgivingtheirownalternate
answerstosomeoftheoldkoansandoccasionallyappending
versestothem.Inmanycasesthesealternateanswersand
versesultimatelybecameattachedtotheoriginalkoansandwere
handledaskoanssupplementarytothem."
7
Ironically,koans
becamesouseful,indeedessential,intheperpetuationofCh'an
thattheysoonwerereveredastexts.Collectionsofthebetter
koansappeared,andnextcameaccretionsofsupporting
commentarieswhenthewholepointwassupposedtobe
circumventingrelianceonwords!Butcommentariesalways
seemedtodevelopspontaneouslyoutofCh'an.
Todaytwomajorcollectionsofkoansaregenerallyusedby
studentsofZen.ThesearetheMumonkan(tousethemore
familiarJapanesename)andtheHekiganroku(againthe
Japanesename)orBlueCliffRecord.
8
Mastersmayworka
studentthroughboththesecollectionsashetravelstheroadto
enlightenment,withanewkoanbeingassignedaftereach
previousonehasbeensuccessfullyresolved.
TheBlueCliffRecordwasthefirstofthetwocollections.It
beganasagroupingofonehundredkung-anbyamasternamed
Hsueh-touCh'ung-hsien(980-1052)oftheschoolofYun-men.
Thismasteralsoattachedasmallpoemtoeachkoan,intendedto
directthestudenttowarditsmeaning.Thebookenjoyedsizable
circulationthroughoutthelatterpartoftheeleventhcentury,and
sometimethereafteraLin-chimasternamedYuan-wuK'o-ch'in
(1063-1135)decidedtoembellishitbyaddinganintroductionto
eachkoanandalong-windedcommentaryonboththekoanand
thepoemsuppliedbythepreviouscollector.(Inthecaseofthe
poemwenowhavecommentaryoncommentarytheultimate
achievementofthetheologian'sart!However,masterstoday
oftenomitYuan-wu'scommentaries,givingtheirown
interpretationinstead.
9
)Thecommentator,Yuan-wu,wasthe
teacherofTa-hui,thedynamicmasteroftheLin-chilineage
whomwewillmeethere.
TheMumonkan,ashorterwork,wasassembledin1228by
theCh'anmonkWu-menHui-k'ai(1183-1260)andconsistsof
forty-eightkoans,togetherwithanexplanatorycommentanda
verse.SomeofthekoansintheMumonkanalsoappearinthe
BlueCliffRecord.TheMumonkanisusuallypreferredinthe
Japanesesummer,sinceitskoansarebrieferandlessfatiguing.
10

ThekoanwasaninventionoftheSungDynasty(960-1279),
aneraofconsolidationintheChineseempireafterthedemiseof
theT'angandpassageofawar-torninterludeknownastheFive
Dynasties(907-60).AlthoughSungCh'anseemedtobebooming,
Buddhismingeneralcontinuedthedeclinethatbeganwiththe
GreatPersecutionof845.Forexample,thenumberofregistered
monksdroppedfromaround400,000in1021toapproximately
halfthatnumberascanthalf-centurylater.
11
Butthemonkswho
didcomeprobablyhadhighereducationthanpreviously,forthe
Sungeducationalsystemwastheworld'sbestatthetime.
Collegeswereestablishednationwide,notjustinthe
sophisticatedmetropolitanareas,andscholarshipflourished.
WhetherthiswasgoodforCh'anisnotasimplequestion.The
hardyruralmonkswhohadpassedbeyondtheBuddhist
scripturesmadeCh'anwhatitwas.Couldthepowersofthe
antirationalbepreservedinanatmospherewherethegreatest
respectwasreservedforthosewhospentyearsmemorizingthe
Chineseclassics?Theanswertothiswastorestwiththekoan.
TheCh'anmasterTa-hui(1089-1163),whoperfectedthe
koantechnique,wasrumoredtobeareincarnationofLin-chi.
BorninAnhweiprovince,locatedabouthalfwaybetweentheolder
capitalsofthenorthandtheCh'ancentersinthesouth,hewas
saidtobebothpiousandprecocious,becomingadevotedmonk
atageseventeenwhileassiduouslyreadingandabsorbingthe
teachingsofthefivehouses.
12
Atagenineteen,hebeganhis
obligatorytravels,roamingfrommastertomaster.Oneofhisfirst
teachersreportedlyinterviewedhimonthekoansinthecollection
nowknownastheBlueCliffRecord,buthedidsobynot
speakingawordandtherebyforcingTa-huitoworkthemoutfor
himself.Ta-huialsoexperimentedwiththeTs'ao-tungteachings,
butearlyonbegantoquestionthestraitlaced,quietisticapproach
ofthathouse.HefinallywasdirectedtotheSzechuanteacher
Yuan-wuK'o-ch'inoftheLin-chischool,beginningtheassociation
thatwouldmovehimtotheforefrontofthestruggletosaveCh'an
viathekoan.
Ta-huiexperiencedhisfirstenlightenmentunderYuan-wu,in
themaster'stempleintheNorthernSungcapitalofPien-liang.As
thestoryisreported:

OnedaywhenYuan-wuhadtakenthehighseatinthelecture
hall,hesaid:"AmonkaskedYun-men:'Fromwhencecomeall
thebuddhas?'Yun-menanswered:'TheEastMountainwalks
overthewater.'ButifIwereasked,Iwouldnotanswerthatway.
'Fromwhencecomeallthebuddhas?'Afragrantbreezecomesof
itselffromthesouth,andinthepalacepavilionarefreshing
coolnessstirs."Atthesewords[Ta-hui]suddenlyattained
enlightenment.
13

Afterthishegrewinexperienceandwisdom,eventuallytaking
overmanytempledutiesfromYuan-wu.Hesoonbecameapart
oftheCh'anestablishmentinthenorthandin1126waseven
presentedwithanofficialrobeandtitlefromaminister.
Thensuddenly,inthemidstofthistranquillity,outsideforces
intervenedtochangedramaticallythecourseofChinesehistory.
Formanyyearsprevious,Chinahadbeenthreatenedbynomadic
peoplesfromthenorthandwest,peopleswhomtheChinese
haughtilyidentifiedas"barbarians."TheSungemperors,
cloisteredgentlemenintheworstsenseoftheterm,had
maintainedpeaceintheirslowlyshrinkingdomainbybuyingoff
belligerentneighborsandoccasionallyevencedingborder
territories.Theythoughttheirtroublesfinallymightbeeasing
somewhatwhentheirhostileneighborswereoverwhelmedbya
newwarringtribefromManchuria.Butafteraseriesofhumiliating
incidents,theChinesefoundthemselveswithmerelyanew
enemy,thistimemorepowerfulthananybefore.Chinawasatlast
onthevergeofbeingoverwhelmed,somethingithadforestalled
formanycenturies.Eventheinventionofgunpowder,whichthe
Chinesenowusedtofirerocket-propelledarrows,couldnotsave
them.Beforelongthebarbariansmarchedonthecapital,and
aftersomeyearsofChineseattemptsatappeasement,the
invaderscarriedofftheemperorandhisentirecourttoManchuria.
Theyearwas1127,whichmarkedtheendoftheChinesedynasty
nowknownastheNorthernSung(960-1127).
Afterthisdishearteningsetbackasonoftheformeremperor
movedsouthandsetupanewcapitalinthecoastalcityof
Hangchow,whosecharmstheChinesewerefondofcomparing
favorablywithheaven(intherefrain,"Heavenabove;Hangchow
below").Thisnewregime,knownastheSouthernSung(1127-
1279),witnessedyetanothertransformationofCh'an.Among
otherthings,SouthernCh'ancametoresembleeighth-century
NorthernCh'an,initscloseassociationwiththecourtandthe
intelligentsia.
WhenpoliticaldiscordforcedtheNorthernSunggovernment
tofleesouth,themasterYuan-wuwasassignedamonasteryin
thesouthernprovinceofKiangsibytheemperor,andTa-hui
accompaniedhimthere,againasheadmonk.Afterfouryears,
Ta-huiagaindecidedtomigratethistimealonetoSzechuanand
theretobuildasecludedhermitage.Afteranothermovehewas
summonedin1137bytheprimeminister,himselfalsoaformer
pupilofYuan-wu,tocomeandestablishatemplenearthenew
southerncapitalofHangchow.Beforelonghehadcollected
almosttwothousanddisciplesandwasbecomingknownasthe
reincarnationofLin-chi,possiblybecausehewasgivingnewlife
totheLin-chisect.Butthenhispoliticsgothimintroubleandhe
wasbanishedforalmostfifteenyearstovariousremoteoutposts,
duringwhichtimehebegantowriteextensively.
14
Finally,in1158,
hewasorderedbacktoHangchowtotakeoverhisoldtemple.
Sincebythenoldagewasencroaching,hewaspermittedtoretire
atthistempleandliveoffimperialpatronage.Itissaidthathis
pupilsswelledtoseventeenhundredwhenhereturnedandthat
whenhediedin1163heleftninety-fourenlightenedheirs.
15

Ta-huiisregardedtodayasthegreatchampionofthekoan
method,andhewascelebratedduringhislifeforarunning
disagreementhehadwiththeTs'ao-tung(laterSoto)school.Ina
sense,thisdisputedrewthedistinctionsthatstilldivideZeninto
twocamps.Theissueseemstohaveboileddowntothematterof
whatonedoeswithone'smindwhilemeditating.TheTs'ao-tung
mastersadvocatedwhattheycalledSilentIllumination(mo-chao)
Ch'an,whichTa-huipreferredtocallSilentIlluminationHeterodox
(mo-chao-hsieh)Ch'an.TheTs'ao-tungmasterCheng-chueh,
withwhomheargued,believedthatenlightenmentcouldbe
achievedthroughsittingmotionlessandslowlybringingtranquillity
andemptynonattachmenttothemind.Thekoanswere
recognizedtobeusefulinpreservingtheoriginalspiritofCh'an,
buttheirbrain-fatiguingconvolutionswerenotpermittedtodisturb
thementalreposeofmeditation.Ta-hui,incontrast,believedthat
thissilentmeditationlackedthedynamismsoessentialtothe
suddenexperienceofenlightenment.Hisownapproachto
enlightenmentcametobecalledIntrospecting-the-Koan(k'an-
hua)Ch'an,inwhichmeditationfocusedonakoan.
16

AnotherofTa-hui'sobjectionstotheSilentIlluminationschool
seemstohavebeenitsnaturaldrifttowardquietism,towardthe
divorcingofmenfromtheworldofaffairs.Thishebelievedled
nowhereandwasmerelyrenouncinghumanityratherthan
illuminatingit.

Thesedaysthere'sabreedofshaven-headedoutsiders[i.e.,rival
masters]whoseowneyesarenotclear,whojustteachpeopleto
stopandrestandplaydead....Theyteachpeopleto"keepthe
mindstill,"to"forgetfeelings"accordingtocircumstances,to
practice"silentillumination."...Tosaythatwhenonehasput
thingstoresttothepointthatheisunawaresandunknowing,like
earth,wood,tile,orstone,thisisnotunknowingsilencethisisa
viewofwronglytakingtooliterallywordsthatwere(only)
expedientmeanstofreebonds.
17

Heseemedtobecounselingnevertoforgetthatmeditationis
onlyameans,notanend.InsteadTa-huiadvocatedmeditating
deeperandeverdeeperintoakoan,focusingonthewordsuntil
they"losetheirflavor."Thenfinallythebottomfallsoutofthe
bucketandenlightenmenthitsyou.This"IntrospectingtheKoan"
formofCh'an(calledKannaZenbytheJapanese)becamethe
standardfortheRinzaisect,whosestudentswereencouragedto
meditateonakoanuntilitgraduallyinfiltratedthemind.Asone
commentatorhasexplained,"Theessentialistoimmerseoneself
patientlyandwholeheartedlyinthekoan,withunwavering
attention.Onemustnotbelookingforananswerbutlookingat
thekoan.The'answer,'ifitcomes,willcomeofitsownaccord."
18

AsdescribedbyTa-hui:

Juststeadilygoonwithyourkoaneverymomentofyourlife....
Whetherwalkingorsitting,letyourattentionbefixeduponit
withoutinterruption.Whenyoubegintofinditentirelydevoidof
flavor,thefinalmomentisapproaching:donotletitslipoutof
yourgrasp.Whenallofasuddensomethingflashesoutinyour
mind,itslightwillilluminetheentireuniverse,andyouwillseethe
spirituallandoftheEnlightenedOnes....
19

Theimportantthingistoconcentratetotallyonakoan.This
concentrationneednotnecessarilybeconfinedtomeditation,as
Ta-huiillustratesusingoneofthemorecelebratedone-word
statementsofYun-men.

AmonkaskedYun-Men,"WhatisBuddha?"Yun-Mensaid,"Adry
pieceofshit."Justbringupthissaying....Don'tasktodraw
realizationfromthewordsortryinyourconfusiontoassessand
explain....Justtakeyourconfusedunhappymindandshiftit
onto"Adrypieceofshit."Onceyouholditthere,thenthemind..
.willnaturallynolongeroperate.Whenyoubecomeawarethat
it'snotoperating,don'tbeafraidoffallingintoemptiness....In
theconductofyourdailyactivities,justalwaysletgoandmake
yourselfvastandexpansive.Whetheryou'reinquietornoisy
places,constantlyarouseyourselfwiththesaying"Adrypieceof
shit."Asthedaysandmonthscomeandgo,ofitselfyourpotential
willbepurifiedandripen.Aboveallyoumustnotarouseany
externaldoubtsbesides:whenyourdoubtsabout"Adrypieceof
shit"aresmashed,thenatoncedoubtsnumerousasthesandsof
theGangesareallsmashed.
20

AlthoughTa-huiwasastrongadvocateofthekoan,hewas
staunchlyagainstitsbeingusedinaliterarysense.Whenevera
studentstartsanalyzingkoansintellectually,comparingone
againstanother,tryingtounderstandrationallyhowtheyaffecthis
nonrationalintelligence,hemissesthewholepoint.Theonlyway
itcanworkisifitisfresh.Onlythendoesitelicitaresponsefrom
ourspontaneousintelligence,ourintuitivemind.
ButtheSungtrendtowardintellectualismwasalmost
irresistible.TheprestigeoftheChinese"gentleman"whocould
quotetheancientpoets,composeversehimself,andanalyze
enlightenmentwasthegreatnemesisofCh'an.

Gentlemenofaffairswhostudythepathoftenunderstand
rationallywithoutgettingtothereality.Withoutdiscussionand
thoughttheyareataloss,withnoplacetoputtheirhandsand
feettheywon'tbelievethatwherethereisnoplacetoputone's
handsandfeetisreallyagoodsituation.Theyjustwanttoget
thereintheirmindsbythinkingandintheirmouthstounderstand
bytalkingtheyscarcelyrealizethey'vealreadygonewrong.
21

EquallybadwastheCh'anstudentwhomemorizedkoansrather
thantryingtounderstandthemintuitively.

Agentlemanreadswidelyinmanybooksbasicallyinorderto
augmenthisinnateknowledge.Instead,youhavetakento
memorizingthewordsoftheancients,accumulatingthemin
yourbreast,makingthisyourtask,dependingonthemfor
somethingtotakeholdofinconversation.Youarefarfrom
knowingtheintentofthesagesinexpoundingtheteachings.This
iswhatiscalledcountingthetreasureofothersalldaylong
withouthavinghalfacentofyourown.
22

Ta-huirightlyrecognizedinsuchscholarshipanimpending
destructionofCh'an'sinnatevigor.Atonepoint,indesperation,
heevendestroyedtheoriginalprintingblocksforthebest-known
koancollectionofthetime,theBlueCliffRecordcompiledbyhis
master,Yuan-wu.
23
Butthetrendcontinuednonetheless.
Ch'anwasnotoveryet,however.Itturnsoutthatthesectdid
notcontinuetoflyapartanddiversifyasmightbesuspected,but
ratheritactuallyconsolidated.AlthoughtheKuei-yangandFa-yen
housesfizzledcomparativelyquickly,theYun-menlasted
considerablylonger,withanidentifiablelineoftransmission
lastingvirtuallythroughouttheSungDynasty.TheTs'ao-tung
houselanguishedforawhile,butwithSilentIlluminationCh'anit
camebackstronglyduringtheSungDynasty.Lin-chisplitintotwo
factionsintheearlyeleventhcentury,whentwopupilsofthe
masterCh'u-yuan(986-1036)decidedtogotheirownway,Oneof
thesemasters,knownasHuang-lungHui-nan(1002-1069),
startedaschoolwhichsubsequentlywastransmittedtoJapanby
theJapanesemasterEisai,whereitbecameknownasOryoZen.
However,thisschooldidnotlastlonginChinaorJapan,
becomingmoribundafterafewgenerations.Theotherdiscipleof
Ch'u-yuanwasamasternamedYang-ch'iFang-hui(992-1049),
whoseschool(knowninJapaneseasYogiZen)eventually
becametheonlyschoolofChineseCh'an,absorbingallother
sectswhenthefaithwentintoitsfinaldeclineaftertheSung.Ta-
huiwaspartofthisschool,anditwasthebranchoftheLin-chi
sectthateventuallytookholdinJapan.
InclosingourjourneythroughChineseCh'anwemustnote
thatthefaithcontinuedonstronglythroughtheSunglargely
becausethegovernmentbegansellingordinationsforitsown
profit.Ch'analsocontinuedtoflourishduringtheMongol-
dominatedYuanDynasty(1279-1309),withmanypriestsfrom
JapancomingtoChinaforstudy.DuringtheMingDynasty(1368-
1644),itmergedwithanotherschoolofBuddhism,thePureLand
Salvationistsect,andchangeddrastically.AlthoughMing-style
ChineseCh'anstillpersiststoday,mainlyoutsideChina,its
practicebearsscantresemblancetotheoriginalteachings.For
thepracticeoftheclassicalCh'andescribedherewemustnow
turntoJapan.

PARTIV PARTIV PARTIV PARTIV

ZENINJAPAN ZENINJAPAN ZENINJAPAN ZENINJAPAN

...inwhichCh'anisimportedtoJapanbytraditionalBuddhists
disillusionedwiththespiritualdecadenceofexistingJapanese
sects.Throughafortuitousassociationwiththerisingmilitary
class,Ch'aniseventuallyelevatedtothemostinfluentialreligion
ofJapan.Beforelong,however,itevolvesintoapoliticaland
culturalratherthanaspiritualforce.AlthoughsomeJapanese
attempttorestoreCh'an'soriginalvigorbydeliberatelyattacking
its"HighChurch"institutions,fewJapaneseZenteachersrespect
itsoriginalteachingsandpractice.Japaneseteacherscontribute
littletotheCh'an(Zen)experienceuntilfinally,intheeighteenth
century,aspiritualleaderappearswhonotonlyrestoresthe
originalvitalityofthefaith,butgoesontorefinethekoanpractice
andrevolutionizetherelationshipofZentothecommonpeople.
Thisinspiredteacher,Hakuin,createsmodernZen.

ChapterFifteen ChapterFifteen ChapterFifteen ChapterFifteen

EISAI: EISAI: EISAI: EISAI:

THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER

Thereisatwelfth-centurystorythatthefirstJapanesemonkwho
journeyedtoChinatostudyCh'anreturnedhometofinda
summonsfromtheJapanesecourt.There,inameeting
reminiscentoftheChinesesovereignWuandtheIndian
Bodhidharmasomesevenhundredyearsbefore,Japan's
emperorcommandedhimtodescribetheteachingsofthis
strangenewcult.Thebemusedmonk(rememberedbythename
Kakua)repliedwithnothingmorethanamelodyonhisflute,
leavingthecourtflabbergasted.
1
Butwhatmoreidealexpression
ofChina'swordlessdoctrine?
AsintheChinaenteredbyBodhidharma,medievalJapan
alreadyknewtheteachingsofBuddhism.Infact,theJapanese
rulingclasseshadbeenBuddhistforhalfamillenniumbefore
Ch'anofficiallycametotheirattention.However,contactswith
Chinaweresuspendedmidwayduringthistime,leaving
JapaneseBuddhistsoutoftouchwiththemanychangesin
ChinathemostsignificantbeingCh'an'srisetothedominant
Buddhistsect.
2
ConsequentlytheJapanesehadheardalmost
nothingaboutthissectwhencontactsresumedinthetwelfth
century.TotheiramazementtheydiscoveredthatChinese
BuddhismhadbecomeCh'an.ThestoryofCh'an'stransplantin
Japanisalsothestoryofitspreservation,sinceitwasdestinedto
witherawayinChina.
PerhapsweshouldreviewbrieflyhowtraditionalBuddhism
gottoJapaninthefirstplace.Duringthesixthcentury,aboutthe
timeofBodhidharma,astatueoftheBuddhaandsomesutras
weretransmittedtoJapanasagift/bribefromaKoreanmonarch
seekingmilitaryaid.HeclaimedBuddhismwasverypowerful
althoughdifficulttounderstand.NotallJapanese,however,were
overjoyedwiththeappearanceofanewfaith.Theleastpleased
werethoseemployedbytheexistingreligion,theJapanesecultof
Shinto,andtheysuccessfullydiscreditedBuddhismforseveral
decades.Butanumberofcourtintrigueswereunderwayatthe
time,andonefactiongottheideathatBuddhismwouldbehelpful
inunderminingtheShinto-basedrulingclique.Eventuallythisnew
factiontriumphed,andbythemiddleoftheseventhcentury,the
JapanesewereconstructingBuddhisttemplesandpagodas.
3

Otherimportsconnectedwiththeseearlymainlandcontacts
wereChinesewritingandtheChinesestyleofgovernment.The
JapaneseevenrecreatedtheT'angcapitalofCh'ang-an,
consecratedatthebeginningoftheeighthcenturyasNara,their
firstrealcity.ThegrowingBuddhistestablishmentsoon
overwhelmedNarawithahostofsectsandtemples,culminating
in752withtheunveilingofabronzemeditatingBuddhalarger
thananystatueintheworld.
JapanwasnowawashinthirdhandBuddhism,asChinese
missionariespatronizinglyexpoundedSanskritscripturesthey
themselvesonlyvaguelyunderstood.Buddhism'sreputationfor
powerfulmagicsoondemoralizedthesimplereligionofShinto,
withitsunpretentiousshrinesandrites,andthisbenignnature
reverencewasincreasinglypushedintothebackground.The
impactofBuddhismbecamesooverwhelmingthatthealarmed
emperorfinallyabandonedNaraentirelytotheBuddhists,andat
thecloseoftheeighthcenturysetupanewcapitalincentral
Japan,knowntodayasKyoto.
TheemperoralsodecidedtodiscredittheNaraBuddhistson
theirownterms,sendingtoChinafornew,competingsects.Back
cameemissarieswithtwonewschools,whichsoonassumed
dominanceofJapaneseBuddhism.ThefirstofthesewasTendai,
namedaftertheChineseT'ien-t'aischool.Itsteachingscentered
ontheLotusSutra,whichtaughtthatthehumanBuddha
personifiedauniversalspirit,evidenceoftheonenesspermeating
allthings.TheTendaischoolwasinstalledonMt.Hiei,inthe
outskirtsofKyoto,givingbirthtoanestablishmenteventuallyto
numberseveralthousandbuildings.ThemonksonMt.Hiei
becametheauthorityonBuddhistmattersinJapanforseveral
centuriesthereafter,andlatertheyalsobeganmeddlinginaffairs
ofstate,sometimesevenresortingtoarms.Tendaiwas,and
perhapstosomedegreestillis,afaithforthefortunatefew.Itdid
notstressanidealizedhereafter,sinceitservedaclasstheidle
aristocracyperfectlycomfortableinthepresentworld.Inany
case,itbecamethemajorJapaneseBuddhistsectduringthe
Heianera(794-1185),atimeofaristocraticrule.
Theotherimportant,andalsoaristocratic,versionof
BuddhismprecedingZenwascalledShingon,fromtheChinese
schoolChen-yen,amagical-mysterysectthrivingonsecrecyand
esotericsymbolism.Itappealedlesstotheintellectthandid
Tendaiandmoretothetasteforentertainmentamongthebored
aristocrats.AlthoughShingonmonasteriesoftenweresituatedin
remotemountainousareas,theintrigueoftheirengaging
ceremonies(featuringefflorescenticonography,chants,and
complexliturgies)andtheirevocativemandalas(geometrical
paintingsfullofsymbolism)madethissectatheatricalsuccess.
Thisso-calledEsotericBuddhismofShingongrewsopopularthat
thesoberTendaisectwasobligedtostartaddingritualistic
complexityintoitsownpractices.
4

TheJapanesegovernmentbrokeoffrelationswithChinaless
thanahundredyearsafterthefoundingofKyoto,aroundthe
middleoftheninthcentury.Fromthenuntilthemid-twelfth
centurymainlandcontactsvirtuallyceased,andconsequently
bothJapanesecultureandJapaneseBuddhismgraduallyevolved
awayfromtheirChinesemodels.TheJapanesearistocracy
becameobsessedwithaesthetics,finery,andrefinedlovemaking
accompaniedbypoetry,perfumes,andflowers.
5
Theydistilled
thevigorousT'angculturetoarefinedessence,ratherlike
extractingadelicateliqueurfromastoutpotion.
TheBuddhistchurchalsogrewdecadent,evenasitgrew
evermorepowerfulandominous.Thepriesthoodbecamethe
appointmentoflastresortforotherwiseunemployablecourtiers,
andindeedBuddhismfinallydegeneratedlargelyintoan
entertainmentfortherulingclass,whosememberswereamused
anddivertedbyitsrites.Thiscarefreearistocracyalsoallowed
increasingamountsofwealthandlandtoslipintothehandsof
corruptreligiousestablishments.Fortheirownpart,theBuddhists
beganformingarmiesofmonkstoprotecttheirnewwealth,and
theyeventuallywentontoengageininter-templewarsand
threatenthecivilgovernment.
Duringthistime,theJapanesearistocracypreservedits
privilegedpositionthroughtheunwisepolicyofusinganemerging
militaryclasstomaintainorder.Theseprofessionalsoldiersseem
tohavearisenfromthearistocacyitself.Japaneseemperorshad
alargenumberofwomenattheirdisposal,throughwhomthey
scatteredahostofprogeny,notallofwhichcouldbemaintained
idleinKyoto.Anumberoftheseweresenttotheprovinces,
wheretheyweretogovernuntamedoutlyingareas.This
continueduntilonedaythecourtinKyotoawoketofindthat
Japanwasinfactcontrolledbytheseruralclansandtheir
mountedwarriors,thesamurai.
6

Inthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury,thesamuraieffectively
seizedJapan,andtheirstrongmaninventedforhimselfthetitleof
shogun,proceedingtoinstitutewhatbecamealmosteight
centuriesofunbrokenwarriorrule.Theageofthecommonman
hadarrived,andoneoftheshogun'sfirstactswastotransferthe
governmentawayfromaristocraticKyoto,whosesophisticated
societymadehimuncomfortable,toawarriorcampcalled
Kamakura,nearthesiteofmodernTokyo.TheruleofJapan
passedfromperfumed,poetry-writingaesthetestofierce,often
illiterateswordsmen.
Coincidentwiththiscoup,thedecadenceandirrelevanceof
traditionalBuddhismhadbeguntoweighheavilyuponanew
groupofspiritualreformers.BeforelongTendaiandShingon
werechallengedbynewfaithsrecognizingtheexistenceand
spiritualneedsofthecommonpeople.Oneformthisreformation
tookwastheappearanceofnewsectsprovidingspiritualcomfort
tothemassesandthepossibilityofeternalsalvationthrough
somesimpleact,usuallytherepetitionofasacredchant.One,
andlatertwo,suchsects(JodoandJodoShin)focusedonthe
BuddhistfigureAmida,whoseParadiseor"PureLand"inthe
hereafterwasopentoallthosecallinguponhisname(by
chantingasortofBuddhist"HailMary"calledthenembutsu,
"PraisetoAmidaBuddha").Anothersimplifiedsectpreacheda
fundamentalistreturntotheLotusSutraandwasledbya
firebrandnamedNichiren,whoalsocreatedachantforhislargely
illiteratefollowers.AformulaguaranteeingParadisehadparticular
appealtothesamurai,whoseday-to-dayexistencewas
dangerousanduncertain.ThescandalizedTendaimonks
vigorouslyopposedthishome-grownpopulistmovement,
occasionallyevenburningdowntemplestodiscourageitsgrowth.
ButthePureLandandNichirensectscontinuedtoflourish,since
thecommonpeoplefinallyhadaBuddhismalltheirown.
Therewereothers,however,whobelievedthatthe
aristocraticsectscouldbereformedfromwithinbyimporting
themafreshfromChina,fromthesource.Thesereformershoped
thatBuddhisminChinahadmaintaineditsintegrityanddiscipline
duringtheseveralcenturiesofseparation.Andbyfortunate
coincidence,Japanesecontactswiththemainlandwerebeing
reopened,makingitagainallowabletoundertaketheperiloussea
voyagetoChina.Butwhenthefirsttwelfth-centuryJapanese
pilgrimsreachedthemainland,theywerestunnedtofindthat
traditionalBuddhismhadbeenalmostcompletelysupplantedby
Ch'an.Consequently,theJapanesepilgrimsreturningfromChina
perforcereturnedwithZen,sincelittleelseremained.However,
Zenwasnotoriginallybroughtbacktoreplacetraditional
Buddhism,butratherasastimulanttorestoretherigorthathad
drainedoutofmonasticlife,includingformalmeditationand
respectordiscipline.
7

CreditfortheintroductionofLin-chiZen(calledRinzai)in
Japanistraditionallygiventothearistocraticpriestandtraveler
MyoanEisai(1141-1215).
8
Hebeganhiscareerasayoungmonk
intheTendaicomplexnearKyoto,butinthesummerof1168he
accompaniedaShingonpriestonatriptoChina,largelyto
sightseeandtovisitthehomeoftheT'ien-t'aisectasapilgrim.
However,theT'ien-t'aischoolmusthavebeenamereshadowof
itsformerselfbythistime,andnaturallyenoughEisaibecame
familiarwithCh'an.ButhewashardlyafirebrandforZen,for
whenhereturnedtoJapanhecontinuedpracticeoftraditional
Buddhism.
Sometwentyyearslater,in1187,Eisaiagainjourneyedto
China,thistimeplanningapilgrimageontoIndiaandthe
Buddhistholyplaces.ButtheChineserefusedhimpermissionto
travelbeyondtheirborders,leavingEisainochoicebuttostudy
there.HefinallyattachedhimselftoanagingCh'anmonkonMt.
T'ien-t'aiandmanagedtoreceivethesealofenlightenment
beforereturningtoJapanin1191,quiteprobablythefirst
JapaneseevercertifiedbyaChineseCh'anmaster.Hewasnot,
however,totallycommittedtoZen.HisCh'anteacherwasalso
occupiedwithotherBuddhistschools,andwhatEisaibrought
backwasaBuddhistcocktailblendedfromseveraldifferent
traditions.
9
ButhedidproceedtobuildatempletotheHuang-lung
(JapaneseOryo)branchoftheLin-chisectonthesouthernmost
Japaneseisland,Kyushu(thelocationnearestChina),inthe
provincialtownofHakata.Almostasimportant,healsobrought
backtheteaplant(whosebrewwasusedinChinatokeepdrowsy
monksawakeduringmeditation),therebyinstitutingthelong
marriageofZenandtea.
Althoughhisprovincialtemplewentunchallenged,later
attemptstointroducethisnewsectintoKyoto,thestrongholdof
traditionalBuddhism,metfierceresistancefromthe
establishment,particularlyTendai.ButEisaicontendedthatZen
wasausefulsectandthatthegovernmentwouldreappractical
benefitsfromitsprotection.HisspiriteddefenseofZen,entitled
"PropagationofZenfortheProtectionoftheCountry,"arguedthat
itsencouragementwouldbegoodforJapaneseBuddhismand
thereforegoodforJapan.
10

AsinIndia,soinChinaitsteachinghasattractedfollowersand
disciplesingreatnumbers.ItpropagatestheTruthastheancient
Buddhadid,withtherobeofauthentictransmissionpassingfrom
onemantothenext.Inthematterofreligiousdiscipline,it
practicesthegenuinemethodofthesagesofold.ThustheTruth
itteaches,bothinsubstanceandappearance,perfectsthe
relationshipsofmasteranddisciple.Initsrulesofactionand
discipline,thereisnoconfusionofrightandwrong....Studying
it,onediscoversthekeytoallformsofBuddhism;practicingit,
one'slifeisbroughttofulfillmentintheattainmentof
enlightenment.Outwardlyitfavorsdisciplineoverdoctrine,
inwardlyitbringstheHighestInnerWisdom.ThisiswhattheZen
sectstandsfor.
11

Healsopointedouthowun-JapaneseitwouldbetodenyZena
hearing:Japanhasbeenopen-mindedinthepast,whyshould
sherejectanewfaithnow?

Inourcountrythe[emperor]shinesinsplendorandtheinfluence
ofhisvirtuouswisdomspreadsfarandwide.Emissariesfromthe
distantlandsofSouthandCentralAsiapaytheirrespectstohis
court.Layministersconducttheaffairsofgovernment;priestsand
monksspreadabroadreligioustruth.EventhetruthsoftheFour
HinduVedasarenotneglected.Whythenrejectthefiveschools
ofZenBuddhism?
12

Eisaiwastheclassictactician,knowingwellwhentofightand
whentoretire,andhedecidedin1199onadiversionaryretreatto
Kamakura,leavingbehindthehostile,competitiveatmosphereof
aristocraticKyoto.Throughhispoliticalconnections,hemanaged
togetinstalledasheadofanewtempleinKamakura,beginning
Zen'slongassociationwiththeJapanesewarriorclass.
EisaiseemstohavedonewellinKamakura,fornotlongafter
hearrived,thecurrentstrongmangavehimfinancingforaZen
templeinKyoto,namedKennin-jiandcompletedin1205.Eisai
returnedthefavorbyassistingintherepairoftemplesravagedby
therecentwars.Itwasreportedlyforalater,hard-drinkingruler
thatEisaicomposedhissecondclassicwork,"DrinkTeaand
ProlongLife,"whichchampionedthemedicinalpropertiesofthis
exoticChinesebeverage,declaringitarestorativethattunedup
thebodyandstrengthenedtheheart.

InthegreatcountryofChinatheydrinktea,asaresultofwhich
thereisnohearttroubleandpeoplelivelonglives.Ourcountryis
fullofsickly-looking,skinnypersons,andthisissimplybecause
wedonotdrinktea.Wheneveroneisinpoorspirits,oneshould
drinktea.Thiswillputtheheartinorderanddispelallillness.
Whentheheartisvigorous,theneveniftheotherorgansare
ailing,nogreatpainwillbefelt....Theheartisthesovereignof
thefiveorgans,teaisthechiefofthebitterfoods,andbitteristhe
chiefofthetastes.Forthisreasontheheartlovesbitterthings,
andwhenitisdoingwellalltheotherorgansareproperly
regulated....When,however,thewholebodyfeelsweak,
devitalized,anddepressed,itisasignthattheheartisailing.
Drinklotsoftea,andone'senergyandspiritswillberestoredto
fullstrength.
13

ThisfirstZenteacherwascertainlynoLin-chi.Hewasmerely
aTendaipriestwhoimportedLin-chi'ssectfromChinahopingto
bringdisciplinetohisschool;heestablishedanecumenical
monasteryatwhichbothZenandesotericTendaipracticeswere
taught;heconsortedwithleaderswhoseplacewasowedtoa
militarycoupd'etat;andheappearedtoadvocateZenon
transparentlypractical,sometimesalmostpolitical,grounds.He
compromisedwiththeexistingcultstotheend,evenrefusingto
lendaidtoother,morepure-mindedadvocatesofCh'anwhohad
riseninKyotointhemeantime.
14
ButEisaiwasacolorfulfigure
whomhistoryhaschosentorememberasthefounderofZenin
Japan,aswellas(perhapsequallyimportant)thefatherofthecult
oftea.
EisaiendedhisdaysasabbotoftheKyototempleofKennin-ji
andleaderofasmallZencommunitythatwascarefulnotto
quarrelwiththepowersofTendaiandShingon,whichalsohad
altarsinthetemple.Eisai's"Zen"beganinJapanasaminor
infusionofBuddhism'soriginaldiscipline,butthroughan
accommodationwiththewarriorestablishment,heaccidentally
plantedtheseedsofCh'aninfertilesoil.Graduallythenumberof
Zenpractitionersgrew,asmoreandmoreofthesamurai
recognizedinZenapracticalphilosophythataccordedwellwith
theirneeds.AsPaulVarleyhasexplained:"Zen...stresses
cultivationoftheintuitivefacultiesandplacesahighpremiumon
disciplineandself-control.Itrejectsrationaldecision-makingas
artificialanddelusory,andinsiststhatactionmustcomefrom
emotion.Assuch,Zenprovedparticularlycongenialtothe
medievalsamurai,wholivedwithviolenceandimminentdeath
andwhosoughttodevelopsuchthingsas'spontaneityofconduct'
anda'tranquilityofheart'tomeettherigoursofhisprofession.
UndertheinfluenceofZen,latersamuraitheoristsespecially
assertedthatthetruewarriormustbeconstantlypreparedto
maketheultimatesacrificeofhislifeintheserviceofhislord
withoutamoment'sreflectionorconsciousconsideration."
15

ItcanonlybeironicthatwhatbeganinChinaasaschoolof
meditation,thenbecameaniconoclasticmovementusingkoans
tobeatdowntheanalyticalfacultiesfinallyemerged(inan
amalgamwithotherteachings)inJapanasapsychological
mainstayforthesoldiersofamilitarydictatorship.Therewas,
however,anotherJapaneseschoolofZenthatintroducedits
practiceinaformmorecloselyresemblingoriginalCh'an.This
wasthemovementstartedbyDogen,whoselifewemaynow
examine.

ChapterSixteen ChapterSixteen ChapterSixteen ChapterSixteen

DOGEN: DOGEN: DOGEN: DOGEN:
FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN



TheSotomasterDogen(1200-53)isprobablythemostrevered
figureinallJapaneseZen.Yetuntilrecentlyhehasbeen
comparativelyunknownabroad,perhapsbecausethatgreat
popularizerofZenintheWest,D.T.Suzuki,followedtheRinzai
schoolandmanagedtoessentiallyignoreDogenthroughouthis
voluminouswritings.ButitwasDogenwhofirstinsistedon
intensivemeditation,whoproducedthefirstJapanesewritings
explainingZenpractice,andwhoconstructedthefirstrealZen
monasteryinJapan,establishingasetofmonasticrulesstill
observed.Moreover,thestrengthofhischaracterhasinspired
manyZenmasterstofollow.Indeed,itishardtocontradictthe
scholarDumoulin,whodeclaredhim"thestrongestandmost
originalthinkerthatJapanhassofarproduced."
1

BornJanuary2oftheyear1200anillegitimatesonofanoble
Fujiwaramotherandaprincelyfather,Dogen'scircumstances
fromthestartwerearistocratic.
2
Aroundhimswirledtheliterary
lifeofthecourt,thepowerfulcenturies-oldpositionofthe
Fujiwara,andtherefineddecadenceofancientKyoto.Although
hisfatherdiedwhenhewastwo,hisprivilegededucation
continuedatthehandsofhismotherandhalf-brother.Hemost
certainlylearnedtoreadandwriteclassicalChinese,aswellasto
versifyanddebateallskillsthathewouldonedayputto
extensiveuse.Hispoeticsensitivity(somethingtraditionally
prizedbytheJapaneseabovelogicandprecisionofthought)was
encouragedbyallhemetinthehothouseatmosphereofancient
Kyoto.Thisidyllic,protectedlifewasshatteredatagesevenwith
thesuddendeathofhismother.Butshesetthecourseofhislife
when,atthelast,shebadehimbecomeamonkandreachoutto
sufferingmankind.Apopulartraditionhasitthatathismother's
funeralDogensensedintherisingincensetheimpermanenceof
allthings.Aftertheshockofhismother'sdeathhewasadopted
byanuncleasfamilyheirandsetonthewaytoareluctantcareer
instatecraft.Butasheapproachedagetwelve,thetimewhena
formalceremonywouldsignifyhisentryintothemalecircleof
aristocracy,hisreservationsoverwhelmedhimandheslipped
awaytovisitanotheruncle,apriestlivinginthefoothillsofMt.
Hiei.WhenDogenbeggedtobeallowedtoturnhisbackonthe
aristocraticworldofKyotoandfulfillhismother'sdyingwishby
becomingamonkthefamilywasdismayed.Butfinallythey
relented,andhewasordainedthefollowingyearasaTendai
brotheronMt.Hiei.
AlreadyascholaroftheChineseclassics,henowturnedto
theliteratureofTendaiBuddhism.Butsoonhewassnaggedona
problemthathashauntedtheologiansEastandWestformany
centuries.InChristiantermsitistheCalvinistquestionofwhether
manisalreadysavedbypredestinationorwhetherhemustearn
hissalvation.DogenformulatedthisinaBuddhistcontextas
follows:

AsIstudyboththeexotericandtheesotericschoolsofBuddhism,
theymaintainthatmanisendowedwiththeDharma-natureby
birth.Ifthisisthecase,whyhadtheBuddhasofallages
undoubtedlyinpossessionofenlightenmenttoseek
enlightenmentandengageinspiritualpractice?
3

Inotherwords,ifmanalreadyhastheBuddhanature,whymust
hestruggletorealizeitbyarduousdisciplines?Conversely,ifthe
Buddhanaturemustbeacquired,howcanitbeinherentinall
things,aswastaught?
Thisperplexingparadox,whichnooneinJapan'sTendai
"Vatican"onMt.Hieicouldresolve,finallydroveDogen
wanderinginsearchofotherteachers.Heinitiallystoppedat
Eisai'stemple,Kennin-ji,longenoughtobetaughtthebasicsof
RinzaiZenpractice,butthenhetraveledon.Eventually,though,
hereturnedtoKennin-ji,andin1217,beganZenstudyunder
Eisai'sdisciple,Myozen(1184-1225).Ofhisrelationshipwiththis
Rinzaimasterhelaterdeclared:

EversinceIawakenedtotheBodhi-mindandsoughtthesupreme
TruthImademanyvisitstoBuddhistmastersthroughoutthe
country.ItwasthusthatIhappenedtomeettheVenerable
MyozenatKennin-ji.NineyearsquicklypassedasIstudiedthe
Wayunderhim.DuringthatperiodIhadtheopportunitytolearn
fromhim,tosomeextent,thetrainingmethodsoftheRinzaiZen
sect.TotheVenerableMyozen,leadingdiscipleofmylatemaster
Eisai,wasrightlytransmittedthehighestsupremeLawandhe
wasunparalleledamonghisfellowdisciplesinlearningand
virtue.
4

DogenmayhavebeenimpressedasmuchbythelegendofEisai
asbytheshoutingandbeatingoftheRinzaisect,forheoften
sprinkledstoriesaboutEisaithroughhiswritingsandsermons
thereafter.
ButDogenstillcouldnotfindcontentment,evenwiththe
RinzaihereceivedatKennin-ji,andatagetwenty-threehe
resolvedtogotoChinaandexperienceCh'anteachingsfirsthand.
Sointhespringof1223heandMyozenshippedoutforChina,
intendingtovisitBuddhistestablishmentsthere.(Anotherreason
forhishastydecisiontogotoChinaforstudymayhavebeena
seriesofpoliticalupheavalsinvolvingarmedmonks,which
resultedinsomeofhishigh-placedrelationsbeingbanished
whileaseriesofexecutionstookplace.)
5

AfteraroughbutspeedyvoyageacrosstheEastChinaSea,
theyarrivedatMing-chou,downthecoastfromtheSungcapital
ofHangchow.Myozencouldnotwaitandheadedstraightforthe
Ch'ancomplexonMt.T'ien-t'ung.However,themorecautious
Dogenchosetostayaboardshipuntilmidsummer,easinghimself
intoChineselifeslowly.Buteventhereheexperiencedan
exampleofCh'anfervoranddevotionthatimpressedhimdeeply,
ifonlybecauseitwassodifferentfromwhathehadseenin
Japan.Thislessonwasatthehandsofasixty-year-oldChinese
cookfromaCh'anmonasterywhovisitedtheshiptopurchase
someJapanesemushrooms.Dogenbecameinvolvedinan
animatedconversationwiththeoldmonkand,sincehis
monasterywasovertenmilesaway,outofcourtesyinvitedhimto
staythenightonboardship.However,theoldtenzomonk(onein
chargeofmonasterymeals)insistedonreturning,sayingduty
called.But,Dogenpressed,surelytheremustbeotherswho
couldcookinsuchalargemonastery,andbesidescookingwas
hardlythepointofZen.AsDogenlaterrecalledhisownwords:

"Venerablesir!Whydon'tyoudozazen[Zenmeditation]or
studythekoanofancientmasters?Whatistheuseofworkingso
hardasatenzomonk?"
Onhearingmyremarks,hebrokeintolaughterandsaid,
"Goodforeigner!Youseemtobeignorantofthetruetrainingand
meaningofBuddhism."Inamoment,ashamedandsurprisedat
hisremark,Isaidtohim,"Whatarethey?"
"Ifyouunderstandthetruemeaningofyourquestion,youwill
havealreadyrealizedthetruemeaningofBuddhism,"he
answered.Atthattime,however,Iwasunabletounderstandwhat
hemeant.
6

SuchweretheexchangesbetweenJapaneseBuddhistscholars
andCh'anmonasterycooksintheearlythirteenthcentury.
Inmidsummerof1223,Dogenfinallymovedashoreand
enteredthetempleonMt.T'ien-t'ungcalledChing-te-ssu.His
intensestudybroughtnosealofenlightenment,butitdid
engenderseveredisappointmentwiththestandardsofCh'an
monasteriesinChina.AlthoughtheschoolthatDogenfoundwas
abranchofLin-chitraceablebacktothekoanmasterTa-hui,
differentfromthefadingschoolEisaihadencountered,Dogen
laterwoulddenounceimpartiallythegeneralrunofallCh'an
mastershemetinChina.

AlthoughthereareinChinaagreatnumberofthosewhoprofess
themselvestobethedescendantsoftheBuddhasandpatriarchs,
therearefewwhostudytruthandaccordinglytherearefewwho
teachtruth....Thusthosepeoplewhohavenottheslightestidea
ofwhatthegreatWayoftheBuddhasandpatriarchsisnow
becomethemastersofmonks....RecitingafewwordsofLin-chi
andYun-mentheytakethemforthewholetruthofBuddhism.If
BuddhismhadbeenexhaustedbyafewwordsofLin-chiand
Yun-men,itcouldnothavesurvivedtilltoday.
7

Afterstudyingfortwoyearswhilesimultaneouslynosingabout
othernearbymonasteries,Dogenfinallydecidedtotravel,hoping
othersofthe"fivehouses"hadmaintaineddiscipline.(Healso
seemstohaveexperiencedsomediscriminationasaforeignerin
China.)Butthefartherhewent,themoredespondenthebecame;
nowhereinChinacouldhefindateacherworthytosucceedthe
ancientmasters.HefinallyresolvedtoabandonChinaandreturn
toJapan.
Butatthismomentfatetookaturnthatinretrospecthad
enormousimportanceforthefutureofJapaneseBuddhism.A
monkhemetontheroadtoldhimthatT'ien-t'ungnowhadanew
abbot,atrulyenlightenedmasternamdJu-ching(1163-1228).
Dogenreturnedtoseeandwasreceivedwarmly,beinginvitedby
Ju-chingtoignoreceremonyandapproachhimasanequal.The
twenty-five-year-oldJapanesemonkwaselated,andsettleddown
atlasttoundertakethestudyhehadcometoChinafor.The
masterJu-chingbecameDogen'sidealofwhataZenteacher
shouldbe,andthehabitsperhapseventheeccentricitiesofthis
agingteacherweretranslatedbyDogenintothemodelformonks
inJapan.
Ju-chingwas,aboveallthings,uncompromisinginhis
advocacyofmeditationorzazen.Hemightevenhavechallenged
Bodhidharmaforthetitleofitsall-timepractitioner,anditwas
fromJu-ching'sCh'an(whichmayalsohaveincludedkoanstudy)
thatDogentookhiscue.AlthoughCh'anwasstillwidespread,Ju-
chingseemstohavebeentheonlyremainingadvocateof
intensivemeditationinChina,andachanceintersectionofhistory
broughtthisteachingtoJapan.Significantly,hewasoneofthe
fewTs'ao-tungmastersevertoleadtheimportantT'ien-t'ung
monastery,traditionallyheadedbyamemberoftheLin-chi
school.Ju-chingwasamodelmaster:strictbutkindly;simplein
habits,diet,dress;immunetotheattractionsofcourtrecognition;
andanuncompromisingadvocateofvirtuallyround-the-clock
meditation.
Butheneveraskedanythingofhismonkshedidnotalso
demandofhimself,evenwhenadvancedinyears.Hewould
strikenoddingmonkstorefreshtheirattention,whilelamenting
thatagehadsodiminishedthestrengthinhisarmitwaseroding
hisabilitytocreategoodmonks.Ju-chingwouldmeditateuntil
elevenintheeveningandthenbeupagainbytwo-thirtyorthree
thenextmorning,backatzazen.Hefrequentlydevelopedsores
onhisbacksidefromsuchperpetualsitting,butnothingdeterred
him.Heevendeclaredthepainmadehimlovezazenallthe
more.
ThestoryofDogen'sfinalenlightenmentatthehandsofJu-
chingisaclassicofJapaneseZen.Inthemeditationhallone
earlymorningallthemonksweresittinginmeditationwhenthe
mannexttoDogendozedoffacommonenoughoccurrencein
early-morningsessions.ButwhenJu-chingcamebyonaroutine
inspectionandsawthesleepingmonk,hewasforsomereason
particularlyrankledandroaredout,"Zazenmeansthedropping
awayofmindandbody!Whatwillyougetbysleeping?"Dogen,
sittingnearby,wasatfirststartled,butthenanindescribablecalm,
anecstaticjoywashedoverhim.Coulditbethatthiswasthe
momenthehadbeenhopingfor?Coulditbethatthefruithad
beenreadytofallfromthetree,withthisjusttheshakeneeded?
DogenrushedtoJu-ching'sroomafterwardandburned
incense,tosignifyhisenlightenmentexperience.Throwing
himselfatthemaster'sfeet,hedeclared,"Ihaveexperiencedthe
droppingawayofmindandbody."
Ju-chingimmediatelyrecognizedhisenlightenmenttobe
genuine(modernmastersreportedlycandiscernanovice'sstate
merelybythewayheringsagong)andhereplied,"Youhave
indeeddroppedbodyandmind."
"Butwaitaminute,"Dogencautioned."Don'tsanctionmeso
easily.HowdoyoureallyknowI'veachievedenlightenment?"
TowhichJu-chingrepliedsimply,"Bodyandmindhave
droppedaway."
Dogenbowedinacknowledgmentofhisacknowledgment.
Andthus,inMay1225,wasthegreatestZenteacherinJapan
enlightened.InthefallJu-chingconferreduponDogenthesealof
patriarchalsuccessionofhislineoftheTs'ao-tungsect.
8

DogenstayedonfortwomoreyearsstudyingunderJu-ching,
butfinallyhedecidedtoreturnagaintoJapan.Whentheyparted,
Ju-chinggavehisJapaneseprotegethepatriarchalrobe,hisown
portrait(calledchinso,asymboloftransmission),andbadehim
farewell.SodidDogenreturntoJapaninthefallof1227,taking
withhimthekoancollectionBlueCliffRecord,whichhecopied
hislastnightinChina.Buthealsobroughtthefireofapowerful
idea,puremeditation,thatformedthebasisfortheJapaneseSoto
schoolofZen.
DogenreturnedtoEisai'soldtempleofKennin-ji,wherehe
proceededtowritetheminorclassicAUniversal
RecommendationforZazen,introducingtheideaofintense
meditationtohiscountrymen.

YoushouldpayattentiontothefactthateventheBuddha
Sakyamunihadtopracticezazenforsixyears.Itisalsosaidthat
BodhidharmahadtodozazenatShao-lintemplefornineyearsin
ordertotransmittheBuddha-mind.Sincetheseancientsages
weresodiligent,howcanpresent-daytraineesdowithoutthe
practiceofzazen?Youshouldstoppursuingwordsandletters
andlearntowithdrawandreflectonyourself.Whenyoudoso,
yourbodyandmindwillnaturallyfallaway,andyouroriginal
Buddha-naturewillappear.
9

ItwastheopeningshotinacampaigntomakepureZenthe
meaningfulalternativetothedecadenttraditionalBuddhismofthe
aristocracyandthenewSalvationistsectofPureLand.Butfirst
theJapanesehadtobetaughthowtomeditate,sohewrotea
meditation"handbook"thatexplainedexactlyhowandwhereto
undertakethistraditionalBuddhistpractice.Hisdirectionsare
worthquotingatlength.

Now,indoingzazenitisdesirabletohaveaquietroom.You
shouldbetemperateineatinganddrinking,forsakingalldelusive
relationships.Settingeverythingaside,thinkneitherofgoodnor
evil,rightnorwrong.Thus,havingstoppedthevariousfunctions
ofyourmind,giveuptheideaofbecomingaBuddha.Thisholds
truenotonlyforzazenbutforallyourdailyactions.
Usuallyathicksquarematisputonthefloorwhereyousit
andaroundcushionontopofthat.Youmaysitineitherthefullor
halflotusposition.Intheformer,firstputyourrightfootonyour
leftthighandthenyourleftfootonyourrightthigh.Inthelatter,
onlyputyourleftfootontherightthigh.Yourclothingshouldbe
wornlooselybutneatly.Next,putyourrighthandonyourleftfoot
andyourleftpalmontherightpalm,thetipsofthethumbslightly
touching.Situpright,leaningtoneitherleftnorright,frontnor
back.Yourearsshouldbeonthesameplaneasyourshoulders
andyournoseinlinewithyournavel.Yourtongueshouldbe
placedagainsttheroofofyourmouthandyourlipsandteeth
closedfirmly.Withyoureyeskeptcontinuouslyopen,breathe
quietlythroughyournostrils.Finally,havingregulatedyourbody
andmindinthisway,takeadeepbreath,swayyourbodytoleft
andright,thensitfirmlyasarock.Thinkofnonthinking.Howis
thisdone?Bythinkingbeyondthinkingandnonthinking.Thisis
theverybasisofzazen.
10

ThisfirstlittleessaywasmeanttoprovideJapanatasteof
therealZenhehadexperiencedinChina,anditwasthe
beginningofanastoundingliteraryoutput.Dogenassertedthat
sincetheBuddhahadmeditatedandBodhidharmahad
meditated,themostvaluablethingtodoismeditate.Not
surprisingly,hereceivedacoldresponsefromtheotherschools
inKyoto,boththeTendaisectsandtheother"Zen"teacherswho,
likeEisai,taughta"syncretic"Zenofcompromisewith
establishmentBuddhism.Hisrigiddoctrinewassociallyawkward
forthesyncreticZenmonksatKennin-jiwhoseasonedtheir
practicewithchantsandesotericceremoniesandDogenfinally
decidedtosparethemfurtherembarrassmentbyretiringtoa
mountainretreat.
Offhewenttoanothertemple,An'yoin,wherehebeganto
elaborateontheroleofmeditationinZenpractice,writinganother
essay,entitled"Bendowa"or"LectureonTraining,"designedto
provideamoredialecticaldefenseforzazen.Writtenintheform
ofeighteenquestionsandanswers,the"LectureonTraining"was
intendedtofurtherjustifytheintensemeditationhehaddescribed
earlier.Thisessaylaterbecametheinitialsectionofamassive
booktodayknownastheShobogenzo(TreasureofKnowledge
RegardingtheTrueDharma),whichwasguardedasasecret
treasureoftheSotoschoolformanycenturies.

Question:...Formostpeoplethenaturalwaytoenlightenmentis
toreadthescripturesandrecitethenembutsu[PraisetoAmida
Buddha].Sinceyoudonothingmorethansitcross-legged,how
canthismeresittingbeameansofgainingenlightenment?

Answer:...Ofwhatuseisittoreadthescripturesandrecitethe
nembutsu?ItisuselesstoimaginethatthemeritsofBuddhism
comemerelyfromusingone'stongueorvoice;ifyouthinksuch
thingsembraceallofBuddhism,theTruthisalongwayfromyou.
YoushouldonlyreadthescripturessoastolearnthattheBuddha
wasteachingthenecessityofgradualandsuddentrainingand
thatfromthisyoucanrealiseenlightenment;donotreadthemso
astomakeashowofwisdomwithuselessintellection....Justto
continuallyrepeatthenembutsuisequallyuseless,foritisafrog
whocroaksbothdayandnightinsomefield....Theywhodo
nothing...morethanstudythescriptures...neverunderstand
this,sojuststopitandtherebycureyourdelusionsanddoubts.
Justfollowtheteachingsofatruemasterand,throughthepower
ofZazen,findtheutterlyjoyfulenlightenmentofBuddha.
11

ItisnotsurprisingtofindDogenfirminthebeliefthat
meditationissuperiortothepracticesoftwocompeting
movements:thetraditionalsutravenerationoftheTendaisect
andthePureLandschools'chantingofthenembutsutoAmida
Buddha.ButwhatabouttheRinzaiZenteachingthat
enlightenmentissuddenandcannotbeinducedbygradual
practice?Henextattacksthisposition:

Question:BothinIndiaandChina,fromthebeginningoftimeto
thepresentday,someZenteachershavebeenenlightenedby
suchthingsasthesoundofstonesstrikingbamboos,whilstthe
colorofplumblossomsclearedthemindsofothers.The[Buddha]
wasenlightenedatthesightofthemorningstar,whilst[his
follower]AnandaunderstoodtheTruththroughseeingastickfall.
Aswellasthese,manyZenteachersofthefiveschoolsafterthe
SixthPatriarchwereenlightenedbyonlysomuchasaword.Did
allofthempractiseZazen?

Answer:Fromoldentimesdowntothepresentday,allwhowere
everenlightened,eitherbycolorsorsounds,practisedZazen
withoutZazenandbecameinstantaneouslyenlightened.
12

Whatexactlyishesayinghere?Itwouldseemthatheis
convolutingtheearlyteachingoftheSouthernsect,which
proposedthat"meditation"isamindprocessthatmightalsobe
duplicatedbyothermeans.Dogenseemstobearguingthat
zazenisefficacioussinceallwhobecameenlightenedwerereally
"meditating"indailylife,whethertheyrealizeditornot.The
Southernschoolclaimedthatdhyanacouldbeanythingand
thereforeitseemedancillary;Dogenclaimsitcouldbeanything
andthereforeitisessential.
Dogenalsocamebacktohisoriginaldoctrinaldilemma,the
questionthathadsenthimwanderingfromteachertoteacherin
Japanwhilestillayouth:Whystriveforenlightenmentifall
creaturesareBuddhastobeginwith?Hefinallyfeltqualifiedto
addresshisownquandary.

Question:Therearethosewhosaythatonehasonlyto
understandthatthisminditselfistheBuddhainorderto
understandBuddhism,andthatthereisnoneedtorecitethe
scripturesorundergobodilytraining.Ifyouunderstandthat
Buddhismisinherentinyourself,youarealreadyfullyenlightened
andthereisnoneedtoseekforanythingfurtherfromanywhere.If
thisisso,isthereanysenseintakingthetroubletopractice
Zazen?
Answer:Thisisaverygrievousmistake,andevenifitshouldbe
trueandthesagesshouldteachit,itisimpossibleforyouto
understandit.IfyouwouldtrulystudyBuddhism,youmust
transcendallopinionsofsubjectandobject.Ifitispossibletobe
enlightenedsimplybyknowingthattheselfis,initsself-nature,
theBuddha,thentherewasnoneedforShakyamunitotryso
diligentlytoteachtheWay.
1

Whetherthisanswerresolvestheparadoxwillbelefttothe
judgmentofothers.Butforallhisintensitiesandeccentricities,
Dogenwascertainlyapowerfulnewthinker,clearlythestrongest
dialecticianinthehistoryofJapaneseZen.Hewasalsoa
magneticpersonalitywhoattractedmanyfollowers,andby1233
hehadsooutgrownthespaceatAn'yointhatalargertemplewas
imperative(whichbecameavailablethankstohisaristocratic
connections).HisnextmovewastoKosho-ji,atemplenear
Kyoto,wherehespentthesucceedingtenyearsinintenseliterary
creativity,whereheconstructedthefirsttrulyindependentZen
monasteryinJapan,andwherehefoundaworthydisciple,Koun
Ejo(1198-1280),whoservedasheadmonkandultimatelyashis
successor.Itwashere,beginningin1233,thatDogenfinally
recreatedChineseCh'antotallyinJapan,rightdowntoan
architecturalreplicaofaSung-stylemonasteryandan
uncompromisingdisciplinereminiscentofhisoldChinesemaster
Ju-ching.
AftersettlinginatKosho-jihebegan,inlate1235,a
fundraisingdriveforthepurposeofbuildingthefirstZen-style
monks'hall(sodo)inJapan.Hebelievedthatthisbuilding,viewed
bythelawgiverPo-changHuai-haiastheheartofaCh'an
monstery,wasessentialifheweretoeffectivelyteachmeditation.
Thedoorswouldbeopentoall,sincetheonetimearistocrat
Dogenwasnowverymuchamanofthepeople,welcomingrich
andpoor,monksandlaymen,menandwomen.
14

Whenthemeditationhallopenedin1236,Dogensignaledthe
occasionbypostingasetofrulesforbehaviorreminiscentof
Huai-hai'slawssetdownineighth-centuryChina.Aquickskimof
theserulestellsmuchaboutthecharacterofthemasterDogen.

Nomonkshallbeadmittedtothismeditationhallunlesshehas
anearnestdesirefortheWayandastrongdeterminationnotto
seekfameandprofit....Allmonksinthishallshouldtrytolivein
harmonywithoneanother,justasmilkblendswellwithwater....
Youshouldnotwalkaboutintheoutsideworld;butif
unavoidable,itispermissibletodosoonceamonth....Keepthe
supervisorofthishallinformedofyourwhereaboutsatalltimes..
..Neverspeakillofothersnorfindfaultwiththem....Neverloiter
inthehall....Wearonlyrobesofplainmaterial....Neverenter
thehalldrunkwithwine....Neverdisturbthetrainingofother
monksbyinvitingoutsiders,layorclerical,intothehall....
15

DogenmaintainedthisfirstpureZenmonasteryforadecade,
duringwhichtimehecomposedfortymoresectionsofhisclassic
Shobogenzo.AndduringthistimethetreeofZentookrootin
Japanesesoilfirmlyandsurely.
Butthingscouldnotgosmoothlyforever.Dogen'spowerful
friendsatcourtprotectedhimaslongastheycould,but
eventuallyhispopularitybecametoomuchforthejealousTendai
monksonMt.Hieitobear.Tofighttheircensureheappealedto
theemperor,claiming(ashadEisaibeforehim)thatZenwas
goodforJapan.Buttheotherschoolsimmediatelyfiledopposing
briefswiththeemperorandthecourt,culminatinginajudiciary
proceedingwithdistinguishedclericsbeingconvenedtohearboth
sides.AsmighthavebeenexpectedtheyruledagainstDogen,
criticizinghimforbeingobsessedwithzazenandignoringthe
sutras,etc.Itprobablywasthispoliticalsetbackthatpersuaded
himtoquittheKyotovicinityin1243andmovetotheprovinces,
wherehecouldteachinpeace.
16

HecampedoutinvarioussmallTendaimonasteries(where
hewroteanothertwenty-ninechaptersoftheShobogenzo)until
hisfinaltemple,calledEihei-ji,orEternalPeace,wascompleted
inthemountainsofpresent-dayFukuiprefecture.Thissite
becamethecenterofSotoZeninJapan,theprincipalmonastery
ofthesect.Dogenhimselfwasapproachingelder
statesmanhood,andin1247hewassummonedtothewarrior
headquartersofKamakurabynoneotherthanthemostpowerful
maninJapan,thewarriorHojoTokiyori.Therulerwantedtolearn
aboutZen,andDogencorrectlyperceiveditwouldbeunhealthy
torefusetheinvitation.
ThewarriorsinKamakurawouldmostlikelyhavebeen
familiarwiththesyncreticRinzaiZenofEisai,whichfocusedon
theuseofthekoan.Forhisownpart,Dogendidnotrejectthe
koanoutofhand(heleftacollectionofthreehundred);ratherhe
judgeditadeviceintendedtocreateamomentaryglimpseof
satori,orenlightenment,whoserealvaluewasmainlyasa
metaphorfortheenlightenmentexperienceanexperiencehe
believedcouldberealizedinfullonlythroughgradualpractice.

InthepursuitoftheWay[Buddhism]theprimeessentialissitting
(zazen)....Byreflectinguponvarious"public-cases"(koan)and
dialoguesofthepatriarchs,onemayperhapsgetthesenseof
thembutitwillonlyresultinone'sbeingledastrayfromthewayof
theBuddha,ourfounder.Justtopassthetimeinsittingstraight,
withoutanythoughtofacquisition,withoutanysenseofachieving
enlightenmentthisisthewayoftheFounder.Itistruethatour
predecessorsrecommendedboththekoanandsitting,butitwas
thesittingthattheyparticularlyinsistedupon.Therehavebeen
somewhoattainedenlightenmentthroughthetestofthekoan,
butthetruecauseoftheirenlightenmentwasthemeritand
effectivenessofsitting.Trulythemeritliesinthesitting.
17

Dogenspentthewinterof1247-48inKamakurateaching
meditation,andwasinturnofferedthepostofabbotinanewZen
monasterybeingbuiltforthewarriorcapital.ButDogenpolitely
declined,perhapsbelievingtheSalvationistsectsandthe
syncreticZenofEisaiwerestilltoostrongamongthesamuraifor
hispuremeditationtocatchhold.
18
Orpossiblyhesensedhis
healthwasbeginningtofailandhewantedtoretiretohisbeloved
mountainmonastery,wherethepoliticsofKyotoandKamakura
couldnotreach.
MaybeDogen'smanynightsofintensemeditationinheatand
coldhadtakentheirtoll,orthelonghoursofwritingandrewriting
hismanualofZenhadsappedhisstrength.Inanycase,his
healthdeterioratedrapidlyafterKamakurauntilfinally,in1253,all
realizedthattheendwasnear.Heappointedthefaithfulhead
monkEjohissuccessoratEihei-ji,andontheinsistenceofhis
discipleswasthentakentoKyotoformedicalcare.However,
nothingcouldbedone,andonAugust28hesaidfarewell,dying
inthegrandtraditionsittinginzazen.
Inthelongrun,Dogenseemstheoneweshould
acknowledgeasthetruefounderofZeninJapan;pureZenfirst
hadtobeintroducedbeforeitcouldgrow.Butatthetimeof
Dogen'sdeathitwasnotatallobviousthatSotoZen,oranyZen
forthatmatter,wouldeversurvivetobecomeanindependentsect
inJapan.
19
PerhapsDogenfeltthistoo,forhislaterwritings
becameincreasinglystridentintheirdenunciationofthe
SalvationistsectsandthesyncreticRinzaischools.Hethoughtof
himselfasabovesectarianism,claimingthatzazenwasnotasect
butratheranexpressionofpureBuddhism.Andperhapsitwas
afterallonlyanaccidentthattheteacherwhohadtaughthimto
meditatehappenedtobeamemberoftheTs'ao-tungschool.
AfterDogen'sdeath,hissmallcommunityperseveredinthe
mountains,isolatedandatfirstpreservinghisteaching.But
eventuallyinternaldisputespulledthecommunityapart,andthe
templefellinactiveforatime.Furthermore,histeachingof
intensivemeditationwassoondilutedbytheintroductionofrituals
fromtheesotericschoolsoftraditionalBuddhism.Inthisnewform
itbegantoproselytizeandspreadoutward,particularlyin
provincialareas,whereitssimplicityappealedtocommonfolk.
20
It
alsowelcomedwomen,somethingnotnecessarilystressedinall
theBuddhistsects.AlthoughSotowasbythistimeprettymucha
thingofthepastinChina,withthelastrecognizedChineseSoto
masterdyingaboutacenturyafterDogen,theschoolprospered
inJapan,wheretodayithasthreefollowersforeveryoneof
Rinzai.
Ch'anstillhadRinzaimastersinChina,however,andinthe
nextphaseofZentheywouldstartemigratingtoteachthe
JapaneseinKamakura.TheresultwasthatSotobecamethelow-
keyhome-grownZen,whileRinzaibecameavehicleforimporting
Chineseculturetothewarriorclass.Itistothisdynamicperiodof
warriorRinzaiZenthatwemustnowlookforthenextgreat
masters.

ChapterSeventeen ChapterSeventeen ChapterSeventeen ChapterSeventeen

IKKYU: IKKYU: IKKYU: IKKYU:
ZENECCENTRIC ZENECCENTRIC ZENECCENTRIC ZENECCENTRIC

TheearliestJapanesemastersbroughtCh'anfromChinainthe
hopethatitsdisciplinewouldrevitalizetraditionalBuddhism.
SinceEisai'stemplewasthefirsttoincludeCh'anpractice,hehas
receivedcreditforfoundingJapaneseRinzaiZen.History,
however,hasglorifiedmatterssomewhat,forinfactEisaiwas
littlemorethanaTendaipriestwhodabbledabitinCh'anpractice
andenjoyedagiftforadvancinghimselfwiththeKamakura
warlords.NorwasDogeninspiredtoestablishtheSotosectin
Japan.Hetoowasmerelyareformerwhochancedacrossa
ChineseSotomasterdevotedtomeditation.Itwasthepowerful
disciplineofmeditationthatDogensoughttointroduceintoJapan,
notasectarianbranchofZen.OnlylaterdidDogen'smovement
becomeaproselytizingZensect.Theseandotherthirteenth-
centuryJapanesereformersimportedCh'anforthesimplereason
thatitwasthepurestexpressionofBuddhismleftinChina.During
theearlyeraZenfocusedonKyotoandKamakuraandwas
mainlyareformationwithintheTendaischool.TheJapanese
understandingofCh'anwashesitantandinconclusivetothe
pointthatfewJapaneseofthemid-thirteenthcenturyactually
realizedanewformofBuddhismwasinthemaking.
1

Overthenextcenturyandahalf,however,arevolution
began,asZenatfirstgraduallyandthenprecipitouslybecamethe
preoccupationofJapan'srulingclass.TheZenexplosioncame
aboutviaacombinationofcircumstances.Wehaveseenthatthe
warriorrulerHojoTokiyori(1227-63)wasinterestedintheschool
andofferedDogenatempleinKamakura,aninvitationDogen
refused.However,in1246anemigreCh'anmasterfromthe
ChinesemainlandnamedLan-ch'i(1212-78)appearedinJapan
uninvited,havingheardofJapaneseinterestinCh'an.Hewent
firsttoKyoto,wherehefoundZenstillsubjecttohostile
sectarianism,andthentoKamakura,wherehemanagedin1249
tomeetTokiyori.TheJapanesestrongmanwasdelightedand
proceededtohavethetempleofanothersectconvertedtoaZen
establishment,makingLan-ch'iabbot.Shortlyafter,Tokiyori
completedconstructionofaSung-styleZenmonasteryin
Kamakura,againputtingLan-ch'iincharge.ThisChinesemonk,
merelyoneofmanyinhisnativeChina,hadbecomeheadofthe
leadingZentempleinJapan.Whenwordgotback,ahostof
enterprisingChineseclericsbeganpouringintotheislandnation
seekingtheirfortune.
2

ThusbeganthenextphaseofearlyJapaneseZen,fueledby
theinvasionofChineseCh'anmonks.Thismovementoccupied
theremainderofthethirteenthcenturyandwasspurredalongby
unsettledconditionsinChinanamelytheimminentfallofthe
SouthernSungDynastytotheMongolsandaconcurrentpower
strugglewithinCh'anitself,whichinducedmonksfromtheless
powerfulestablishmentstoseekgreenerpastures.
3
In1263a
seniorCh'anclericnamedWu-an(1197-1276)arrivedin
KamakuraandwasalsomadeanabbotbyTokiyori.
4
Thefirst
monk,Lan-ch'i,thereuponmovedtoKyotoandbegan
proselytizingintheoldcapital.Wu-ansubsequentlycertified
Tokiyoriwithasealofenlightenment,makingthemilitary
strongmanofJapananacknowledgedCh'anmaster.Tokiyori's
interestinZendidnotgounnoticedbythewarriorsaroundhim,
andhisadvocacy,combinedwiththeinfluxofChinesemonks
appearingtoteach,initiatedtheZenbandwagoninKamakura.
Tokiyoridiedin1263,andhisyoungsonTokimune(1251
84),whocametopowerfiveyearslater,initiallyshowedno
interestinZenpractice.Buthewasstillinhisteensin1268when
thereappearedinJapanenvoysfromKublaiKhandemanding
tribute.TheMongolswereatthatmomentcompletingtheirsackof
China,andJapanseemedthenextstep.Undeterred,the
JapaneseansweredallMongoldemandswithhaughtyinsults,
withthenot-unexpectedresultthatin1274Kublailaunchedan
invasionfleet.Althoughhisshipsfounderedinafortuitousstreak
ofbadweather,theJapaneseknewthattherewouldbemore.It
wasthenthatTokimunebeganstrengtheninghisdiscipline
throughZenmeditationandtougheninghisinstinctswithkoans.
HestudiedunderanewlyarrivedChinesemasterwhoselimited
Japanesenecessitatedtheircommunicatingthroughatranslator.
(WhentheenlightenedChinesefoundcausetostrikehisall-
powerfulstudent,heprudentlypummeledtheinterpreter
instead.)
5
ThesamuraialsobegantotakeaninterestinZen,
whichnaturallyappealedtothewarriormentalitybecauseofits
emphasisondiscipline,onexperienceovereducation,andona
rough-and-tumblepracticeincludingdebateswithamasterand
blowsfortheloserallcongenialtomenofsimple,unschooled
tastes.Fortheirownpart,theperceptiveChinesemissionaries,
hamperedbythelanguagebarrier,renderedZenassimplisticas
possibletohelpthefaithcompetewiththeSalvationistsects
amongtheoftenilliteratewarriors.
In1281theMongolslaunchedanotherinvasionforce,this
time100,000menstrong,buttheywereheldoffseveralweeksby
thesteel-nervedsamuraiuntilatyphoon(laternamedthe
Kamikazeor"DivineWind")providentiallysankthefleet.The
extenttowhichZentrainingaidedthisvictorycanbedebated,but
thecourageofTokimuneandhissoldiersundoubtedlybenefited
fromitsrigorousdiscipline.TheJapaneserulerhimselfgaveZen
heavycreditandimmediatelybeganbuildingacommemorative
ZenmonasteryinKamakura.
BythetimeofTokimuni'sprematuredeathin1284,Rinzai
ZenhadbeeneffectivelyestablishedasthefaithoftheKamakura
rulers.HissuccessorcontinuedthedevelopmentofZen
establishments,supportedbynewChinesemasterswhoalso
beganteachingChineseculture(calligraphy,literature,ink
painting,philosophy)totheKamakurawarriorsalongwiththeir
Zen.Sincethefaithwasdefinitelybeginningtoboom,the
governmentprudentlypublishedalistofrestrictionsforZen
monasteries,includinganabolitionofarms(atraditionalproblem
withtheothersects)andalimitonthenumberofprettyboys
(novices)thatcouldbequarteredinacompoundtotemptthe
monks.Themaximumnumberofmonksineachmonasteryalso
wasprescribed,andsevereruleswereestablishedgoverning
discipline.Outofthiserainthelatethirteenthcenturyevolvedan
organizationofZentemplesinKyotoandKamakurabasedonthe
SungChinesemodeloffivemainmonasteries(calledthe"five
mountains"orgozan)andanetworkoftenofficiallyrecognized
subsidiarytemples.Furthermore,Chineseculturebecameso
fashionableinKamakurathatcollectionsofSungartbegan
appearingamongtheilliterateprovincialwarriorsanearly
harbingeroftheJapaneseevolutionofZenfromasceticismto
aesthetics.
6

Thecreationofthegozansystemattheendofthethirteenth
centurygaveZenaformalroleinthereligiousstructureofJapan.
Zenwasnowfashionableandhadpowerfulfriends,aperfect
combinationtofostergrowthandinfluence.Onthesometimes
pointedurgingofthegovernment,templesfromothersectswere
convertedtoZenestablishmentsbylocalauthoritiesthroughout
Japan.
7
ThecourtandaristocracyinKyotoalsobegantakingan
interestinpure,Sung-styleRinzai.TempleswerebuiltinKyoto
(orconvertedfromothersects),andeventhecloisteredemperors
begantomeditate(perhapssearchinglessforenlightenmentthan
fortherumoredoccultpowers).WhentheKamakuraregime
collapsedinthemid-fourteenthcenturyandwarriorsofthenewly
ascendentAshikagaclanreturnedtheseatofgovernmentto
Kyoto,theoldcapitalwasalreadywellacquaintedwithZen's
politicalimportance.However,althoughRinzaiZenhadmade
muchvisibleheadwayinJapantherulingclassesincreasingly
meditatedonkoans,andChinesemonksoperatednewSung-
stylemonasteriesthedepthofunderstandingseems
disappointinglysuperficialoverall.Thegozansystemsoonturned
sopolitical,asmonasteriescompetedforofficialfavor,thatbefore
longestablishmentZenwasalmostdevoidofspiritualcontent.In
manyways,JapaneseZenbecamedecadentalmostfromthe
start.TheimmenseprestigeofimportedChineseartandideas,
togetherwiththepowerfulroleoftheZenclericsasvirtuallythe
onlygroupsufficientlyeducatedtooverseerelationswiththe
continent,meantthatearlyon,Zen'sculturalrolebecameas
tellingasitsspiritualplace.
PerhapstheconditionofZenisbestillustratedbynotingthat
themostfamouspriestoftheera,MusoSoseki(1275-1351),was
actuallyapowerfulpoliticalfigure.ThisZenprelate,whonever
visitedChina,cametoprominencewhenheservedfirstanill-
fatedemperorsubsequentlydeposedandlatertheAshikaga
warriorwhodeposedhim.Musowasinstrumentalinthe
Japanesegovernment'sestablishmentofregulartradewiththe
mainland.Hewasalsoresponsibleforarevisionofthegozan
administrativesystem,establishing(in1338)officialZentemples
inallsixty-sixprovincesofJapanandspreadingthepowerbase
ofthefaith.AlthoughMusoistodayhonoredasanimportant
Japanesemaster,heactuallypreferreda"syncretic"Zen
intermingledwithesotericritesandapparentlyunderstoodvery
littleofrealZen.AprototypeformanyZenleaderstocome,he
wasascholar,aesthetician,andarchitectofsomeofthegreat
culturalmonumentsinKyoto,personallydesigningseveralofthe
capital'sfinesttemplesandlandscapegardens.
Thusbythemid-fourteenthcenturyZenhadbecomehardly
morethananumbrellafortheimportofChinesetechnology,art,
andphilosophy.
8
Themonkswere,byMuso'sownadmission,
moreoftenthannot"shaven-headedlaymen"whocametoZento
learnpaintingandtowriteastiltedformofChineseverseaspart
ofagozanliterarymovement.Theoverallsituationhasbeenwell
summarizedbyPhilipYampolsky:"Themonksintempleswereall
poetsandliteraryfigures....[T]heuseofkoans,particularlythose
derivedfromthe[BlueCliffRecord],becamealiteraryand
educationaldeviceratherthanamethodforthepracticeofZen."
9
Hefurthernotesthat"...withthegozansystemfrozenina
bureaucraticmold,priestswithadministrativetalentsgainedin
ascendency.Intheheadquarterstemplesmeninterestedin
literarypursuitswithdrewcompletelyfromtempleaffairsand
devotedthemselvesexclusivelytoliterature.Tobesure,priests
gavelecturesandcontinuedtowritecommentaries.Butthe
gozanpriestsseemedtoconcernthemselvesmoreandmorewith
trivialities.Bythemid-fifteenthcenturyZenteachinghadvirtually
disappearedinthetemples,andthepriestsdevotedthemselves
mainlytoceremonialandadministrativeduties."
10
AuthenticZen
practicehadbecomealmostcompletelyemasculated,
overshadowedbytheriseofaZen-inspiredculturalmovementfar
outstrippingChineseprototypes.
Thepoliticalconvolutionsoffourteenth-centuryJapan,aswell
astheorganizationalshenanigansoftheofficialRinzaiZensect,
neednotdetainusfurther.
11
Weneedonlynotethatthegozan
system,whichsoeffectivelygaveZenanofficialpresence
throughoutJapan,alsomeantthattheinstitutionpresentwasZen
innameonly.Significantly,however,afewmajormonasteries
electednottoparticipateintheofficialsystem.Oneofthemost
importantwastheDaitoku-jiinKyoto,whichmanaged,bynot
becomingpartoftheestablishment,tomaintainsomeauthenticity
initspractice.AndoutoftheDaitoku-jitraditiontherecamefrom
timetotimeafewZenmonkswhostillunderstoodwhatZenwas
supposedtobeabout,whounderstooditwasmorethanpainting,
gardens,poetry,andpower.Perhapsthemostcelebratedof
theseiconoclasticthrowbackstoauthenticZenwasthelegendary
IkkyuSojun(1394-1481).
ThemasterIkkyu,abreathoffreshairinthestifling,
hypocriticalworldofinstitutionalizedZen,seemsalmosta
reincarnationoftheearlyCh'anmastersoftheT'ang.
12
However,
hispenchantfordrinkingandwomanizingismorereminiscentof
theTaoiststhantheBuddhists.HistoricalinformationonIkkyu
andhiswritingsisspreadamongvariousdocumentsofuneven
reliability.Themajorsourceisapiouschronicleallegedly
compiledbyhisdiscipleBokusaifromfirsthandinformation.
Whereasthisdocumenthasthevirtueofbeingcontemporaneous
withhislife,ithasthedrawbackofbeingabbreviatedand
selectivelyeditedtoomitunflatteringfacts.Thenthereisa
collectionoftalesfromtheTokugawaera(1615-1868)whichare
heavilyembellishedwhennottotallyapocryphal.Thepicaresque
charactercreatedintheTokugawaTalesledonecommentatorto
likenIkkyutothefabulousSufiphilosopher-vagabondNasrudin,
whoalsobecameavehicletotransmitfolkwisdom.
13
Thesetales
seemtohavedevelopedaroundIkkyusimplybecausehisdevil-
may-careattitude,combinedwithhisantischolarlypose,made
himaperfectpegonwhichtohangallsortsofdidactic(notto
mentionRabelaisian)anecdotes.Finally,thereisavastbodyof
hisownpoetryandprose,aswellasacollectionofcalligraphy
nowwidelyadmiredforitsspontaneityandpower.
Bokusai'schronicleidentifiesIkkyu'smotherasalady-in-wait-
ingattheimperialpalaceofEmperorGokomatsu,whochose
fromtimetotimeto"showherfavor."Whenshewasdiscovered
tobewithchild,theempresshadhersentaway,chargingthat
shewassympathetictoacompetingpoliticalfaction.
Consequently,themasterIkkyuwasborninthehouseofa
commoneronNewYear'sDayoftheyear1394,thenaturalsonof
anemperorandadaughterofthewarriorclass.
AtagefivehismothermadehimacolyteinaZenmonastery,
amovesomesuggestwasforhisphysicalsafety,lesttheshogun
decidetodoawaywiththisemperor'ssonasapotentialthreat.
Hisschoolinginthisgozanerawasaristocraticandclassical,
foundedonChineseliteratureandtheBuddhistsutras.Byage
elevenhewasstudyingtheVimalakirtiSutraandbythirteenhe
wasintensivelyreadingandwritingChinesepoetry.Oneofhis
works,writtenatagefifteenandentitled"SpringFinery,"
demonstratesadelicatesensibilityreminiscentofJohnKeats:

Howmanypassionsclingtothiswanderer'ssleeves?
MultitudesoffallingblossomsmarkthepassionofHeavenand
Earth.
Aperfumedbreezeacrossmypillow;AmIasleeporawake?
HereandnowmeltintoanindistinctSpringdream.
14

Thepoetherehasreturnedfromawalkonlytofindtheperfume
offlowersclingingtohisclothes,confusinghissenseofreality
andplace.ItrecallsKeats'nightingale"Fledisthatmusic:DoI
wakeorsleep?"Inthisearlypoemwecatchaglimpseofthe
sensualistIkkyuwouldonedaybecome.
Atageeighteenhebecameanovicetoareclusivemonkof
theMyoshin-jibranchofZeninKyoto;butwhenhismentordied
twoyearslaterhewanderedforatimedisconsolateandsuicide-
prone.Thenattwenty-twohedecidedtotryforaninterviewwith
KasoSoton(1352-1428),theDaitoku-ji-trainedmasterknownto
bethesternestteacherinJapan.Aswastraditional,themasterat
firstshuthimoutandrefusedanaudience.Ikkyuresolvedtowait
outsideuntildeath,"takingthedewforhisroofandthegrassesfor
hisbed."Hesleptatnightunderanemptyboatandstoodallday
infrontofKaso'sretreat.AfterKasorepeatedlyfailedto
discouragehim,evenoncedousinghimwithwater,themaster
relentedandinvitedIkkyuinforaninterview.Theyweremadefor
eachotherandformanyyearsthereafterIkkyuandKaso
"pursueddeepmatterstirelessly."
IkkyucametorevereKaso,probablyoneofthefewauthentic
mastersoftheage,andhestayedtoservethisteacherforalmost
adecade,eventhoughlifewithKasowasarduous.Sincethey
livednearamajorlake,Ikkyuwouldeachnightmeditateina
borrowedfisherman'sboatuntildawn.Whenhispurse"wentflat,"
hewouldjourneytothecapitalandsellincenseorcheapclothing
topoorhousewivesafterwardsreturningtothemonasteryinthe
samestrawsandals,hat,andcloak.
15
AfterthreeyearsKasogave
himtheZennameIkkyu,arecognitionofhisprogress.
Ikkyu'senlightenmentoccurredinhistwenty-sixthyearwhen,
whilemeditatingintheboat,hewasstartledbythecryofacrow.
Herushedbackatdawnandreportedthistohismaster.
Kasoresponded,"Youhavereachedthestageofanarhat
[onewhohasovercomeego],butnotthatofaMaster,novice."
Ikkyureplied,"ThenI'mperfectlyhappyasanarhatanddon't
needtobeaMaster."
Kasoresponded,"Well,then,youreallyareaMasterafter
all."
16

Althoughitwascustomaryformonkstoreceiveacertificate
fromtheirmasterattestingtotheirenlightenment,thematterof
Ikkyu'scertificateisproblematical.Hehimselfrefusedtogiveout
certificates,andheisdepictedinBokusai'schronicleas
periodicallytakingouthisownandrequestingitbedestroyedby
hisdisciplesafterwhichitseemedtomiraculouslyappearagain
severalyearslater.Thequantityofinventionandaccretion
attachedtoIkkyu'sdisappearingcertificatehasfostered
speculationthathenever,infact,actuallyreceivedaseal.
Inanycase,heprobablywouldhavedestroyedhisownseal
ofenlightenmentinlateryears.Hislifegrewprogressivelymore
unconventionalwithtime,justtheoppositeofmost.Beginningas
aclassicistinthefinestKyototradition,hehadgoneonto
becomeaspiritualrecluseinthemountainsunderaharsh
meditationmaster.Afterallthistraininghethentooktheroad,
becomingawanderingmonkinthetraditionalT'angmode.
Well,almostinthetraditionalmode.Heseemedtowander
intobrothelsandwineshopsalmostasoftenasintoZentemples.
Heconsortedwithhighandlow,merchantandcommoner,male
andfemale.Ourrecordoftheseexplorations,bothgeographic
andsocial,isinhiswritings,particularlyhispoetry.Healso
harboredavendettaagainstthecomplacencyandcorruptionof
JapaneseZenanditsmasters,particularlythenewabbotof
Daitoku-ji,anoldermannamedYosowhohadoncebeenafellow
discipleofhisbelovedKaso.
WhenIkkyuwasforty-sixhewasinvitedbyYosotoheada
subtempleintheDaitoku-jicompound.Heaccepted,muchtothe
delightofhisadmirers,whobeganbringingthetempledonations
ingratitude.However,afteronlytendaysIkkyuconcludedthat
Daitoku-jitoohadbecomemoreconcernedwithceremonythan
withthepreservationofZen,andhewroteafamousprotestpoem
asapartinggestureclaiminghecouldfindmoreofZeninthe
meat,drink,andsextraditionallyforbiddenBuddhists.

Fortendaysinthistemplemymind'sbeeninturmoil,
Myfeetareentangledinendlessredtape.
Ifsomedayyougetaroundtolookingforme,
Trythefish-shop,thewineparlor,orthebrothel.
17

Ikkyu'sattackonthecommercializationofZenwasnot
withoutcause.ThescholarJanCovellobservesthatinIkkyu's
time,"RinzaiZenhadsunktoalowpointandenlightenmentwas
'sold,'particularlybythosetemplesassociatedwiththe
Shogunate.Zentemplesalsomademoneyinsake-brewingand
throughusury.Inthemid-fifteenthcenturyoneZentemple,
Shokoku-ji,furnishedalltheadviserstotheShogunate's
governmentandreceivedmostofthebribes.Theimperial-
sanctionedtempleofDaitoku-jiwasonlyonthefringeofthis
corruption,butIkkyufelthecouldnotcriticizeitenough."
18

Ironically,Ikkyualsoattackedthewritingof"Zen"poetryin
hispoems.Hewasreallyattackingtheliterarygozanmovement,
thepreoccupationofmonkswhoforsookZentoconcentrateon
producingforgettableverseinformalChinese.Theyputtheir
poetrybefore,indeedinplaceof,Zenpractice.Ikkyuusedhis
poetry(latercollectedasthe"CrazyCloudPoems"orKyoun-shu)
asameansofexpressinghisenlightenment,aswellashis
criticismoftheestablishment.Italso,asoftenasnot,celebrated
sensualoverspiritualpleasures.
WhereastheT'angmasterscreatedillogicandstruggledwith
intuitivetransmission,Ikkyucheerfullygaveintotheexistential
lifeofthesenses.Intheintroductiontoonepoemhetolda
parableexplaininghispriorities.

Onceuponatimetherewasanoldwomanwhosupporteda
retiredhermitforsometwentyyears.Foralongtime,shesenta
younggirltoservehisfood.Onedayshetoldthegirltothrowher
armsaroundthemonkandaskhimhowhefelt.Whenthegirldid
so,themonktoldher,"Iamlikeawitheredtreeproppedup
againstacoldboulderafterthreewinterswithoutwarmth."The
girlwentbacktotheoldwomanandmadeherreport."Twenty
yearswastedfeedingaphonylayman!"exclaimedthewoman.
Thensheranhimoffandburnthishuttotheground.

Thegrandmotherlyoldwomantriedtogivethatrascalaladder.
Toprovidethepuremonkwithanicebride.
IftonightIweretobemadesuchaproposition,
Thewitheredwillowwouldputforthnewspringgrowth.
19

Aparticularlylyricalexplorationofsensualityisfoundinapoem
entitled"AWoman's[Body]hastheFragranceofNarcissus,"
whichcelebratestheessenceofsexuality.

Oneshouldgazelongat[thefairy]hillthenascendit.
MidnightontheJadebedamid[Autumn]dreams
Afloweropeningbeneaththethrustoftheplumbranch.
Rockinggentlybetweenthefairy'sthighs.
20

Ikkyu'samoursseemtohaveproducedanumberofnatural
progeny.Infact,thereisthelegendthatoneofIkkyu'smost
devotedfollowers,amonknamedJotei,wasinfacthisillegitimate
son.AccordingtotheTokugawaTales,therewasaonce-richfan
makerinSakaiwhosebusinesshaddeclinedtothepointthathe
hadtosellhisshopandstandonthestreetcornerhawkingfans.
ThenonedayIkkyucamebycarryingsomefansdecoratedwith
hisownfamouscalligraphyandaskedthemantotakethemon
commission.Naturallytheyallsoldimmediatelyand,by
subsequentmerchandisingofIkkyu'sworks,theman'sbusiness
eventuallywasrestored.IngratitudehegrantedIkkyuhis
daughter,fromwhichunionsprangIkkyu'snaturalson,Jotei.
Thisstoryisquestionablebutitdoesillustratethereputation
Ikkyuenjoyed,bothasartistandlover.Furthermore,hewrote
touchingandsuspiciouslyfatherlypoemstoalittlegirlnamed
Shoko.

Watchingthisfour-year-oldgirlsinganddance,
Ifeelthepulloftiesthatarehardtodismiss,
ForgettingmydutiesIslipintofreedom.
MasterAbbot,whoseZenisthis?
21

WhenIkkyuwasinhisseventies,duringthedisastrouscivil
conflictknownastheOninwar,hehadaloveaffairwithaforty-
year-oldtempleattendantnamedMori.Onlanguidafternoonsshe
wouldplaytheJapanesekotoorharpandhethewistful-sounding
shakuhachi,alongbambooflutesometimescarriedbymonksas
aweapon.Thislate-lifeloveaffairoccasionedanumberoferotic
poems,includingonethatclaimsherrestorationofhisvirility
(calledbytheChineseeuphemism"jadestalk")cheeredhis
disciples.

HowismyhandlikeMori'shand?
Selfconfidenceisthevassal,Freedomthemaster.
WhenIamillshecuresthejadestalk
Andbringsjoybacktomyfollowers.
22

Ikkyualsoleftanumberofprosefablesandsermonsthat
portrayamoresoberpersonalitythandoeshisofteniconoclastic
verse.Oneclassicwork,writtenin1457andcalled"Skeletons,"
hasbecomeaZenclassic.Inthesectiongivenbelowheexplores
theBuddhistideaoftheVoidandnothingness:

Letmetellyousomething.Humanbirthisanalogoustostrikingup
afirethefatherisflint,themotherisstoneandthechildisthe
spark.Oncethesparktouchesalampwickitcontinuestoexist
throughthe"secondarysupport"ofthefueluntilthatisexhausted.
Thenitflickersout.Thelovemakingoftheparentsisthe
equivalentofstrikingthespark.Sincetheparentstoohave"no
beginning,"intheendthey,too,willflickerout.Everythinggrows
outofemptyspacefromwhichallformsderive.Ifoneletsgothe
formsthenhereacheswhatiscalledthe"originalground."But
sinceallsentientbeingscomefromnothingnesswecanuseeven
theterm"originalground"onlyasatemporarytag.
23

ItseemsunfortunatethatIkkyu'sproseisnotbetterknown
today.
24
Infactthebest-knownaccountsofIkkyuarethe
apocryphaltalesthatattachedtohimduringtheTokugawaera.A
typicalepisodeisthefollowing,entitled"IkkyuDoesMagic,"in
whichthepicaresqueZen-manuseshisnaturalresourcesto
thwarttheblusterofahaughtypriestfromoneofthescholarly
aristocraticsectsjustthethingguaranteedtopleasethecommon
man.
OnceIkkyuwastakingtheYodonoKawaseferryonhisway
toSakai.Therewasayamabushi[mountainasceticofEsoteric
Buddhism]onboardwhobegantoquestionhim.

"Hey,YourReverence,whatsectareyou?"
"IbelongtotheZensect,"repliedIkkyu.
"Idon'tsupposeyoursecthasmiraclesthewayoursect
does?"
"No,actuallywehavelotsofmiracles.Butifit'smiracles,why
don'tyoushowthesortofmiraclesthatyourpeoplehave?"
"Well,"saidtheyamabushi,"ByvirtueofmymagicpowersI
canprayupFudo[afierceguardiandeityofBuddhism]before
yourveryeyesandmakehimstandrightthereontheprowofthe
boat."
And,withthebeadsofhisrosarythemanbegantoinvoke
firstKongoandthenSeitaka[EsotericBuddhistdeities].Atthis,all
thepassengersbegantolookbackandforthwonderingwhatwas
goingtohappen.Then,justashehadsaid,thereontheprowof
theboat,theformofFudoappearedsurroundedbyahaloof
dancingflames.
Thentheyamabushimadeaferociousfaceandtoldhim,
"You'dallbetterofferhimaprayer."Thismadetheother
passengersveryuneasyallthatisbutIkkyu,whowascompletely
unruffled.
"Well,"spatouttheyamabushi,"Howaboutyou,Zenmonk?
Howareyougoingtodealwithmymiracle?"
"Byproducingamiracleofmyown.FrommyverybodyIwill
causewatertoissueforthandextinguishtheflamesofyourFudo.
You'dbetterstartyourprayersupagain."AndIkkyubegantopee
mightilyallovertheflamesuntilatlasttheyamabushi'smagic
wascounteractedandtheentireimagemeltedaway.Thereupon
thepassengersontheboatallbowedtoIkkyuforhiswonderful
display.
25

Ironically,thereal-lifeIkkyuspenthistwilightyearsrestoring
Daitoku-jiafteritsdestruction(alongwiththerestofKyoto)from
theten-yearOninwar(1467-77),bytakingoverthetempleand
usinghiscontactsinthemerchantcommunitytoraisefunds.He
hadoverahundreddisciplesatthistime,apopularitythat
saddenedhimsinceearlier(and,hethought,moredeserving)
mastershadhadmanyfewerfollowers.Thusinthelastdecadeof
hislifehefinallyexchangedhisstrawsandalsandreedhatforthe
robesofaprestigiousabbotoveramajormonastery.Hisown
ambivalenceonthisheconfessedinapoem:

Fiftyyearsarusticwanderer,
Nowmortifiedinpurplerobes.
26

Ikkyu'scontributionstoZenculturearealsosignificant.He
helpedinspirethesecularZenritualknowntodayasthetea
ceremony,byencouragingthemantodayrememberedasits
founder.Healsosupportedoneofthebest-knowndramatistsof
theNotheaterandwashimselfamastercalligrapher,anart
closelyakintopaintingintheFarEastandregardedbymanyas
evenmoredemanding.
27
Heevencreatedasoybeandish(natto)
nowastapleofZenmonasticcuisine.
ButashisbiographerJamesSanfordhaspointedout,thereal
lifeofthistrulygreatJapanesemasterhasallbuteludedus.His
poetryisinclassicalChineseandvirtuallyunknown;hisproselies
largelyunread;andtheTokugawalegendofIkkyuisalmost
entirelyapocryphal.Thislasttravestyhasextendedevento
fictionalizinghisroleasachildatthemonastery;thereisnowa
populartelevisioncartoonseriesinJapanabouttheirrepressible
acolyteIkkyu.Sanfordspeculatesthathisattractionfor
contemporaryJapaneseisthat,inthelegendofIkkyu,"itis
possibleforthemodernJapanesemindtore-discover'native'
examplesof,andjustificationfor,individualismatermand
conceptwhosefullassimilationintomodernJapaneseculturehas
foroverfiftyyearsbeenblockedbyalegacyofresidualNeo-
Confuciannormsleftoverfrom[Japan'srepressivepast]."
28

ItdoesseemtruethattheZen-manIkkyurepresentsasafety
valveinJapanesesociety,boththenandnow.Hebroughtthe
impulsivecandorofZentotheworldofaffairs,demonstratingby
examplethatafterenlightenmentitisnecessarytoreturntoa
worldwheremountainsareagainmountains,riversagainrivers.
Andbyrejectingofficial"Zen,"Ikkyumaywellhavebeenthemost
ZenlikeofallJapanesemasters.

ChapterEighteen ChapterEighteen ChapterEighteen ChapterEighteen

HAKUIN: HAKUIN: HAKUIN: HAKUIN:
JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN

TheclosingeraoftheJapanesemiddleages,inthedecades
followingIkkyu'sdeath,isnowknownastheCenturyofthe
CountryatWar.Japanbecamealandofquarrelingfiefdoms,and
Zen,too,driftedforwantofleadershipandinspiration.The
eventualreunificationofthecountrylateinthesixteenthcentury
wasledbyabrutalmilitarystrategistnamedOdaNobunaga
(1534-82).Aspartofhistakeoverheobliteratedthemilitaristic
BuddhistcomplexonMt.Hieibyonedaysimplyslaughteringall
itsmonksandburningtheestablishmenttotheground,thereby
endingpermanentlytherealinfluenceofBuddhisminJapanese
politics.Nobunagawassucceededbyanevenmore
accomplishedmilitarist,ToyotomiHideyoshi(1536-98),who
broughttotheshogunateaflairfordiplomacyandcunning
compromise.HideyoshisolidifiedJapanonlytohaveyetanother
warlord,TokugawaIeyasu(1542-1616),maneuveritsruleintothe
handsofhisownfamilyinauguratingthetwoandahalfcenturies
oftotalitarianisolationismknowntodayastheTokugawaera
(1615-1868).Healsomovedthecapitaltothecitywhosemodern
nameisTokyo,atlastleavinghistoricKyotoinrepose.
UndertheTokugawaanewmiddleclassofurbanmerchants
andcraftsmenarose,andwithitcameaversionofZenfor
commonpeople,withmasterswhocouldtouchtheconcernsof
theworkingclass.Amongthesebelovedmastersmustcertainly
berememberedthemonkTakuan(1573-1645)fromIkkyu's
rebuiltDaitoku-jitemple,whointroducedZenteachingstothis
newaudience,andthewanderingteacherBankei(1622-93),
whosekindly,mysticalinterpretationofonenessthroughzazen
earnedhimwidefame.Overall,however,RinzaiZenremained
spirituallydormantuntilthemiddleoftheTokugawaera,when
thereappearedoneofthemosttrulyinspiredZenteachersofall
time.
ThemasterHakuin(1686-1769)wasbornasSugiyama
IwajiroinHara,asmallvillageatthebaseofMt.Fuji.Hewasthe
youngestoffivechildreninafamilyofmodestmeans,anorigin
thatmayhavehelpedhimunderstandtheconcernsofthepoor.
Ashetellshisstory,hewassevenoreightwhenhismothertook
himtohearapriestfromtheSalvationistNichirensectpreachon
thetormentingBuddhisthells.Hewasterrifiedandsecretlybegan
dayandnightrecitingtheLotusSutra(whichclaimstoprotect
fromtheperilsoffireorwaterthosewhochanttheproper
incantation).Thefearofhell,withitsboilingcaldrons,so
permeatedhisyoungmindthatheevenbecamelearyofthe
traditionalJapanesebath,thenoftentakeninaroundtubfired
fromthebottomwithwood.Heclaimedthisfearofthebathfinally
convincedhimtobecomeamonk.

OnedaywhenIwastakingabathwithmymother,sheasked
thatthewaterbemadehotterandhadthemaidaddwoodtothe
fire.Graduallymyskinbegantopricklewiththeheatandtheiron
bath-cauldronbegantorumble.SuddenlyIrecalledthe
descriptionsofthehellsthatIhadheardandIletoutacryof
terrorthatresoundedthroughtheneighborhood.
FromthistimeonIdeterminedtomyselfthatIwouldleave
hometobecomeamonk.Tothismyparentswouldnotconsent,
yetIwentconstantlytothetempletorecitethesutras....
1

Butafterseveralyearsofstudyandchanting,hewas
dismayedtofindhestillfeltpain(whenhetestedhimselfoneday
withahotpoker).Heresolvedtointensifyhisdevotionandatage
fifteenheenteredalocalZentemple(againsthisparents'wishes)
andwasordainedasamonk.Hakuinpursuedhisstudyofthe
LotusSutra,theprimaryscriptureveneratedatthistemple(an
illustrationofhowfarJapaneseZenhadtraveledfromitstradition
ofmeditationandkoans),butafterayearheconcludeditwasjust
anotherbook,nodifferentfromtheConfucianclassics.He
thereforebegantodriftfromtempletotempleuntil,atnineteen,
heexperiencedanotherspiritualcrisis.Inabookofreligious
biographieshecameacrossthestoryoftheChinesemonkYen-
t'ou(828-87),whohadbeenattackedandmurderedbybandits,
causinghimtoemitscreamsheardafullthreemilesaway.
Hakuinwasplungedintodepression.

Iwonderedwhysuchanenlightenedmonkwasunabletoescape
theswordsofthieves.Ifsuchathingcouldhappentoamanwho
waslikeaunicornorphoenixamongmonks,adragoninthesea
ofBuddhism,howwasItoescapethestavesofthedemonsof
hellafterIdied?WhatusewasthereinstudyingZen?
2

Hethereupontookuphisstaffandsetoutasanitinerant
seeker,onlytomeetdisappointmentafterdisappointmentuntil
finallyhedecidedtoputhisfutureinthehandsofchance.One
dayastheabbotofatemplewasairingitslibraryoutside,Hakuin
decidedtoselectabookatrandomandletitdecidehisfate.He
pickedavolumeofbiographiesofChineseCh'anworthiesand
openingitreadofaneleventh-centuryLin-chimasterwhokept
awakeinmeditationbyboringintohisownthighwithawooddrill.
ThestorygalvanizedHakuin,andhevowedtopursueZen
traininguntilenlightenmentwashis.
Hakuinclaimsthatatagetwenty-fourhehadhisfirstreally
movingsatoriexperience.HewasinatempleinNiigata
prefecture,meditatingonthe"Mu"koan(Q:"Doesadoghave
Buddha-nature?A:"Mu!"),andsointensewashisconcentration
thatheevenforgotsleepingandeating.Thenoneday...

Suddenlyagreatdoubtmanifesteditselfbeforeme.Itwasas
thoughIwerefrozensolidinthemidstofanicesheetextending
tensofthousandsofmiles.ApurityfilledmybreastandIcould
neithergoforwardnorretreat.ToallintentsandpurposesIwas
outofmymindandtheMualoneremained.AlthoughIsatinthe
LectureHallandlistenedtotheMaster'slecture,itwasasthough
Iwerehearingadiscussionfromadistanceoutsidethehall.At
timesitfeltasthoughIwerefloatingthroughtheair.
Thisstatelastedforseveraldays.ThenIchancedtohearthe
soundofthetemplebellandIwassuddenlytransformed.Itwas
asifasheetoficehadbeensmashedorajadetowerhadfallen
withacrash.
3

Elatedwithhistransformation,heimmediatelytrekkedbackto
anearliermasterandpresentedaverseforapproval.Themaster,
however,wasnotimpressed.

TheMaster,holdingmyverseupinhislefthand,saidtome:
"Thisverseiswhatyouhavelearnedfromstudy.Nowshowme
whatyourintuitionhastosay,"andheheldouthisrighthand.
Ireplied:"IfthereweresomethingintuitivethatIcouldshow
you,I'dvomititout,"andImadeagaggingsound.
TheMastersaid:"HowdoyouunderstandChao-chou'sMu?"
Ireplied:"WhatsortofplacedoesMuhavethatonecan
attacharmsandlegstoit?"
TheMastertwistedmynosewithhisfingersandsaid:"Here's
someplacetoattacharmsandlegs."Iwasnonplussedandthe
Mastergaveaheartylaugh.
4

Againandagainhetriedtoextractasealfromthismaster,
butalwaysinvain.Oneofthesefruitlessexchangesevenlefthim
lyinginamudpuddle.

OneeveningtheMastersatcoolinghimselfontheveranda.
AgainIbroughthimaverseIhadwritten."Delusionsandfancies,"
theMastersaid.Ishoutedhiswordsbackathiminaloudvoice,
whereupontheMasterseizedmeandrainedtwentyorthirty
blowswithhisfistsonme,andthenpushedmeofftheveranda.
Thiswasonthefourthdayofthefifthmonthafteralongspell
ofrain.Ilaystretchedoutinthemudasthoughdead,scarcely
breathingandalmostunconscious.Icouldnotmove;meanwhile
theMastersatontheverandaroaringwithlaughter.
5

Hefinallydespairedofreceivingthesealofenlightenment
fromthisteacher,althoughhedidhavefurtherspiritual
experiencesundertheman'srigorousguidanceexperiences
Hakuininterpreted,perhapsrightly,assatori.Feelingwanderlust
heagaintooktotheroad,everywhereexperiencingincreasingly
deepsatori.InsouthernIsehewasenlightenedwhensuddenly
swampedinadownpour.NearOsakahewasfurtherenlightened
oneeveninginatemplemonks'hallbythesoundoffallingsnow.
InGifuprefecturehehadanevendeeperexperienceduring
walkingmeditationinamonks'hall.Healsohadamentaland
physicalcollapseaboutthistime,nodoubtresultingfromthe
strainofhisintensiveasceticism.Afterhisfather'sdeathin1716,
hestudiedinKyotoforatime,butthenextyearhereturnedtothe
Shoin-jitemplenearhisoriginalhomeatHara.Wearyoflifeat
thirty-two,hestillwasundecidedabouthisfuture.Backatthe
templewherehehadstarted,henolongerhadanyideaofwhat
todo.Thenarevelationappeared:

Onenightinadreammymothercameandpresentedmewitha
purplerobemadeofsilk.WhenIliftedit,bothsleevesseemed
veryheavy,andonexaminingthemIfoundanoldmirror,fiveor
sixinchesindiameter,ineachsleeve.Thereflectionfromthe
mirrorintherightsleevepenetratedtomyheartandvitalorgans.
Myownmind,mountainsandrivers,thegreatearthseemed
sereneandbottomless....Afterthis,whenIlookedatallthings,
itwasasthoughIwereseeingmyownface.ForthefirsttimeI
understoodthemeaningofthesaying,"The[enlightenedspirit]
seestheBuddha-naturewithinhiseye."
6

Withthisdreamhefinallyachievedfullsatori.Heresolvedthatthe
oldramshackletemplewouldbehisfinalhome.Hehadfound
enlightenmentthereandtherehewouldstay,hisownmasterat
last.
Andsureenough,Hakuinnevermovedagain.Instead,the
peopleofJapanhighandlowcametoseehim.Hissimple
countrytemplebecameamagnetformonksandlaymenseeking
realZen.Byforceofhisowncharacter,andmostcertainlywithout
hisconsciousintention,hegraduallybecametheleadingreligious
figureinJapan.Bytheendofhislifehehadbroughtthekoan
practicebacktoacentralplaceinZenandhadeffectivelycreated
modernRinzai.
HakuinwasthelegitimateheiroftheChinesekoanmaster
Ta-hui,andthefirstteachersincetoactuallyexpandthe
philosophicaldimensionsofZen.ItwillberecalledthatTa-hui
advocated"Introspecting-the-Koan"meditation,calledk'an-hua
Ch'aninChineseandKannaZeninJapanese,whichheputforth
inoppositiontothe"SilentIllumination"meditationoftheSoto
school.Hakuinhimselfclaimedthathefirsttriedthequietistic
approachoftranquilmeditation(albeitonakoan),buthewas
unabletoclearhismindofalldistractions.

WhenIwasyoungthecontentofmykoanmeditationwaspoor.I
wasconvincedthatabsolutetranquilityofthesourceofthemind
wastheBuddhaWay.ThusIdespisedactivityandwasfondof
quietude.Iwouldalwaysseekoutsomedarkandgloomyplace
andengageindeadsitting.Trivialandmundanematterspressed
againstmychestandafiremountedinmyheart.Iwasunableto
enterwholeheartedlyintotheactivepracticeofZen.
7

ThusHakuinconcludedthatmerelyfollowingTa-hui'sinjunction
tomeditateonakoanwasnottheentireanswer.Hethendecided
theonlywaythatZencouldbelinkedmeaningfullytodailylife
wasifapractitionercouldactuallymeditatewhilegoingabout
dailyaffairs.
Thisideawasratherradical,althoughitprobablywouldnot
haveundulydisturbedtheT'angmasters.Hakuinwasagain
extendingboththedefinitionofenlightenment,asitintersectswith
therealworld,andthemeansofitsrealization.Hewassayingto
meditateonakoaninsuchamannerthatyoucancontinueyour
dailylifebutbeoblivioustoitsdistractions.Heinvokedthe
Chinesemasterstosupporttheidea.

TheZenMasterTa-huihassaidthatmeditationinthemidstof
activityisimmeasurablysuperiortothequietisticapproach....
Whatismostworthyofrespectisapurekoanmeditationthat
neitherknowsnorisconsciousofthetwoaspects,thequietand
theactive.Thisiswhyithasbeensaidthatthetruepracticing
monkwalksbutdoesnotknowheiswalking,sitsbutdoesnot
knowheissitting.
8

Hakuinredefinedmeditationtoincludeaphysicallyactive
aspectaswellasmerelyaquiet,sittingaspect.Andunderthis
newdefinitionanyone,evenlaymen,couldmeditateatanytime,
inanyplace.Hakuindidnotexcludesittinginmeditation;hetried
tobroadenthedefinitiontoincludethekindofthinghebelieved
wouldreallyproducemeaningfulenlightenment.Inaddition,
meditationinactiontakesawaytheexcuseofmostlaymenfornot
practicingintrospectionandwhatismore,itbringsrespectfrom
others.

Donotsaythatworldlyaffairsandpressuresofbusinessleave
younotimetostudyZenunderaMaster,andthattheconfusions
ofdailylifemakeitdifficultforyoutocontinueyourmeditation.
Everyonemustrealizethatforthetruepracticingmonkthereare
noworldlycaresorworries.Supposingamanaccidentallydrops
twoorthreegoldcoinsinacrowdedstreetswarmingwithpeople.
Doesheforgetaboutthemoneybecausealleyesareuponhim?
...Apersonwhoconcentratessolelyonmeditationamidthepress
andworriesofeverydaylifewillbelikethemanwhohasdropped
thegoldcoinsanddevoteshimselftoseekingthem.Whowillnot
rejoiceinsuchaperson?
9

Hakuinrealizedthatmeditatinginthemiddleofdistractions
wasinitiallymoredifficultwithfewershort-termrewardsthan
sittingquietlyalone.However,ifyouwanttomaketheheightened
awarenessofZenapartofyourlife,thenyoumustmeditatein
dailylifefromtheveryfirst.Justasyoucannotlearntoswimin
theoceanbysittinginatub,youcannotrelateyourZentothe
world'spressures,stress,andtensionsifitisforevershelteredin
silent,lonelyisolation.Ifthisisdifficultatfirst,persevereandlook
towardtheultimaterewards.

Frequentlyyoumayfeelthatyouaregettingnowherewith
practiceinthemidstofactivity,whereasthequietisticapproach
bringsunexpectedresults.Yetrestassuredthatthosewhouse
thequietisticapproachcanneverhopetoenterintomeditationin
themidstofactivity.Shouldbychanceapersonwhousesthis
approachenterintothedustsandconfusionsoftheworldof
activity,eventhepowerofordinaryunderstandingwhichhehad
seeminglyattainedwillbeentirelylost.Drainedofallvitality,he
willbeinferiortoanymediocre,talentlessperson.Themosttrivial
matterswillupsethim,aninordinatecowardicewillafflicthis
mind,andhewillfrequentlybehaveinameanandbasemanner.
Whatcanyoucallaccomplishedaboutamanlikethis?
10

Quietisticmeditationiseasier,naturally,butapersonwho
practicesitwillturnouttobejustasinsecureandpettyas
someonenotenlightenedatall.Whatisequallyimportant,
"leisure-time"meditationthatseparatesourspirituallifefromour
activitiesismerelyhidingfromreality.Youcannotcomehome
fromthejobandsuddenlyturnonameditationexperience.He
citesthecaseofsomeonewhoexcuseshimselftomeditate,but
whoisthensoharriedandtenseitdoesnogood.

Evenshouldtherebesuchathingas...reachingastatewhere
thegreatilluminationisreleasedbymeansofdeadsittingand
silentillumination...peoplearesoinvolvedinthenumerous
dutiesoftheirhouseholdaffairsthattheyhavescarcelyamoment
inwhichtopracticeconcentratedmeditation.Whattheydothenis
topleadillnessand,neglectingtheirdutiesandcastingaside
responsibilitiesfortheirfamilyaffairs,theyshutthemselvesupin
aroomforseveraldays,lockthedoor,arrangeseveralcushions
inapile,setupastickofincense,andproceedtosit.Yet,
becausetheyareexhaustedbyordinaryworldlycares,theysitin
meditationforoneminuteandfallasleepforahundred,and
duringthelittlebitofmeditationthattheymanagetoaccomplish,
theirmindsarebesetbycountlessdelusions.
11

Butwhatisworse,thesepeoplethenblametheircareers,
assumingtheyneedmoreisolation.Butthisisliketheaspiring
oceanswimmerinthetubmistakenlydesiringlesswater.

[They]furrowtheirbrows,drawtogethertheireyebrows,and
beforeoneknowsittheyarecryingout:"Ourofficialduties
interferewithourpracticeoftheWay;ourcareerspreventourZen
meditation.Itwouldbebettertoresignfromoffice,discardour
seals,gotosomeplacebesidethewaterorunderthetreeswhere
allispeacefulandquietandnooneisabout,thereinourownway
topracticedhyanacontemplation,andescapefromtheendless
cycleofsuffering."Howmistakenthesepeopleare!
12

Havingdeterminedmeditationinthemidstofactivityisthe
onlymeaningfulpractice,henextaddressedthequestionofhow
togoaboutit.Heexplainedthatwecandoitbymakingour
activitiesintomeditation.

Whatisthistruemeditation?Itistomakeeverything:coughing,
swallowing,wavingthearms,motion,stillness,words,action,the
evilandthegood,prosperityandshame,gainandloss,rightand
wrong,intoonesinglekoan.
13

Hegaveanexampleofhowtochangetheimplementsofdaily
livingintoaBuddhistmetaphor,inthiscasebyawarrior'smaking
hisclothes,sword,andsaddleintoameditationhallofthemind.

Makeyourskirtanduppergarmentsintotheseven-ornine-
stripedmonks'robe;makeyourtwo-edgedswordintoyourresting
boardordesk.Makeyoursaddleyoursittingcushion;makethe
mountains,rivers,andgreatearththesittingplatform;makethe
wholeuniverseyourownpersonalmeditationcave....Thrusting
forththecourageousmindderivedfromfaith,combineitwiththe
truepracticeofintrospection.
14

Ifmeditationbearsnorelationshiptolife,whatgoodisit?Itis
merelyself-centeredgratification.Thishecondemned,pointing
outthatifeveryonedidnothingbutmeditateonhisowninner
concerns,societyatlargewouldfallapart.AndultimatelyZen
wouldbeblamed.Furthermore,thisinner-directedpreoccupation
withself-awarenessisbadZen.
HakuinsimilarlytaughtthataZenwhichignoredsocietywas
hollowandmeaningless,anditsmonksofnousetoanybody.He
wasparticularlysternwithconventionalZenstudents,whowere
contentintheirownenlightenmentandignoredtheneedsof
others."Meditationinaction"forthemonkmeantthesameasfor
alayman,withonesignificantdifference.Whereasthelayman
couldbringmeditationtohisobligatorylifeofaffairs,themonk
mustbringthelifeoftheworldtohismeditation.Justtohideand
meditateonyourownoriginalnatureproducesinadequate
enlightenment,whilealsoshuttingyouofffromanychancetohelp
otherpeople,othersentientbeings.Theancientmastersknew,
saidHakuin,thatapersontrulyenlightenedcouldtravelthrough
theworldandnotbedistractedbytheso-calledfivedesires
(wealth,fame,food,sleep,andsex).Theenlightenedbeingis
awareof,butnotenticedby,sensualgratification.

TheThirdPatriarch[Seng-ts'an,d.606]hassaid:"Ifonewishes
togaintrueintimacywithenlightenment,onemustnotshunthe
objectsofthesenses."Hedoesnotmeanherethatoneisto
delightintheobjectsofthesensesbut,justasthewingsofa
waterfowldonotgetwetevenwhenitentersthewater,onemust
establishamindthatwillcontinueatruekoanmeditationwithout
interruption,neitherclingingtonorrejectingtheobjectsofthe
senses.
15

ButHakuinaskedsomethingofaZennoviceevenmore
difficultthanthataskedbytheChinesemastersofoldwho
merelydemandedthatamonkrejecttheworld,turnhisback,and
shutoutitsdistractions.Incontrast,Hakuininsiststhathe
meditatewhileoutintheworld,activelyimmersinghimselfinits
attractions.TheolderCh'anmastersadvisedamonktoignorethe
world,totreatitmerelyasabackdroptohispreoccupationwith
innerawareness;Hakuinsaystotestyourmeditationoutside,
sinceotherwiseitservesfornothing.AndtodayRinzaimonksare
expectedtosilentlymeditateduringallactivities,including
workingintheyardofthemonastery,harvestingvegetables,or
evenwalkingthroughthetownfortheirformalbegging.
Hakuinnotonlyredefinedmeditation,healsorevitalizedkoan
practiceamongfull-timeZenmonksandultimatelybroughtona
renaissanceofRinzaiZenitself.Heformalizedtheideaofseveral
stagesofenlightenment(basedonhisownexperienceof
increasinglydeepsatori)aswellasapracticethatsupportedthis
growth.ButmostofallHakuinwasdismayedbywhathe
consideredtobethecompletemisunderstandingofkoanpractice
inJapan.Monkshadmemorizedsomanyanecdotesaboutthe
ancientChinesemastersthattheythoughttheycouldsignifythe
resolutionofakoanbysomeinsinceretheatrics.

[0]fthemonkswhomoveaboutlikecloudsandwater,eightor
nineoutoftenwillboastloudlythattheyhavenottheslightest
doubtabouttheessentialmeaningofanyoftheseventeen
hundredkoansthathavebeenhandeddown....Ifyoutestthem
withoneofthesekoans,somewillraisetheirfists,otherswill
shout"katsu,"butmostofthemwillstrikethefloorwiththeir
hands.Ifyoupressthemjustalittlebit,youwillfindthattheyhave
innowayseenintotheirownnatures,havenolearning
whatsoever,andareonlyilliterate,boorish,sightlessmen.
16

Hakuinbreathednewlifebackintokoantheory.Forinstance,
heseemsthefirstJapanesemastertotakeapsychological
interestinthekoananditsworkings.Hebelievedakoanshould
engendera"greatdoubt"inthemindofanovice,andthroughthis
greatdoubtleadhimtothefirstenlightenmentorkensho.
17

Initiallyhehadadvocatedthe"Mu"koanforbeginners,butlatein
lifehecameupwiththefamous"Whatisthesoundofonehand
clapping?"
18
Ashedescribedthiskoaninalettertoalaywoman:

WhatistheSoundoftheSingleHand?Whenyouclap
togetherbothhandsasharpsoundisheard;whenyouraisethe
onehandthereisneithersoundnorsmell....
Thisissomethingthatcanbynomeansbeheardwiththe
ear.Ifconceptionsanddiscriminationsarenotmixedwithinitand
itisquiteapartfromseeing,hearing,perceiving,andknowing,
andif,whilewalking,standing,sitting,andreclining,youproceed
straightforwardlywithoutinterruptioninthestudyofthiskoan,
thenintheplacewherereasonisexhaustedandwordsare
ended,youwillsuddenly...breakdownthecaveofignorance...
.Atthistimethebasisofmind,consciousness,andemotionis
suddenlyshattered.
19

Butthisisnottheend;ratheritisthebeginning.Aftera
disciplehaspenetratedthiskoan,hereceiveskoansofincreasing
difficulty.FromHakuin'sownexperienceheknewthatsatori
experiencescouldberepeatedandcouldbecomeeverdeeper
andmoremeaningful.Althoughhehimselfneverchosetoovertly
systematizeandcategorizekoans,hisheirsdidnothesitatetodo
so,creatingthestructurethatismodernRinzaiZen.
HowdidZenfinallyemerge,afterallthecenturiesandthe
convolutions?AsHakuin'sdescendantstaughtZen,amonk
enteringthemonasterywasassignedakoanchosenbythe
master.Hewasexpectedtomeditateonthiskoanuntilhis
kensho,hisfirstglimmerofsatori,whichmightrequiretwoto
threeyears.Afterthisanewphaseofstudybegan.Themonk
wasthenexpectedtoworkhiswaythroughaprogramofkoans,
requiringasmuchasadecademore,afterwhichhemight
meditateonhisown,inseclusion,foratimelonger.
20

Themasterworkedwithmonksindividually(apractice
reputedlyleftoverfromthetimewhenChinese-speakingmasters
hadtocommunicateinwriting)viaaface-to-faceinterview
(senzen)reminiscentofaMarineCorpsdrillinstructorharassinga
recruit.Themonkwouldbowtothemaster,seathimself,and
submithisattemptatresolutionofthekoan.Themastermight
eitheracknowledgehisinsight,givehimsomeobliqueguidance,
orsimplygreethimwithstonysilenceandringforthenext
recruitsignifyinganunsatisfactoryanswer.
Hakuinmadehisdisciplesmeditate;hemadethemstruggle
throughkoanafterkoan;hemademonasticdisciplineasrigorous
aspossible;andhetaughtthatitisnotenoughmerelytobe
interestedinyourselfandyourownenlightenment.Butheinsisted
thatifyoufollowallhisteachings,ifyoumeditatetherightway
andworkthroughincreasinglydifficultkoans,youtoocanfindthe
enlightenmenthefound,anenlightenmentthatexpresseditselfin
anenormousphysicalvitality.

EventhoughIampastseventynowmyvitalityistentimesas
greatasitwaswhenIwasthirtyorforty.Mymindandbodyare
strongandIneverhavethefeelingthatIabsolutelymustliedown
torest.ShouldIwanttoIfindnodifficultyinrefrainingfromsleep
fortwo,three,orevensevendays,withoutsufferinganydeclinein
mymentalpowers.Iamsurroundedbythree-tofive-hundred
demandingstudents,andeventhoughIlectureonthescriptures
oronthecollectionsoftheMasters'sayingsforthirtytofiftydays
inarow,itdoesnotexhaustme.
21

Hakuinwasaprolificwriterandalwaysawareofhisaudience.
Forhislayfollowers,hewroteinsimpleJapaneseandrelatedhis
teachingstotheneedsandlimitationsofsecularlife.Forhismonk
discipleshewroteinamorescholarlystyle.Andfinally,wehave
manylongelegantletterscomposedforvariousdignitariesof
governmentandthearistocracy.
Healsowasanartistofnote,producingsomeofthemost
powerfulZen-stylepaintingsofanyJapanese.Likehiswritings,
theseworksarevigorous,impulsive,anddynamic.Heseemsto
havebeenaninspirationformanylaterZenartists,including
Sengai(1750-1837)andtheZenpoetRyokan(1758-1831).
22

Hakuindiedinhissleepatageeighty-three.Duringhislifehe
hadreestablishedRinzaiZeninJapaninaformfullyasrigorous
aseverpracticedinthemonasteriesofT'angandSungChina,
andhehadsimultaneouslydiscoveredawaythisZencouldbe
madeaccessibletolaymen,throughmeditationinactivity.
WhereaspreviousJapaneseteachershadletkoanpractice
atrophyinordertoattractagreaternumberoffollowers,Hakuin
simultaneouslymadeZenbothmoreauthenticandmorepopular.
HisgeniustherebysavedtraditionalZeninitsclassicalform,
whileatlastmakingitaccessibleandmeaningfulinmodernlife.

ChapterNineteen ChapterNineteen ChapterNineteen ChapterNineteen

REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS

WhatistheresilienceofZenthathasallowedittosurviveand
flourishoverallthecenturies,eventhoughfrequentlyatodds
philosophicallywithitsmilieu?Andwhyhavetheinsightsof
obscureruralteachersfromtheChineseandJapaneseMiddle
AgesremainedpertinenttomuchofmodernlifeintheWest?On
theotherhand,whyhastherebeenaconsistentcriticismofZen
(fromearlyChinatothepresentday)condemningitasaretreat
fromrealityorworse,apreoccupationwithselfamidstaworld
thatcallsforsocialconscience?
Thesequestionsarecomplex,buttheyshouldbe
acknowledgedinanyinquiryintoZenthought.Theyarealso
mattersofopinion:thosewishingtoseeZenasunwholesomeare
fixedintheircriticalviews,justasthosecommittedtoZenpractice
areunshakablysteadfast.Whatfollowsisalsoopinion,even
thoughanattempthasbeenmadetomaintainbalance.

SOCIALCONSCIENCEINZEN SOCIALCONSCIENCEINZEN SOCIALCONSCIENCEINZEN SOCIALCONSCIENCEINZEN

AdistinguishedmodernZenmasterwasonceaskedifZen
followerslookedonlyinward,withnoconcernforothers.He
repliedthatinZenthedistinctionbetweenoneselfandtheworld
wasthefirstthingtobedissolved.Consequently,mereself-loveis
impossible;itresolvesnaturallyintoaloveofallthings.Statedin
thisway,Zenteachingsbecome,inatwinkling,aprofoundmoral
philosophy.Wherethereisnodistinctionbetweentheuniverse
andourselves,theveryconceptoftheegoisinappropriate.We
cannotthinkofourselveswithoutsimultaneouslythinkingof
others.Zenisnot,therefore,anobsessionwiththeself,butrather
anobsessionwiththeuniverse,withallthingsfromnaturetothe
socialbettermentofall.AlthoughZeninitiallyforcesanoviceto
focusonhisownmind,thisisonlytoenablehimorhertoattain
theinsighttomergewithallthings,greatandsmall.TrueZen
introspectioneventuallymustleadtothedissolutionoftheself.
Whenthisoccurs,wenolongerneedthechidingofaGolden
Rule.
Itisfairtoquestionwhetherthisparticularviewofsocial
conscience,whichmightbedescribedasmore"passive"than
"active,"adequatelyrefutesthechargeof"me-ism"inZen.But
perhapslessissometimesmoreinthelongrun.Thereisnogreat
historyofZencharity,butthentherehavebeenfewifanybloody
ZenCrusadesandlittleofthereligiouspersecutionsocommonto
Westernmoralsystems.PerhapsthehumanisminZentakesa
gentler,lessflamboyantform.Inthescalesofharmandhelpit
seemsasnobleasanyoftheworld'sotherspiritualpractices.

ZENANDCREATIVITY ZENANDCREATIVITY ZENANDCREATIVITY ZENANDCREATIVITY

ZengainedfromTaoismtheinsightthattotalrelianceonlogical
thoughtstiflesthehumanmind.Logic,theyfound,isbestsuitedto
analyzingandcategorizingfunctionstodayincreasingly
delegatedtothecomputer.Whereasthelogicalmodeofthought
canonlymanipulatetheworldviewofgivenparadigm,intuition
caninspiregenuinecreativity,sinceitisnotshackledbythe
nagginganalyticalmind,whichoftenservesonlytointimidate
imaginativethought.Zenstruggledrelentlesslytodeflatethe
pomposityofman'srationality,therebyreleasingthepotentialof
intuition.Althoughmuchresearchhasariseninrecenttimesto
pursuethesameeffectfrom"brainstorming"todrugsZen
challengedtheproblemmanycenturiesago,anditspowerful
toolsofmeditationandthekoansstilltauntourmodernshortcuts.

ZENANDMINDRESE ZENANDMINDRESE ZENANDMINDRESE ZENANDMINDRESEARCH ARCH ARCH ARCH

ThatZenideasshouldfindaplaceinpsychoanalysisisnot
surprising.Meditationhaslongbeenusedtostillthedistraught
mind.Japaneseresearchershavestudiedtheeffectsof
meditationonbrainactivityformanyyears,andnowsimilar
studiesarealsounderwayintheWest.Theconnectionbetween
Zen"enlightenment"andaheightenedstateof"consciousness"
hasbeenexaminedbypsychologistsasdiverseasErichFromm
andRobertOrnstein.Butperhapsmostsignificantly,ourrecent
researchinthehemisphericspecializationofthebrainwhich
suggestsourlefthemisphereistheseatoflanguageand
rationalitywhiletherightdominatesintuitionandcreativity
appearstovalidatecenturies-oldZeninsightsintothedichotomy
ofthought.Zen"research"onthemind'scomplementarymodes
maywelllightthepathtoafullerunderstandingofthediverse
powersofthehumanmind.

ZENANDTHEARTS ZENANDTHEARTS ZENANDTHEARTS ZENANDTHEARTS

AttimestheancientChineseandJapaneseartformsinfluenced
byZenseemactuallytoanticipatemanyoftheaesthetic
principleswenowcall"modern."Sixteenth-centuryZenceramics
couldeasilypassascreationsofacontemporarypotter,and
ancientChineseandJapaneseinksandcalligraphiesrecallthe
modernmonochromeavant-garde.Zenstonegardensattimes
seempureabstractexpressionism,andtheZen-influenced
landscapegardensofJapancanmanipulateourperceptionusing
tricksonlyrecentlyunderstoodintheWest.Japanesehaiku
poetryandNodrama,createdunderZeninfluence,anticipateour
moderndistrustoflanguage;andcontemporaryarchitectureoften
echoestraditionalJapanesedesignwithitspreferenceforclean
lines,openspaces,emphasisonnaturalmaterials,simplicity,and
theintegrationofhouseandgarden.
AestheticidealsemergingfromZenartfocusheavilyon
naturalness,ontheemphasisofman'srelationtonature.TheZen
artists,asdomanymoderns,likedasenseofthematerialsand
processofcreationtocomethroughinawork.Butthereisa
subtledifference.TheZenartistsfrequentlyincludedintheir
worksdevicestoensurethatthemessagereachedtheviewer.
Forexample,Zenceramicsarealwaysintendedtoforceusto
experiencethemdirectlyandwithoutanalysis.Thetrickwasto
makethesurfaceseemcuriouslyimperfect,almostasthoughthe
artistwerecarelessintheapplicationofafinish,leavingituneven
andrough.Attimestheglazeseemsstillintheprocessofflowing
overapiece,unevenandmarredbyashesandlumps.Thereis
nosenseof"prettiness":insteadtheyfeeloldandmarredbylong
use.Buttheartistconsciouslyisforcingustoexperiencethe
pieceforitself,notasjustanotheriteminthecategoryofbowl.
Weareledintotheprocessofcreation,andourawarenessofthe
pieceisheightenedjustasanunfinishedpaintingbeckonsusto
pickupabrush,Thisdeviceofdrawingusintoinvolvement,
commontoZenartsfromhaikutoinkpainting,isoneofthegreat
insightsofZencreativity,anditissomethingweintheWestare
onlynowlearningtouseeffectively.

ZENANDPERCEPTION ZENANDPERCEPTION ZENANDPERCEPTION ZENANDPERCEPTION

OneofthemajorinsightsofZenisthattheworldshouldbe
perceiveddirectly,notasanarrayofembodiednames.Asnoted,
theZenartsreinforcethisattitudebydeliberatelythwartingverbal
oranalyticalappreciation.Weareforcedtoapproachthemwith
ourlogicalfacultiesinabeyance.Thisinsistenceondirect
perceptionisoneofthegreatestgiftsofZen.Noothermajor
systemofthoughtchampionsthisinsightsoclearlyand
forthrightly.Zenwouldhaveourperceptionoftheworld,indeed
ourverythoughts,benonverbal.Byexperiencingnaturedirectly,
andbythinkinginpureideasratherthanwith"internalized
speech,"wecanimmeasurablyenrichourexistence.Thedawn,
theflower,thebreezearenowexperiencedmoreexquisitelyin
theirfullreality.Zenworkedhardtodebunkthemysteriouspower
wemistakenlyascribetonamesandconcepts,sincetheZen
mastersknewtheseserveonlytoseparateusfromlife.Shutting
offtheconstantbabbleinourheadisdifficult,buttherichnessof
experienceandimagerythatemergesisastounding.Itisas
thoughascreenbetweenusandoursurroundingshassuddenly
droppedaway,puttingusintouchwiththeuniverse.

THEZENLIFE THEZENLIFE THEZENLIFE THEZENLIFE

TheheartofZenispractice,"sitting,"physicaldiscipline.For
thosewishingtoexperienceZenratherthanmerelyspeculate
aboutit,thereisnootherway.Koanscanbestudied,butwithout
theguidanceofpracticeunderamaster,theyarehardlymore
thananintellectualexercise.Onlyinformalmeditationcanthere
betherealbeginningofunderstanding.Zenphilosophy,andall
thatcanbetransmittedinwords,isanabominationtothosewho
reallyunderstand.There'snoescapingtheTaoistadage,"Those
whospeakdonotknow,thosewhoknowdonotspeak."Words
canpointtheway,butthepathmustbetraveledinsilence.
***
NOTES NOTES NOTES NOTES

PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN PREFACETOZEN

1. ChangChung-yuan,Tao:ANewWayofThinking(NewYork:
PerennialLibrary,1977),p.4.
2. Ibid.,p.6.
3. Ibid.,p.50.
4. Ibid.,p.145.
5. Ibid.,p.153.
6. QuotedinMaxKaltenmark,LaoTzuandTaoism(Stanford,
Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress,1969),p.20.
7. BurtonWatson,IntroductiontoTheCompleteWorksof
ChuangTzu(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1968),p.
7.
8. ArthurWaley,ThreeWaysofThoughtinAncientChina
(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,undatedreprintof1939
edition),p.15.
9. Gai-fuFengandJaneEnglish,trans.,ChuangTsu(NewYork:
VintageBooks,1974),p.55.
10. Ibid.309
11. Wm.TheodoredeBary,Wing-tsitChan,andBurtonWatson,
SourcesofChineseTradition,Vol.1(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1960),p.240.
12. Ibid.,pp.243-244.
13. QuotedbyFungYu-lan,AShortHistoryofChinese
Philosophy(NewYork:MacmillanPublishingCo.,Inc.,1948),
p.230.
14. Quotedinibid.,p.235.
15. D.HowardSmith,ChineseReligions(NewYork:Holt,
RinehartandWinston,1968),p.106.
16. FrederickJ.Streng,Emptiness:AStudyinReligiousMeaning
(Nashville:AbingdonPress,1967),pp.159-60.
17. ArthurF.Wright,BuddhisminChineseHistory(Stanford:
StanfordUniversityPress,1959),p.63.
18. WalterLiebenthal,ChaoLun:TheTreatisesofSeng-chao
(HongKong:hongKongUniversityPress,1968),p.62.
242/NOTES10,11)1(1,,pp.fifif)7.
20. HelnrichDumoulin,AHistoryofZenBadtihism(Boston:
BeaconPress,1000),|i.60,
21. QuotedbyFungYuIan,ShortHistoryof(Chinese
Philosophy,p,252,
1. 1. 1. 1. BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPATRIARCHOFZEN BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPATRIARCHOFZEN BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPATRIARCHOFZEN BODHIDHARMA:FIRSTPATRIARCHOFZEN

1. TranslatedbyD.T.Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,First
Series(NewYork:GrovePress,1961),p.179.Thisisa
translationofapassagefromtheRecordsofthe
TransmissionoftheLampcompiledin1004byTao-yuan.A
simplerversionofthestorycanbefoundintheoriginal
sourcedocument,theFurtherBiographiesofEminentPriests
(Hsukao-sengchuan),preparedaroundtheyear645byTao
hsuan,andtranslatedInCat'sYawn,publishedbytheFirst
ZenInstituteofAmerica,NewYork,1947.Thestoryis
repeatedalsointheCh'uanfg-paochi,preparedca,70010
byTuFei,
2. Thefactthatthisepisodedoesnotappearintheearlieststory
ofBodhidharma'slifemakesoneskepticalaboutits
authenticity.ItisknownthatEmperorWuwelcomedanother
famousIndianmissionary,Paramartha,wholandedinCanton
in540(Smith,ChineseReligions,p.120).Thismonk
espousedtheIdealisticschoolofBuddhism,whichwasat
oddswiththeschoolofCh'an.Itseemspossiblethatthestory
ofBodhidharma'smeetingwasconstructedtocounterthe
prestigethatWu'sInterestundoubtedlygavetheIdealistic
school.
3. TheBuddhistconceptofMeritmightbelikenedtoaspiritual
savingsaccount,Meritaccruesontherecordofone'sgood
deedsandprovidesseveralformsofrewardinthisworldand
thenext,TheIdeathatgooddeedsdonotengenderMerit
seemstohavebeenpioneeredbyTao-sheng(ca,360434),
theChineseoriginatoroftheideaofSuddenEnlightenment,
"Emptiness"is,ofcourse,theteachingoftheMiddlePathof
Nagarjuna,TheimplicationthatEmperorWuwasstartledby
thisconceptiswortharaisedeyebrow,Sunyataor
"emptiness"washardlyunknownIntheBuddhistschoolsof
thetime.
Thiswholestoryissuspect,beingfirstfoundIntheCh'uanfa-
paochiofTuFei(ca.70010),butnotintheearlierbiography,
theHsukao-sengchuan(FurtherBiographiesofEminent
PriestsI,compiledbyTao-hsuanaround645,Thereis,
incidentally,anothercompetingstoryofamonknamed
BodhidharmainChina,HewasdescribedasaPersianand
wasreportedinYangIIsuan-chih'sBuddhistMonasteriesIn
Loyang(Lo-yangCh'leh-lan-chi),writtenIn547,tohavebeen
associatedwiththeYung-ningmonastery,whichwouldhave
beenpossibleonlybetweentheyears516and528.This
Persianfigureapparentlyclaimedtobe150yearsinage,and
hemostprobablycametoChinaviathetradingportof
CantonusedbyPersians.Thisfacthasbeenusedbysometo
castdoubtonthemoreacceptedstoryofaSouthIndian
monknamedBodhidharmaarrivingatCantonbetween520
and525.PerhapsalegendaryPersianwastransformedintoa
legendaryIndianbytheDhyanaschool,orperhapsitwasa
differentindividual.
4. ThisistheconclusionoftheleadingZenscholartoday,Philip
Yampolsky,inThePlatformSutraofTheSixthPatriarch(New
York:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1967),p.10.
5. Englishtranslationsofvariousversionsofthisessaymaybe
foundInCat'sYawnbytheFirstZenInstituteofAmerica;In
I).T,Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries;andin
JohnC.H.Wu,TheGoldenAgeofZen(Taipei:United
PublishingCenter,1907).Concerningthisessay,Philip
Yampolsky(privatecommunication)hasnoted,"Whereasa
versionexistsInTheTransmissionoftheLamp,varioustexts
havebeenfoundintheTun-huangdocumentsand
elsewhere,sothatamorecompleteversionisavailable.Itis
consideredauthentic,"
6.Suzuki,EssaysinAnnBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.180.
7. Ibid.,pp.180-81.
8. Thispointisenlargedconsiderablyinanessayattributedto
Bodhidharmabutmostlikelyapocryphal,whichIstranslated
InD.T,Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,ThirdSeries(New
York:SamuelWeiser,Inc.,1971)pp.24-30,
9. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.181.
10. Suzuki,Ibid.
11. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,pp.4050.
12. Ibid.,p.50.
13. Ibid.,p.50.
14.SuzukitranslatesthepassagefromtheVajrasamadhiSutrain
EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,pp.183-84.Portions
areasfollows:"SaidtheBuddha:Thetwoentrancesare
'EntrancebyReason'and'EntrancebyConduct,''Entranceby
Reason'meanstohaveadeepfaithinthatallsentientbeings
areidenticalinessencewiththetruenaturewhichisneither
unitynormultiplicity;onlyitisbecloudedbyexternalobjects,
Thenatureinitselfneitherdepartsnorcomes.Whenamanin
singlenessofthoughtabidesinchueh-kuan,hewillclearly
seeintotheBuddha-nature,ofwhichwecannotsaywhether
itexistsorexistsnot,andinwhichthereisneitherselfhood
norotherness...."Suzukitranslatesthetermchueh-kuanas
being"awakened"or"enlightened,"
15. HuShih,"TheDevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"
ChineseSocialandPoliticalScienceReview,15,4(January
1932),p.483,PhilipYampolsky(privatecommunication)has
questionedthisgeneralizationofHuShih,noting,"Therewere
fewpracticing'Zen'Buddhists,butotherChineseBuddhists
probablymeditatedseriously,althoughnotexclusively."
16. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p,186.
17. SeeHuShih,"DevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"p.
482:"Butthewholesystemofdhyanapractice,eveninits
conciseformaspresentedinthetranslatedmanuals,wasnot
fullyunderstoodbytheChineseBuddhists....Thebestproof
ofthisisthefollowingquotationfromHui-chiao,thescholarly
historianofBuddhismandauthorofthefirstseriesof
BuddhistBiographieswhichwasfinishedin519.Inhis
generalsummaryofthebiographiesofpractitionersof
dhyana,Hui-chiaosaid:'Buttheapparentutilityofdhyanalies
intheattainmentofmagicpowers...'.'"
18. Suzuki(EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.191),points
out,"Nagarjunasaysinhisfamouscommentaryonthe
Prajnaparamitasutra,'Moralconductistheskin,meditationis
theflesh,thehigherunderstandingisthebone,andthemind
subtleandgoodisthemarrow.'"Sincethiscommentarymust
havebeencommonknowledge,theinterestinBodhidharma's
allegedexchangewithhisdisciplesliesinhisrecastingofa
commoncoinage.
19. FromtheCh'uanfa-paochi(ca.700-10)ofTuFei,as
describedbyYampolsky,ThePlatformSutraoftheSixth
Patriach.Thisstoryhappenstoparallelcloselythe
posthumouscapersascribedtocertainfamousreligious
Taoistsoftheage.
20. Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.72.
21. HuShih,"DevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"p.52.

2.HUI 2.HUI 2.HUI 2.HUI- -- -K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN K'O:SECONDPATRIARCHOFZEN

1. TranslatedinSuzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,
p.190.
2. HeiswelldocumentedinTao-hsuan'sHsukao-sengchuanor
FurtherBiographiesofEminentPriests(A.D.645).Selected
portionsofthisbiographyarerelatedinYampolsky,Platform
SutraoftheSixthPatriarch;andSuzuki,EssaysinZen
Buddhism,FirstSeries,whichformthebasisformuchofthe
historicalinformationreportedhere.Otherusefulsourcesare
Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism;andChouHsiang-kuang,
DhyanaBuddhisminChina(Allahabad,India:Indo-Chinese
LiteraturePublications,1960).
3. TheFurtherBiographiesofEminentPriestsbyTao-hsuan
declaresthatbanditswereresponsibleforseveringhisarm,
butthe710Chuanfa-paochiofTuFeipiouslyrefutesthis
version,presumablysinceeffortswerestartingtoget
underwaytoconstructaZenlineage,anddramaticepisodes
ofinteractionwereessential.Thislaterworkwasalsothefirst
toreportthatBodhidharmawaspoisonedandthenlaterseen
walkingbacktoIndia.
4. AsreportedbyDumoulin(HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.73),
thisstory,whichistypicaloflaterCh'anteachingmethods,
firstappearssomefivehundredyearsafterBodhidharma's
death,intheChing-tech'uan-teng-lu(1004).
5. Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.74.
6. D.T.Suzuki,StudiesintheLankavataraSutra(London:
Routledge&KeganPaul,1930)pp.4-7.
7. Ibid,p.59.
8. D.T.Suzuki,ManualofZenBuddhism(NewYork:Grove
Press,1960),pp.50-51.
9. D.T.Suzuki,TheLankavataraSutra(London:Routledge&
KeganPaul,1932),p.79.
10. Ibid.,p.81.
11. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.193.
12. Ibid.,p.194.
13. Ibid.,pp.194-95.
14. ChouHsiang-kuang,DhyanaBuddhisminChina,p.24.

3.SENG 3.SENG 3.SENG 3.SENG- -- -TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO TS'AN,TAO- -- -HSIN,FA HSIN,FA HSIN,FA HSIN,FA- -- -JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG JUNG,ANDHUNG- -- -JEN:FOUR JEN:FOUR JEN:FOUR JEN:FOUR
EARLYMASTERS EARLYMASTERS EARLYMASTERS EARLYMASTERS

1. Asusual,thebiographycanbetracedinthreesources.The
earliest,theHsukao-sengchuanofTao-hsuan(645),
apparentlydoesnotmentionSeng-ts'an,orifitdoessoit
giveshimadifferentname.However,intheCh'uanfa-paochi
ofTuFei(710)hereceivesaperfunctorybiography.The
moreembellishedtale,givingexchangesandacopyofhis
supposedpoem,istobefoundinthelaterwork,theChing-te
ch'uan-teng-lu(1004).
Dumoulin(HistoryofZenBuddhism)providesadiscussionof
theearliesthistoricalnoticesofSeng-ts'an.The710version
ofthehistoryistranslatedinCat'sYawn(p.14)andthe1004
versionisrepeatedinSuzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,First
Series.
2. Suzuki,whorecountsthislaststoryinEssaysinZen
Buddhism,FirstSeries(p.195),pointsoutidenticalinsightsin
thethirdchapteroftheVimalakirtiSutra.
3. ReportedlyHui-k'oalsotransmittedhiscopyofthe
LankavataratoSeng-ts'an,declaringthatafteronlyfourmore
generationsthesutrawouldceasetohaveanysignificance
(Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.11).As
thingsturnedout,thiswasmoreorlesswhathappened,as
theLankavatarawasreplacedintheCh'anschoolsbythe
moreeasilyunderstoodDiamondSutra.TheLankavatara
schoolwasdestinedtobeshort-livedandtoprovidenothing
morethanasacredrelicforthedynamicCh'anteacherswho
wouldfollow.
4. Suzukipointsout(EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.
196)thattheChinesewordhsincanmeanmind,heart,soul,
andspirit,beingalloranyatagiventime.Heprovidesafull
translationofthepoem,asdoesR.H.BlythinZenandZen
Classics,Vol.1(Tokyo:HokuseidoPress,1960).
5. Blyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.1,p.100.
6. Ibid.,p.101.
7. Ibid.,p.103.
8. AdetaileddiscussionofthiseramaybefoundinWoodbridge
Bingham,TheFoundingoftheT'angDynasty(NewYork:
OctagonBooks,1970).
9. HisbiographymaybefoundinC.P.Fitzgerald,Sonof
Heaven(NewYork:AMSPressInc.,1971),reprintof1933
CambridgeUniversityPressedition.
10. SeeDumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.78.
11. ThisstoryistranslatedinCat'sYawn,p.18.
12. Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,pp.78-79.
13. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,ThirdSeries,p.28.
14. AlucidaccountofFa-jungmaybefoundinChangChung-
yuan,trans.,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism(New
York:RandomHouse,1969;paperbackedition,Vintage,
1971),whichisabeautifultranslationofportionsofThe
TransmissionoftheLamp(Ching-tech'uan-teng-lu),thetext
from1004.Thistextwasamajorsourcefortheabbreviated
biographygivenhere.
15. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.19.
16. Ibid.,p.5.
17. AversionofthisexchangeisgiveninSuzuki,EssaysinZen
Buddhism,FirstSeries,p.202.
18. SeeYampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.16.

4.SHEN 4.SHEN 4.SHEN 4.SHEN- -- -HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN HSIUANDSHEN- -- -HUI:GRADUAL"AND"SUDDEN" HUI:GRADUAL"AND"SUDDEN" HUI:GRADUAL"AND"SUDDEN" HUI:GRADUAL"AND"SUDDEN"
M MM MASTERS ASTERS ASTERS ASTERS

1. ForanexcellentbiographyseeC.P.Fitzgerald,TheEmpress
Wu(Vancouver:UniversityofBritishColumbia,1968).
Curiously,nowhereinthisbiographyistherementionofher
lionizingoftheCh'anmasterShen-hsiu,somethingthat
figureslargelyinallCh'anhistories.
2. AbiographyofShen-hsiufromCh'ansourcesmaybefoundin
Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch.Further
detailsmaybefoundinHuShih,"Ch'an(Zen)Buddhismin
China:ItsHistoryandMethod,"PhilosophyEastandWest,3,
1(April1953),pp.3-24.SeealsoKennethCh'en,Buddhism
inChina(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1964).
3. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,p.214.
4. Twobooksthatgivesomethingoftheintellectualatmosphere
ofT'angChinaarebiographiesofitstwoleadingpoets:Arthur
Waley,ThePoetryandCareerofLiPo(London:George
Allen&Unwin,Ltd.,1950);andA.R.Davis,TuFu(NewYork:
TwaynePublishers,Inc.,1971).
5. ForadetailedbiographyofShen-hui,seeYampolsky,Platform
SutraoftheSixthPatriarch.
6. ThescholarwhobroughtthesignificanceofShen-huitothe
attentionoftheworldwasHuShih,whoselandmarkEnglish-
languagepapersonZenare"Ch'an(Zen)BuddhisminChina:
ItsHistoryandMethod"and"TheDevelopmentofZen
BuddhisminChina."Theseworksdrawuponthemanuscripts
discoveredthiscenturyintheTun-huangcavesinthe
mountainsoffarnorthwestChina.Thesemanuscriptsclarified
manyofthemysteriessurroundingtheearlyhistoryofCh'an,
enablingscholarsforthefirsttimetodistinguishbetweenreal
andmanufacturedhistorysincesomeoftheworkswere
writtenbeforeCh'anhistoriansbegantoembroideruponthe
knownfacts.Abriefbutusefulaccountofthefindingofthese
cavesandthesubsequentremovalofmanyofthe
manuscriptstotheBritishMuseuminLondonandthe
BibliothequeNationaleinParismaybefoundinCat'sYawn.
Thebestdiscussionofthesignificanceofthesefindsandof
HuShih'slifelonginterpretiveworkisprovidedbyYampolsky,
PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch.
Regardingthecircumstancesofthissermon,Walter
Liebenthal("TheSermonofShen-hui,"AsiaMajor,N.S.3,2
[1952],p.134)says,"Thereareonlytwoopportunitiesto
deliveraddressesintheritualofBuddhistmonasteries,one
duringtheuposathaceremonyheldmonthlywhenthe
pratimoksarulesarereadtothemembersofthecommunity
andtheyareadmonishedtoconfesstheirsins,oneduringthe
initiationceremonyheldonceortwiceayear.Forthepurpose
ofinitiationspecialplatformsareraised,oneformonksand
onefornuns,insidethecompoundsofsomeespecially
selectedmonasteries."
7. QuotedinHildaHookham,AShortHistoryofChina(NewYork:
St.Martin'sPress,Inc.,1972;paperbackedition,NewYork:
NewAmericanLibrary,1972),p.175.
8. DiscussionsoftheadventuresofAnLu-shanmaybefoundin
mostgeneralsurveysofChinesehistory,includingHookham,
ShortHistoryofChina,WolframEberhard,AHistoryofChina
(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1960);Kenneth
ScottLatourette,TheChinese:TheirHistoryandCulture
(NewYork:Macmillan,1962);JohnA.Harrison,TheChinese
Empire(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,Inc.,1972);
andReneGrousset,TheRiseandSplendouroftheChinese
Empire(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1962).
9. ThisistheinterpretationofHuShih.Fortranslationsofthe
majorworksofShen-hui,seeWalterLiebenthal,"TheSermon
ofShen-hui,"pp.132-55;andWm.TheodoredeBary,ed.,
SourcesofChineseTradition,Vol.1.,pp.356-60.Alsosee
EdwardConze,ed.,BuddhistTextsThroughtheAges
(Oxford:BrunoCassirer,1954),excerptedinWadeBaskin,
ed.,ClassicsinChinesePhilosophy(Totowa,N.J.:Littlefield,
Adams,1974).AshorttranslationisalsoprovidedinSuzuki,
EssaysinZenBuddhism,ThirdSeries,pp.37ff.Thefullest
translationoftheworksofShen-huifoundintheTun-huang
cavesisinJacquesGernet,Entret/ensduMaitredeDhyana
Chen-houeiduHo-tso(Hanoi:Publicationsdel'ecole
frangaised'Extreme-Orient,Vol.31,1949).AnEnglish
translationofaportionofthistextmaybefoundinWing-tsit
Chan,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1963).
10. Liebenthal,"SermonofShen-hui,"pp.136ff.
11. Ibid.,p.144.
12. Ibid.,pp.146,147,149.
13. SeeHuShih,"Ch'an(Zen)BuddhisminChina."
14. HuShih,"DevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"p.493.
15. HuShih,"Ch'an(Zen)BuddhisminChina,"p.11.
16. ThedifferencesbetweentheNorthernandSouthernschools
ofCh'anduringtheeighthcenturyareexploredintheworks
ofHuShih,PhilipYampolsky,andWalterLiebenthalnoted
elsewhereinthesenotes.OthergeneralsurveysofChinese
religionandculturethathaveusefulanalysesofthequestion
includeWing-tsitChan,SourceBookinChinesePhilosophy,
pp.425ff.,D.HowardSmith,ChineseReligions;andFung
Yu-lan,ShortHistoryofChinesePhilosophy.
17. AstudyofthelastdistinguishedmemberofShen-hui's
school,thescholarTsung-mi(780-841),maybefoundin
JeffreyBroughton,"Kuei-fengTsung-mi:TheConvergenceof
Ch'anandtheTeachings"(Ph.D.dissertation,Columbia
University,1975).
18. D.T.Suzuki,"Zen:AReplytoHuShih,"PhilosophyEastand
West,3,1(April1953),pp.25-46.

5.HUI 5.HUI 5.HUI 5.HUI- -- -NENG:THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROF NENG:THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROF NENG:THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROF NENG:THESIXTHPATRIARCHANDFATHEROF
MODERNZEN MODERNZEN MODERNZEN MODERNZEN

1. AnumberofEnglishtranslationsofthePlatformSutraarein
existence.Amongthemostauthoritativemustcertainlybe
countedYampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch;and
Wing-tsitChan,ThePlatformScripture(NewYork:St.John's
UniversityPress,1963).AwidelycirculatedtranslationisinA.
F.PriceandWongMou-Lam,TheDiamondSutraandthe
SutraofHui-Neng(Berkeley,Calif.:Shambhala,1969).
Anotherwell-knownversionisfoundinCharlesLuk,Ch'an
andZenTeaching:ThirdSeries(NewYork:SamuelWeiser,
Inc.,1971).Twolesser-knowntranslationsarePaulF.Fung
andGeorgeD.Fung,TheSutraoftheSixthPatriarchonthe
PristineOrthodoxDharma(SanFrancisco:Buddha's
UniversalChurch,1964);andHsuanHua,TheSixth
Patriarch'sDharmaJewelPlatformSutra(SanFrancisco:
BuddhistTextTranslationSociety,1971).
2. FromtheDiamondSutra,containedinDwightGoddard,ed.,A
BuddhistBible(Boston:BeaconPress,1970),p.102.Another
versionmaybefoundinPriceandWong,DiamondSutraand
theSutraofHui-neng.Anextendedcommentarymaybe
foundinCharlesLuk,
Ch'anandZenTeaching,FirstSeries,pp.149-208.Later
Ch'anistshavemaintainedthatHung-jentaughtboththe
DiamondSutraandtheLankavataraSutra,therespective
scripturesofwhatcametobecalledSouthernandNorthern
schoolsofCh'an.However,mostscholarstodaybelievethat
hismajoremphasiswasontheLankavataraSutra,notthe
DiamondSutraasthelegendofHui-nengwouldhave.
3. FromPriceandWong,DiamondSutraandtheSutraofHui-
neng,p.15.
4. Ibid.,p.18.
5. TheearliestversionofthePlatformSutraisthatfoundinthe
Tun-huangcavesandtranslatedbyYampolskyandChan.
ThismanuscriptYampolskydatesfromthemiddleoftheninth
century.Amuchlaterversion,dated1153,wasfoundina
templeinKyoto,Japan,in1934.Thisissaidtobeacopyofa
versiondatingfrom967.Thestandardversionupuntilthis
centurywasamuchlongerworkwhichdatesfrom1291.Asa
generalruleofthumbwiththeearlyCh'anwritings,theshorter
thework,thebetterthechanceitisearlyandauthentic.For
thisreason,theshorterTun-huangworksarenowbelievedto
bethemostauthoritativeandbestaccountofthethoughtsof
theSixthPatriarch.
6. Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.69.
7. ThemostobviousproblemwithattributionofthePlatform
SutratoHui-nengisthatmanyofthesectionsofthesermon
appearalmostverbatiminTheSermonofShen-hui,indicating
thateitheronewasacopyoftheotherortheyhadacommon
source(whichcouldhavebeenthesimplesettingdownofa
verbaltradition).IthasbeenpointedoutthatShen-hui,who
praisesHui-nengtotheskiesinhissermon,neverclaimsto
bequotingthemaster.Instead,hepronouncesashisowna
numberofpassagesthatonedaywouldbefoundinthework
attributedtoHui-neng.ThescholarHuShihhasdrawnthe
mostobviousconclusionandhasdeclaredthatShen-huiand
hisschoolmoreorlesscreatedthelegendofHui-nenglock,
stock,andsutra.Othersrefusetogothisfar,preferring
insteadtoconcludethatShen-huiandHui-nengaremerely
tworepresentativesofthesameschool.
8. Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.157.
9. Yampolsky,Ibid.,p.140
10. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.82.
11. Seeespecially"IntimationsofImmortality":
Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting:TheSoulthatrises
withus,ourlife'sStar,Hathhadelsewhereitssetting,and
comethfromafar:Notinentireforgetfulness,Andnotinutter
nakedness,Buttrailingcloudsofglorydowecome...
12. Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,pp.141-42.
13. Ibid.,p.117.
14. Fromibid.,pp.138-39.ForinterpretivecommentseeD.T.
Suzuki,TheZenDoctrineofNoMind(NewYork:Samuel
Weiser,1972).
15. Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,pp.116-
17.

6.MA 6.MA 6.MA 6.MA- -- -TSU:ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT TSU:ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT TSU:ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT TSU:ORIGINATOROF"SHOCK"ENLIGHTENMENT

1. SeeBroughton,Kuei-fengTsung-mi:TheConvergenceof
Ch'anandtheTeachings.Itwasalsoaroundthistimethatthe
ideaoftwenty-eightIndianPatriarchsofZen,culminatingin
Bodhidharma,wasfinallyironedoutandmadepartoftheZen
tradition.
2. SeeArthurWaley,TheLifeandTimesofPoChu-i(London:
Allen&Unwin,1949).
3. HuShih,"DevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"p.497.
4. Hu-Shin,"Ch'an(Zen)BuddhisminChina,"p.18.
5. ForsomeofHuai-jang'sattributedteachings,seeCharles
Luk,TheTransmissionoftheMindOutsidetheTeaching
(NewYork:GrovePress,1975),pp.32-37.Thereliabilityof
thistextshouldbequestioned,however,ifweacceptPhilip
Yampolsky'sessayinPlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.
53:"Huai-jang(677-744)...isknownasadiscipleofHui-
neng.Informationabouthimisbasedonsourcescomposed
muchlaterthanhisdeath;nomentionismadeofhiminany
eighth-centurywork...."
6. JeffreyBroughton("Kuei-fengTsung-mi,"p.27)pointsoutthat
Ma-tsu'smaster'stechniqueforachieving"no-mind"wasto
chantaphraseuntilrunningoutofbreath,atwhichtimethe
activitiesofthemindwouldseemtoterminateareactionthe
moreskepticalmightcallphysiological.Breathcontroland
breathexercises,itwillberecalled,havealwaysfigured
largelyinIndianmeditativepractices.
7. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
148.ThediscussionofMa-tsuinthisvolumesupplied
valuablebackgroundfortheanalysisprovidedhere.
8. HuShih,"DevelopmentofZenBuddhisminChina,"p.498.
9. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
130.
10. Ibid.,p.149.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. TherearemanytranslationsoftheMumonkan.Oneofthe
morerecentandscholarlyisbyZenkaiShibayama,Zen
CommentsontheMumonkan(NewYork:NewAmerican
Library,1975).
14. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.150.
15. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.95.
16. ThemostrecentandthemostdetailedtranslationoftheBlue
CliffRecordisbyThomasandJ.C.Cleary,TheBlueCIiff
Record,3vols.(Berkeley,Calif.:Shambhala,1977).
17. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.151.
18. Ibid.,p.151.
19. ThisstoryisrecountedinWu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.100.
20. Ibid.,p.102.
21. RecountedinIbid.,p.102.
22. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'ari
Buddhism,pp.150-52.
23. Ibid.,p.150.
24. SeeLuk,TransmissionoftheMindOutsidetheTeaching,
p.46.

7.HUAI 7.HUAI 7.HUAI 7.HUAI- -- -HAI:FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN HAI:FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN HAI:FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN HAI:FATHEROFMONASTICCH'AN

1. ThislocationisgivenbyJohnBlofeldinTheZenTeachingof
Hui-HaionSuddenIllumination(London:Ryder&Co.,1962;
paperbackreprint,NewYork:Weiser,1972),p.29.Charles
Luk(TransmissionoftheMindOutsidetheTeaching,p.50)
says:"Huai-hai,theDharma-successorofMaTsu,wasalso
calledPaiChang[PoCh'ang]afterthemountainwherehe
stayedatHungChou(nowNanchang,capitalofKiangsi
province).PaiChangmeans:Pai,onehundred,andChang,a
measureoftenfeet,i.e.,One-thousand-footmountain."
However,LukidentifiesthebirthplaceofHuai-haiasChang
LoinmodernFukienprovince,asdoesChouHsiang-kuangin
DhyanaBuddhisminChina.
2. Thisstoryisrepeatedinvariousplaces,includingWu,Golden
AgeofZen;andBlofeld,ZenTeachingofHuiHaionSudden
Illumination.Thislatterreferenceisaspartofadocument
knownastheTsung-chingRecord,beingarecordeddialogue
ofthemastertakendownbyamonknamedTsung-ching,
whowasacontemporaryofHuai-hai.
3. ThisstoryisCase53oftheHekiganrokuorBlueCliffRecord,
aSungDynastyperiodcollectionofCh'anstoriesandtheir
interpretation.Thebestcurrenttranslationisprobablyin
ClearyandCleary,BlueCliffRecord,Vol.2,p.357.
4. SeeLuk,TransmissionoftheMindOutsidetheTeaching,p.
46.
5. StoriesinvolvinghimmaybefoundintheMumonkan,Cases2
and40,andintheHekiganrokuorBlueCliffRecord,Cases
53,70,71,72.Themostcompleteaccountingofanecdotes
maybefoundinBlofeld,ZenTeachingsofHui-HaionSudden
Illumination;andThomasCleary,SayingsandDoingsofPai-
chang(LosAngeles:CenterPublicatons,1979).
6. KennethK.S.Ch'en,(TheChineseTransformationof
Buddhism[Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1973],p.
95)says,"BesidestheVinayacontrollingtheconductofthe
Buddhistclergy,thebasiccodegoverningBuddhistand
TaoistmonksandnunsduringtheT'angDynastywasthe
Tao-seng-ke(RulesconcerningBuddhistandTaoistclergy),
formulatedduringtheChen-kuanera,probably637.ThisTao-
seng-keisnolongerextant,however,buttheJapanesework
Soni-ryo,whichgovernstheconductofthecommunityof
monksandnunsinJapan,wasbasedonit.Thereforeastudy
oftheSoni-ryowouldgiveusagoodideaofthecontentsof
theTao-seng-ke....[Certain]provisionsoftheT'angcodes
supersededthemonasticcodeandcalledforpenaltiesfor
offenseswhichwentbeyondthosespecifiedintheSoni-ryoor
theBuddhistVinaya."
7. ForascholarlydiscussionoftheeconomicroleofBuddhismin
T'angChina,seeD.C.Twitchett,"MonasticEstatesinT'ang
China,"AsiaMajor,(1955-56),pp.123-46.Heexplainsthat
theT'anggovernmentwasalwaysatrifleuneasyaboutthe
presenceofun-taxedmonasticestablishments,andnot
withoutreason.BuddhisminT'angChinawasbigbusiness.
Thelargemonasterieswerebeneficiariesofgiftsand
bequestsfromthearistocracy,aswellasfromthepalace
itself.(Eunuchs,alongwithpalaceladies,wereparticularly
generous.)Laymenoftenwouldbequeaththeirlandstoa
monastery,sometimesincludinginthewillacurseonanyone
whomightlaterwishtotakethelandawayfromthechurch.
Thesegiftswerethoughttoensurebetterfortunesinthe
worldtocome,whilesimultaneouslyresolvingtaxdifficulties
forthedonor.Forthemonasteriesthemselvesthiswealth
couldonlyaccumulate,sinceitneverhadtobedivided
amongsons.AfterAnLu-shan'srebellion,aflavorof
feudalismhadpenetratedChinesesociety,andhugetracts
cametobeheldbytheBuddhistmonasteries,towhichentire
estatesweresometimesdonated.Asaresult,theBuddhists
hadenormouseconomicpower,althoughwemaysuspectthe
iconoclasticdhyanaestablishmentsinthesouthenjoyedlittle
ofit.
8. SeeDumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,pp.102-03.
9. SeeHeinrichDumoulinandRuthFullerSasaki,The
DevelopmentofChineseZen(NewYork:FirstZenInstituteof
America,1953),p.13.Interestingly,theVinayasect,founded
byTao-hsuan(596-667),wasprimarilyconcernedwiththe
lawsofmonasticdiscipline.ThefamiliarityofCh'anteachers
withtheconcernsofthissectmayhavecontributedtothe
desiretocreaterulesfortheirownassemblies.
10. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.109.
11. SeeD.T.Suzuki,TheZenMonk'sLife(NewYork:Olympia
Press,1972);EshinNishimura,Unsui:ADiaryofZen
MonasticLife(Honolulu:UniversityPressofHawaii,1973);
Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,FirstSeries,pp.314-362;
andKojiSato,TheZenLife(NewYork:
Weatherhill/Tankosha,1977).AsuccinctsummaryofZen
monasticlifeisalsoprovidedbySirCharlesEliotinJapanese
Buddhism(London:Routledge&KeganPaul,1935),p.406.
12. SeeBlofeld,ZenTeachingofHuiHaionSuddenIllumination,
p.52.
13. Ibid.,pp.60-61.
14. Ibid.,p. 48.
15. Ibid.,p. 133.
16. Ibid.,p. 77.
17. Ibid.,p. 55.
18. Ibid.,p. 56.
19. Ibid.,p. 78.
20. Ibid.,p. 54.

8.NAN 8.NAN 8.NAN 8.NAN- -- -CH'UANANDCHAO CH'UANANDCHAO CH'UANANDCHAO CH'UANANDCHAO- -- -CHOU:MASTERSOFTHE CHOU:MASTERSOFTHE CHOU:MASTERSOFTHE CHOU:MASTERSOFTHE
IRRATIONAL IRRATIONAL IRRATIONAL IRRATIONAL

1. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
153.
2. Ibid.,p.178.
3. AccordingtoabiographicalsketchofNan-ch'uangivenby
ClearyandClearyinBlueCliffRecord,p.262.
4. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.160.ThiswasalsoincorporatedintheBlueCliff
RecordasCase40(Ibid.,p.292),wheretheSung-era
commentaryisactuallymoreobscurethanwhatitattemptsto
explain.
5. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.136.
6. Ibid.,p.136.
7. Blyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.3,p.57.
8. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
159.
9. Ibid.,p.157.ThisanecdoteisalsoCase69oftheBlueCliff
Record.
10. Ibid.,p.161.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.,p.162.
13. Ibid.,p.164.TranslationofaT'angtext,"TheSayingsof
Chao-chou,"isprovidedbyYoelHoffman,RadicalZen
(Brookline,Mass.:AutumnPress,1978).
14. RecountedbyGarmaC.C.ChanginThePracticeofZen
(NewYork:Harper&Row,1959),p.24.ThisisalsoCase14
oftheMumonkanandCases63and64oftheBlueCliff
Record.
15. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.127.ThisisalsoCase19ofthe
Mumonkan.
16. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.159.
17. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.129.
18. Ibid.,p.133.
19. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.169.
20. Ibid.,p.140.
21. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.136.
22. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.171.
23. ThisisCase1oftheMumonkan,herequotedfromavery
readablenewtranslationbyKatsukiSekida,TwoZen
Classics:Mumonkan6-Hekiganroku(NewYork:Weatherhill,
1977),p.27.
24. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,pp.144-45.
25. Blyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.3,p.77.
26. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.145.
27. Ibid.,p.139.
28. Ibid.,p.146.
29. Ibid.,p.144.

9.P'ANGANDHAN 9.P'ANGANDHAN 9.P'ANGANDHAN 9.P'ANGANDHAN- -- -SHAN:LAYMANANDPOET SHAN:LAYMANANDPOET SHAN:LAYMANANDPOET SHAN:LAYMANANDPOET

1. SeeBurtonWatson,ColdMountain(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1970),p.13.ThisconceptoftheZen
laymanhaslongbeenapartofZenpracticeinJapan,andfor
thisreasonbothLaymanP'angandthepoetHan-shanare
favoriteCh'anfigureswiththeJapanese.Infact,the
eighteenth-centuryJapanesemasterHakuinwrotea
commentaryonHan-shan.
2. SeeRuthFullerSasaki,YoshitakaIriya,andDanaR.Frasier,
TheRecordedSayingsofLaymanP'ang(NewYork:
Weatherhill,1971),p.18.
3. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.145.Thisstoryisfamousandfoundinmany
sources.
4. Asevidencedbyacommonsayingofthetime:"InKiangsithe
MasterisMa-tsu;inHunantheMasterisShih-t'ou.Peoplego
backandforthbetweenthemallthetime,andthosewhodo
notknowthesetwogreatMastersarecompletelyignorant."
Yampolsky,PlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,p.55.
5. Sasakietal.,RecordedSayingsofLaymanP'ang,p.46.
6. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.145.
7. SeeIbid.,p.175.
8. Sasakietal.,RecordedSayingsofLaymanP'ang,p.47.
9. Luk,TransmissionoftheMindOutsidetheTeaching,p.42.
10. Sasakietal.,RecordedSayingsofLaymanP'ang,p.58.
11. Ibid.,p.69.
12. Ibid.,p.71
13. Ibid.,p.47.
14. Ibid.,p.88.
15. Ibid.,pp.54-55.Thetranslatorsexplainthelasttwoversesas
follows:"ThisisderivedfromtheoldChineseproverb:'Towin
byaflukeistofallintoafluke'(andthustolosebyafluke)."
Concerningthemeaningofthisexchange,itwouldseemthat
waterisherebeingusedasametaphorforthe
undifferentiatedVoid,whichsubsumesthetemporary
individualityofitspartsthewaytheseaisundifferentiated,yet
containswaves.WhenTan-hsiaacceptsthispremisealittle
tooautomatically,P'angisforcedtoshowhim(viaasplash)
thatwater(andbyextension,physicalmanifestationsofthe
componentsoftheVoid)canalsoassumeaphysicalreality
thatimpingesondailylife.Tan-hsiatriesfeeblytorespondby
returningthesplash,butheclearlylosttheexchange.
16.Ibid.p.73.
17.SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.176.AlsoseeSasakietal.,RecordedSayings
ofLaymanP'ang,p.75.
18.ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.177.
19.Sasakietal.,RecordedSayingsofLaymanP'ang,p.42.
Watson,ColdMountain,p.50.Watsonexplainsthatthe
20.ArthurWaley,"27PoemsbyHan-shan,"Encounter,3,3
(September1954),p.3.
21. openinglineabouttakingalongbookswhilehoeinginthe
fieldwas"Fromthestoryofanimpoverishedscholarofthe
formerHanDynastywhowassofondoflearningthathe
carriedhiscopiesoftheConfucianclassicsalongwhenhe
wenttoworkinthefields."Thelastlineis"Anallusiontothe
perch,strandedinacarriagerutintheroad,whoaskedthe
philosopherChuangTzuforadipperfulofwatersothathe
couldgoonliving."
22. Ibid.,p.56.
23.Waley,"27PoemsbyHan-shan,"p.6.
24.FromWuChi-yu,"AStudyofHanShan,"T'oungPao,45,4-5
(1957),p.432.
25. GarySnyder,"Han-shan,"InCyrilBirch,ed.,Anthologyof
ChineseLiterature,(NewYork:GrovePress,1965),p.
201.
26. SeeIbid.,pp.194-96.
27.SeeWatson,ColdMountain,p.14.Watsonsays,"Zen
commentatorshavethereforebeenforcedtoregardHan-
shan'sprofessionsofloneliness,doubt,anddiscouragement
notasrevelationsofhisownfeelingsbutasvicariousrecitals
oftheillsofunenlightenedmenwhichhecanstillsympathize
with,thoughhehimselfhastranscendedthem.Hethus
becomesthetraditionalBodhisattvafigurecompassionate,in
theworld,butnotofit."Watsonrejectsthisinterpretation.
28.Ibid.,p.67.
29.Ibid.,p.88.
30.Ibid.,p.78.
31.Ibid.,p.81.
32.Ibid.,pp.11-12.
33.Snyder,"Han-shan,"p.202.

10.HUANG 10.HUANG 10.HUANG 10.HUANG- -- -PO:MASTER PO:MASTER PO:MASTER PO:MASTEROFTHEUNIVERSALMIND OFTHEUNIVERSALMIND OFTHEUNIVERSALMIND OFTHEUNIVERSALMIND

1. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
102.
2. Thisprobablywasduringthelastdecadeoftheeighth
century,sinceMa-tsudiedin788.
3. Thisvolumeactuallyconsistsoftwobooks,knownasthe
Chun-chouRecord(843)andtheWan-iingRecord(849).
TheyaretranslatedandpublishedtogetherbyJohnBlofeld
asTheZenTeachingofHuangPo.(NewYork:GrovePress,
1958).Thisappearstohavebeenthesourceforbiographical
andanecdotalmateriallaterincludedinTheTransmissionof
theLamp,portionsofwhicharetranslatedinChangChung-
yuan.OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism.Another
translationofbiographical,didactic,andanecdotalmaterial
maybefoundinCharlesLuk,TransmissionoftheMind
OutsidetheTeaching,whosesourceisunattributedbutwhich
possiblycouldbeatranslationofthe1602workRecordsof
PointingatTheMoon,acompilationofCh'anmaterials.
4. Blofeld,ZenTeachingofHuangPo,p.28.
5. Ibid.,p.27.
6. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.103.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.,p.90.
9. Ibid.,p.103.
10. Blofeld,ZenTeachingofHuangPo,p.99.
11. Thisgestureofdefeatisreportedelsewheretohavebeena
tripleprostration.Huang-poapparentlyclaimedvictoryin
theseexchangeswhenheeitherkeptsilentorwalkedaway.
12. Wan-lingisreportedbyChangChung-yuantobethemodern
townofHsuan-ch'enginsouthernAnhweiprovince(Original
TeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.123).AccordingtoThe
TransmissionoftheLamptheprimeministerbuilta
monasteryandinvitedHuang-potocomelecturethere,which
themasterdid.Themonasterywasthennamedaftera
mountainwherethemasterhadoncelived.
13. Ibid.,p.104.
14. Ibid.
15. Blofeld,ZenTeachingofHuangPo,p.55.
16. Ibid.,p.130.
17. Ibid.,pp.81-82.
18. Ibid.,p.44
19. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.87.
20. Blofeld,ZenTeachingofHuangPo,p.53.
21. Ibid.,p.39.
22. Ibid.,p.46.
23. Ibid.,p.37.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.,p.40.
26. Ibid.,p.61.
27. Ibid.,p.26.
28. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.85.
29. Blofeld,ZenTeachingsofHuangPo,p.50.
30. SeeWu,GoldenAgeofZen.
31. ChangChung-yuanreportssomedisagreementoverthe
actualdateofHuang-po'sdeath.Itseemsthatheisreported
tohavediedin849inRecordsofBuddhasandPatriarchsin
VariousDynasties,whereastheyearofhisdeathisgivenas
855intheGeneralRecordsofBuddhasandPatriarchs.
32. ExcerptsfromtheHanYutreatiseareprovidedinEdwinO.
Reischauer,Ennin'sTravelsinT'angChina(NewYork:
RonaldPress,1955),pp.221ff.Thisrecountingofavisitbya
ninth-centuryJapanesemonktoChinarevealsindirectlyhow
lackingininfluencetheCh'anistsactuallywere.Inadiaryof
manyyearsCh'anismentionedonlyrarely,andthenintones
ofotherthanrespect.HeviewedtheCh'anistswarilyand
describedthemas"extremelyunrulymenatheart"(p.173).
However,histripinChinawasseverelydisturbedbythe
suddeneruptionoftheGreatPersecution,makinghimso
fearfulthatheactuallydestroyedtheBuddhistarthehad
collectedthroughoutthecountry.
33. SeeHuShih,"Ch'an(Zen)BuddhisminChina."
34. SeeIbid.
35. KennethCh'en,in"TheEconomicBackgroundoftheHui-
Ch'angSuppressionofBuddhism,"HarvardJournalofAsiatic
Studies,19(1956),pointsoutthattheimperialdecree
requiredtheturninginonlyofstatuesmadefrommetals
havingeconomicvalue.Thosemadefromclay,wood,and
stonecouldremaininthetemples.Heusesthistosupporthis
contentionthatthemaindrivingforcebehindtheGreat
Persecutionwastheinordinateeconomicpowerofthe
Buddhistestablishments.

11.LIN 11.LIN 11.LIN 11.LIN- -- -CHI:FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN CHI:FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN CHI:FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN CHI:FOUNDEROFRINZAIZEN

1. AdiscussionofthefivehousesofCh'anmaybefoundin
Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,pp.106-22;and
DumoulinandSasaki,DevelopmentofChineseZen,pp.17-
32.Usefulsummariesoftheirteachingsalsomaybefoundin
ChouHsiang-kuang,DhyanaBuddhisminChina.
2. AccountsofLin-chi'slifearefoundinTheRecordofLin-chi,
TheTransmissionoftheLamp,TheFiveLampsMeetingat
theSource,andFingerPointingattheMoon.Themost
reliablesourceisprobablyTheRecordofLin-chi,sincethis
wascompiledbyhisfollower(s).Thedefinitivetranslationof
thisworkcertainlymustbethatbyRuthF.Sasaki,The
RecordedSayingsofCh'anMasterLin-chiHui-chaoofChen
Prefecture,(Kyoto,Japan:InstituteofZenStudies,1975)and
recentlyre-issuedbyHeianInternational,Inc.,SouthSan
Francisco,Calif.Anotherversion,TheZenTeachingsof
Rinzai,translatedbyIrmgardSchloegl(Berkeley,Calif.:
Shambhala,1976),islesssatisfactory.TheLin-chiexcerpts
fromTheTransmissionoftheLampmaybefoundinChang
Chung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism.
ExcerptsfromTheFiveLampsMeetingattheSourceand
FingerPointingattheMoonareprovidedinCharlesLuk,
Ch'anandZenTeaching,SecondSeries(Berkeley:
Shambhala,1971).Translationsofhissermons,sayings,etc.
togetherwithcommentarymayalsobefoundinWu,Golden
AgeofZen;ChouHsiang-kuang,DhyanaBuddhisminChina;
andBlyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.3.
3. R.H.BlythissuspiciousthatLin-chi'sstorywasenhanced
somewhatfordramaticpurposes,claiming(ZenandZen
Classics,Vol.3,p.151),"AsinthecaseoftheSixth
Patriarch,[Lin-chi's]enlightenmentisrecounted'dramatically,'
thatistosayminimizinghispreviousunderstandingofZenin
ordertobringoutthegreatchangeafterenlightenment."
4. Sasaki,RecordedSayingsofLin-chi,pp.24-25.
5. Ibid.,p.25.
6. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
pp.117-18.
7. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.194.
8. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
118.
9. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.195.
10. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.119.
11. Sasaki,RecordedSayingsofLin-chi,p.43.
12. Ibid.,p.45.
13. Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.122.
14. OfLin-chi'sshout,R.H.Blythsays(ZenandZenClassics,
Vol.3,p.154):"[Theshout]isawar-cry,butthefightisasort
ofshadow-boxing.Theuniverseshoutsatus,weshoutback.
Weshoutattheuniverse,andtheechocomesbackinthe
sameway.Buttheshoutingandtheechoingarecontinuous,
and,spirituallyspeaking,simultaneous.Thusthe[shout]is
notanexpressionofanything;ithasno(separable)meaning.
Itispureenergy,withoutcauseoreffect,rhymeorreason."
15. AfterSasaki,RecordedSayingsofLin-chi,p.47.
16. SeeWu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.201.
17. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
pp.121-22.
18. Sasaki,RecordedSayingsofLin-chi,p.4.
19. Ibid.,p.41.
20. Ibid.,p.48.
21. Ibid.,p.2.
22. Ibid.,p.70.
23. Ibid.,p.6.
24. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.98.
25. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,pp.204-05.
26. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.99.
27. Dumoulin,DevelopmentofChineseZen,p.22.
28. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.99.
29. Dumoulin,DevelopmentofChineseZen,p.23.
30. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.95.
31. Sasaki,RecordedSayingso/Lin-chi,pp.27-28.
32. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.95.
33. HeinrichDumoulin(DevelopmentofChineseZen,p.22)
notesthatthisismerelyplayingoffthewell-known"four
propositions"ofIndianBuddhistlogic:existence,
nonexistence,bothexistenceandnonexistence,andneither
existencenornonexistence.
34. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.202.
35. Ibid.,p.203.
36. Sasaki,RecordedSayingsofLin-chi.p.29.
37. Ibid.,p.24.
38. Ibid.,p.38.

12.TUNG 12.TUNG 12.TUNG 12.TUNG- -- -SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO SHANANDTSAO- -- -SHAN:FOUNDERSOFSOTO SHAN:FOUNDERSOFSOTO SHAN:FOUNDERSOFSOTO SHAN:FOUNDERSOFSOTO
ZEN ZEN ZEN ZEN

1. PhilipYampolsky,inPlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch,
allegesthatHsing-ssuwasresurrectedfromanonymity
becauseShih-t'ou(700-90)wasinneedofaconnectiontothe
SixthPatriarch.ThemysteriousmasterHsing-ssucomesinto
prominencewelloverahundredyearsafterhisdeath;his
actuallifewasnotchronicledbyanyofhiscontemporaries.
Neither,forthatmatter,wasthelifeofhispupilShih-t'ou,
althoughthelatterleftaheritageofdisciplesanda
burgeoningmovementtoperpetuatehismemory.
2. Ibid.,p.55.
3. ThestoriesattachedtoShih-t'ouarevariedandquestionedby
mostauthorities.Forexample,thereisthestorythathewas
enlightenedbyreadingSeng-chau'sChao-Jun(TheBookof
Chao)butthathisphilosophycamefromLaoTzu.
4. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.58.
5. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.171.
6. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.
58.
7. Ibid.,p.60.
8. Ibid.,pp.61-62.
9. Ibid.,pp.64-65.
10.Ibid.,p.76.
11. ThisiselaboratedbyLuk,Ch'anandZenTeaching,Second
Series,p.166.
12. Ibid.,p.174.
13. ExtendeddiscussionsofthisconceptareprovidedbyChang
Chung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,pp.41-
57;andbyWu,GoldenAgeofZen,pp.177-82.
14. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.179.
15. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.49.
16. SeeLuk,ChanandZenTeaching,SecondSeries,p.139.
17. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.50.
18. Ibid.,p.69.
19. WhenR.H.BlythtranslatesthispoeminZenandZen
Classics,Vol.2,calledtheHokyozammaiinJapanese,he
includesagranddoseofskepticismconcerningitsreal
authorship,sincehebelievesthepoemunworthyofthe
master(p.152).
20. Ibid.,p.157.
21. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.48.
22. Ibid.,p.70.
23. Ibid.,p.71.
24. Ibid.,p.72.
25. Dumoulin,DevelopmentofChineseZen,p.26.
27. Eliot,JapaneseBuddhism,p.168.

13.KUEI 13.KUEI 13.KUEI 13.KUEI- -- -SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN SHAN,YUN- -- -MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA MEN,ANDFA- -- -YEN:THREEMINOR YEN:THREEMINOR YEN:THREEMINOR YEN:THREEMINOR
HOUSES HOUSES HOUSES HOUSES

1. AccountsofthelivesandteachingsofthemastersoftheKuei-
yangschoolcanbefoundinanumberoftranslations,
includingChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism;andLuk,Ch'anandZenTeachings,Second
Series.BothprovidetranslationsfromTheTransmissionof
theLamp.OthersourcesappeartobeusedinWu,Golden
AgeofZen,whichincludesalivelydiscussionofKuei-shan
andtheKuei-yangsect.
2. Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.159.
3. CharlesLuk(Ch'anandZenTeaching,SecondSeries,p.58)
makesavalianttryatexplicationwhenhesays,"[Huai-hai]
wantedhimtoperceive'thatwhichgavetheorder'and'that
whichobeyedit.'...[Huai-hai]continuedtoperformhisgreat
functionbypressingthestudenthard,insistingthatthelatter
shouldperceive'that'whicharosefromtheseat,usedthe
poker,raisedalittlefire,showedittohimandsaid,'Isthisnot
fire?'...Thistimethestudentcouldactuallyperceivethe
replybymeansofhisself-nature....Hencehis
enlightenment."
4. SeeIbid.,p.58.Ssu-maseemstohavehadagoodrecordin
predictingmonasticsuccess,andhewasmuchindemand.
Althoughthereliance
onafortunetellerseemssomewhatoutofcharacterfora
Ch'anmaster,weshouldrememberthatfortunetellingand
futurepredictioninChinaareatleastasoldastheIChing.
5.ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.202.
6.Ibid.,p.204.
7.Luk,Ch'anandZenTeaching,SecondSeries,p.67.
8.Ibid.,p.78.
9.Wu,GoldenAgeofZen,p.167.
10. Ibid.,p.167.
11. JohnWu(GoldenAgeofZen,p.165)says,"Thestyleofthe
houseofKuei-yanghasacharmallofitsown.Itisnotas
steepandsharp-edgedasthehousesofLin-chiandYun-
men,norasclose-knitandresourcefulasthehouseofTs'ao-
tungnorasspeculativeandbroadasthehouseofFa-yen,but
ithasgreaterdepththantheothers."
12. SeeChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an
Buddhism,p.269.OthertranslationsofYun-menanecdotes,
aswellasinterpretationsandappreciations,canbefoundin
Luk,Ch'anandZenTeaching,SecondSeries;Chou,Dhyana
BuddhisminChina;Wu,GoldenAgeofZen;andBlyth,Zen
andZenClassics,Vol.2.
13. Hehadsixkoansoutofforty-eightintheMumonkanand
eighteenkoansoutofahundredintheHekiganroku.Perhaps
hisextensiverepresentationinthesecondcollectionis
attributabletothefactthatitscompiler,Ch'ung-hsien(980-
1025),wasoneofthelastsurvivingrepresentativesofYun-
men'sschool.
14. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhismp.
284.
15. Ibid.,p.286.
16. Ibid.,p.229.
17. Ibid.,p.228.
18. Ibid.,p.229.
19. Sekida,TwoZenClassics:Mumonkan&Hekiganroku,p.349.
ThiskoanisfromHekiganroku,Case77.
20. FromtheMumonkan,Case21.TheChinesetermusedwas
kan-shinchueh,whichChangChung-yuan(Original
TeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,p.300)characterizesas
follows:"Thismaybetranslatedeitheroftwoways:apieceof
driedexcrementorabamboostickusedforcleaningastoilet
tissueistoday."
21. Blyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.2,p.142.
22. ThosewithinsatiablecuriositymayconsultWu,GoldenAge
ofZen,pp.244ff.
23. TranslationsofhisteachingsfromTheTransmissionofthe
LampareprovidedbyChangChung
:
yuaninOriginal
TeachingsofCh'anBuddhismandbyCharlesLukinCh'an
andZenTeachings,SecondSeries.Atranslationofa
completelydifferentsource,whichvariessignificantlyonall
themajoranecdotes,isprovidedinJohnWu,GoldenAgeof
Zen.Atranslation,presumablyfromaJapanesesource,of
someofhisteachingsissuppliedbyR.H.BlythinZenand
ZenClassics,Vol.2.HeinrichDumoulinoffersabrief
assessmentofhisinfluenceinhistwobooks:Developmentof
ChineseZenandHistoryofZenBuddhism.
24. ChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'anBuddhism,
p.238.AcompletelydifferentversionmaybefoundinWu,
GoldenAgeofZen,pp.232-33.
25. BuddhismChangChung-yuan,OriginalTeachingsofCh'an,
p.242.

14.TA 14.TA 14.TA 14.TA- -- -HUI:MASTEROFTHEKOAN HUI:MASTEROFTHEKOAN HUI:MASTEROFTHEKOAN HUI:MASTEROFTHEKOAN

1. SeeDumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.128.
2. IsshuMiuraandRuthFullerSasaki,ZenDust(NewYork:
Harcourt,Brace&World,1966),pp.10-11.
3. Ibid.,p.10.ThisindividualisidentifiedasNan-yuanHui-yang
(d.930).
4. ThisisCase1intheMumonkan,usuallythefirstkoangiven
toabeginningstudent.
5. ThisisCase26oftheMumonkan.Theversiongivenhereis
afterthetranslationinSekida,TwoZenClassics:Mumonkan
&Hekiganroku,p.89.
6. ThisisCase54oftheHekiganroku.Theversiongivenisafter
Ibid.,p.296,andClearyandCleary,BlueCliffRecord,p.362.
7. IsshuandSasaki,ZenDust,p.13.
8. ThereareanumberoftranslationsoftheMumonkancurrently
availableinEnglish.ThemostrecentisSekida,TwoZen
Classics:Mumonkan&Hekiganroku;butperhapsthemost
authoritativeisZenkeiShibayama,ZenCommentsonthe
Mumonkan,trans.SumikoKudo(NewYork:HarperrRow,
1974;paperbackedition,NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary,
1975).OthertranslationsareNyogenSenzakiandPaulReps,
"TheGatelessGate,"inPaulReps,ed.,ZenFlesh,Zen
Bones(RutlandandTokyo:Tuttle,1957);SohkauOgata,
"TheMuMonKwan,"inZenfortheWest(NewYork:Dial,
1959);andR.H.Blyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.4,
"Mumonkan"(Tokyo:Hokuseido,1966).
ThreetranslationsoftheBlueCliffRecordarecurrently
availableinEnglish.Thereistheearlyandunsatisfactory
versionbyR.D.M.Shaw(London:MichaelJoseph,1961).A
readableversionisprovidedinSekida,TwoZenClassics,
althoughthisexcludessomeofthetraditionalcommentary.
TheauthoritativeversioniscertainlythatbyClearyand
Cleary,BlueCliffRecord.
9. ThisisthecasewiththeversionprovidedinSekida,TwoZen
Classics.
10. SeeDumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.128.
11. SeeL.CarringtonGoodrich,AShortHistoryoftheChinese
People(NewYork:Harper&Row,1943),p.161.
12. ThemostcomprehensivecollectionofTa-hui'swritingsis
translatedinChristopherCleary,SwamplandFlowers:The
LettersandLecturesofZenMasterTaHui(NewYork:Grove
Press,1977).ExcerptsarealsotranslatedbySuzuki,Essays
inZenBuddhism,SecondSeries.Biographicalinformation
mayalsobefoundinIsshuandSasaki,ZenDust.
13. TranslatedinIsshuandSasaki,ZenDust,p.163.
14. AworkknowntodayastheCheng-fa-yen-tsang.SeeIsshu
andSasaki,ZenDust,p.163.
15. SeeIbid.
16. SeeIbid.
17. TranslatedbyCleary,SwamplandFlowers,pp.129-30.
18. SeeSekida,TwoZenClassics,p.17.
19. Suzuki,EssaysinZenBuddhism,SecondSeries,p.103.
20. Cleary,SwamplandFlowers,p.64.
21. Ibid.,p.57.
22. Ibid.,p.14.
23. Buthedestroyedtheminvain.Around1300amonk
managedtoassemblemostofthekoansandcommentary
fromscatteredsourcesandputthebookbackintoprint.The
problemcontinuestothisday;thereisnowavailableabook
of"answers"toanumberofkoansYoelHoffman,TheSound
ofOneHandClapping(NewYork:BasicBooks,1975).One
reviewerofthisbookobservedsadly,"Nowifonlygettingthe
'answer'werethesameasgettingthepoint."

15.EISAI:THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER 15.EISAI:THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER 15.EISAI:THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER 15.EISAI:THEFIRSTJAPANESEMASTER

1. ThisanecdoteisinMartinCharlesCollcutt,"TheZenMonastic
InstitutioninMedievalJapan"(Ph.D.dissertation,Harvard
University,1975).
2. AlthoughtherewerevariousattemptstointroduceCh'aninto
Japanpriortothetwelfthcentury,nothingeverseemedto
stick.Dumoulin(HistoryofZenBuddhism,pp.138-39)
summarizedtheseeffortsasfollows:"Thefirstcertain
informationwepossessregardingZeninJapangoesbackto
theearlyperiodofherhistory.TheoutstandingJapanese
Buddhistmonkduringthatage,Dosho,wasattractedtoZen
throughtheinfluenceofhisChineseteacher,Hsuan-tsang,
underwhomhestudiedtheYogacaraphilosophy(653)....
Doshothuscameintoimmediatecontactwiththetraditionof
BodhidharmaandbroughttheZenofthepatriarchstoJapan.
Hebuiltthefirstmeditationhall,atatempleinNara....
"Acenturylater,forthefirsttimeinhistory,aChineseZen
mastercametoJapan.ThiswasTao-hsuan,whobelongedto
thenorthernsectofChineseZeninthethirdgenerationafter
Shen-hsiu.RespondingtoaninvitationfromJapanese
Buddhistmonks,hetookupresidenceinNaraand
contributedtothegrowthofJapanesecultureduringthe
Tempyoperiod(729-749)....Thecontemplativeelementin
theTendaitradition,whichheldanimportantplacefromthe
beginning,wasstrengthenedinbothChinaandJapanby
repeatedcontactswithZen.
"AfurtherstepinthespreadofZenoccurredinthefollowing
centurywhenI-k'ung,aChinesemasteroftheLin-chisect,
visitedJapan.HecameattheinvitationoftheEmpress
TachibanaKachiko,wifeoftheEmperorSaga,duringthe
earlypartoftheShowaera(834-848),toteachZen,firstat
theimperialcourtandlaterattheDanrinjitempleinKyoto,
whichtheempresshadbuiltforhim.However,thesefirst
effortsinthesystematicpropagationofZenaccordingtothe
Chinesepatterndidnotmeetwithlastingsuccess.I-k'ung
wasunabletolaunchavigorousmovement.Disappointed,he
returnedtoChina,andforthreecenturiesZenwasinactivein
Japan."
AnotheropportunityfortheJapanesetolearnaboutCh'an
wasmissedbythefamousJapanesepilgrimEnnin,whowas
inChinatowitnesstheGreatPersecutionof845,butwho
paidalmostnoattentiontoCh'an,whichheregardedasthe
obsessionofunrulyne'er-do-wells.
3. Anumberofbooksprovideinformationconcerningearly
Japanesehistoryandthecircumstancessurroundingthe
introductionofBuddhismtoJapan.Generalhistoricalworksof
particularrelevanceinclude:JohnWhitneyHall,Japan,from
PrehistorytoModernTimes(NewYork:Delacorte,1970);
MikisoHane,Japan,AHistoricalSurvey(NewYork:
Scribner's,1972);EdwinO.Reischauer,Japan:Pastand
Present,3rded.(NewYork:Knopf,1964);andGeorgeB.
Sansom,AHistoryofJapan,3vols.(Stanford,Calif.:Stanford
UniversityPress,1958-63).
StudiesofearlyJapaneseBuddhismmaybefoundin:
MasaharuAnesaki,HistoryofJapaneseReligion(London:
KeganPaul,Trench,Trubner,1930:reissue,Rutland,Vt.:
Tuttle,1963);WilliamK.Bunce,ReligionsinJapan(Rutland,
Vt.:Tuttle,1955);Ch'en,BuddhisminChina;Eliot,Japanese
Buddhism;ShinshoHanayama,AHistoryofJapanese
Buddhism(Tokyo:BukkyoDendoKyokai,1966);andE.Dale
Saunders,BuddhisminJapan(Philadelphia:Universityof
PennsylvaniaPress,1964).
4. Infact,thepopularityofesotericritualswassuchthatthey
wereanimportantpartofearlyZenpracticeinJapan.
5. ThisworldiswelldescribedbyIvanMorrisinTheWorldofthe
ShiningPrince:CourtLifeinAncientJapan(NewYork:Knopf,
1964).Adiscussionoftherelationofthisaestheticlifetothe
formationofJapaneseZenmaybefoundinThomasHoover,
ZenCulture(NewYork:RandomHouse,1977;paperback
edition,NewYork:Vintage,1978).
6. OneofthemostreadableaccountsoftheriseoftheJapanese
militaryclassmaybefoundinPaulVarley,Samurai(New
York:Delacorte,1970;paperbackedition,NewYork:Dell,
1972).
7. ThistheoryisadvancedeloquentlyinCollcutt,"ZenMonastic
InstitutioninMedievalJapan."InlateryearstheCh'ansectin
Chinaitselfactuallyenteredaphaseofdecadence,withthe
inclusionofesotericritesandanecumenicalmovementthat
advocatedthechantingofthenembutsubyCh'anistssome
ofwhomclaimedtherewasgreatsimilaritybetweenthe
psychologicalaspectsofthismechanicalchantandthoseof
thekoan.
8. AccountsofEisai'slifemaybefoundinDumoulin,Historyof
ZenBuddhism;andinCollcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutionin
MedievalJapan."
9. SeeCollcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan."
10. SeeSaunders,BuddhisminJapan,p.221.
11. TranslatedinWm.TheodoredeBary,ed.Sourcesof
JapaneseTradition,Vol.1(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1958),pp.236-37.
12. Ibid.,p.237.
13. DeBary,SourcesofJapaneseTradition,pp.239-40.
14. Againthebestdiscussionofthisintrigueisprovidedby
Collcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan."
15. Varley,Samurai,p.45.

16. 16. 16. 16. DOGEN:FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN DOGEN:FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN DOGEN:FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN DOGEN:FATHEROFJAPANESESOTOZEN

1. Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism,p.151.Thisstatement
maybefaintpraise,forJapanhasneverbeenespecially
notedforitsreligiousthinkers.Asphilosophers,theJapanese
havebeengreatartistsandpoets.Perhapsnoculturecando
everything.
2. BiographicalinformationonDogenmaybefoundinHee-Jin
Kim,DogenKigenMysticalRealist(Tucson:Universityof
ArizonaPress,1975);YuhoYokoi,ZenMasterDogen(New
York:Weatherhill,1976);andDumoulin,HistoryofZen
Buddhism.TranslationsofhiswritingsmaybefoundinDogen
KigenMysticalRealistandZenMasterDogenaswellasin
JiyuKennett,ZenisEternalLife(Emeryville,Calif.:Dharma,
1976);Dogen,RecordofThingsHeardfromtheTreasuryof
theEyeoftheTrueTeachingtrans,byThomasCleary
(Boulder,Colo.:GreatEasternBookCompany,1978);
FrancisDojunCook,HowtoRaiseanOx(LosAngeles:
CenterPublications,1978);andKosenNishiyamaandJohn
Steven,Shobogenzo:TheEyeandTreasuryoftheTrueLaw
(NewYork:Weatherhill,1977).
3. Kim,DogenKigenMysticalRealist,p.25.
4. Yokoi,ZenMasterDogen,p.28.
5. SeeCollcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan."
6. Kim,DogenKigenMysticalRealist,p.29.
7. Ibid.,p.35.
8. SeeYokoi,ZenMasterDogen,p.32.
9. Ibid.,pp.4546.
10. Ibid.,p.46.
11. Kennett,ZenIsEternalLife,pp.141-42.
12. Ibid.,p.152.
13. Ibid.,pp.150-51.
14. Dogen'sattitudetowardwomenwasrevolutionaryforhis
time.AsamplingisprovidedinKim,DogenKigenMystical
Realist,pp.54-55:"Somepeople,foolishintheextreme,also
thinkofwomanasnothingbuttheobjectofsensual
pleasures,andseeherthiswaywithoutevercorrectingtheir
view.ABuddhistshouldnotdoso.Ifmandetestswomanas
thesexualobject,shemustdetesthimforthesamereason.
Bothmanandwomanbecomeobjects,thusbeingequally
involvedindefilement....Whatchargeisthereagainst
woman?Whatvirtueisthereinman?Therearewickedmen
intheworld;therearevirtuouswomenintheworld.The
desiretohearDharmaandthesearchforenlightenmentdo
notnecessarilyrelyonthedifferenceinsex."
15. Yokoi,ZenMasterDogen,pp.35-36.
16. SeeCollcutt,"ZenMonasticTraininginMedievalJapan,"p.
59.
17. TranslatedindeBary,SourcesofJapaneseTradition,Vol.1.,
p.247.
18. SeeCollcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan,"p.
62.
19. SeeIbid.,pp.62ff.
20.SeePhilipYampolsky,trans.,TheZenMasterHakuin:
SelectedWritings,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1971),p.5.

17. 17. 17. 17. IKKYU:ZENECCENTRIC IKKYU:ZENECCENTRIC IKKYU:ZENECCENTRIC IKKYU:ZENECCENTRIC

1. ThisviewisadvancedconvincinglybyCollcuttin"Zen
MonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan,"p.113ff.
2. Ibid.,p.80.
3. Thiswouldseemtobeoneofthereasonsforwhatbecameof
ahostofemigratingCh'anteachersassub-sectsoftheYogi
branchstruggledforascendencyovereachother.
4. Wu-an'sstrengthofmindisillustratedbyastoryrelatedin
Collcutt,"ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan,"p.84:
"Wu-anissaidtohaveshockedthereligioussensibilitiesof
manywarriorsandmonkswhen,inwhathasbeeninterpreted
asadeliberateattempttosevertheconnectionbetweenZen
andprayerinJapaneseminds,hepubliclyrefusedtoworship
beforethestatueofJizointheBuddhaHillofKencho-jionthe
groundsthatwhereasJizowasmerelyaBodhisattva,he,Wu-
an,wasaBuddha."
5. RelatedinIbid.,p.88.
6. Collcutt("ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan,"p.114)
pointsoutthatthewarriorinterestinZenanditsChinese
culturaltrappingsshouldalsobecreditedpartlytotheirdesire
tostanduptothesnobberyoftheKyotoaristocracy.By
makingthemselvesemissariesofaprestigiousforeign
civilization,thewarriorclassachievedabitofculturalone-
upmanshipontheKyotosnobset.
7. Collcutt("ZenMonasticInstitutioninMedievalJapan,"p.106)
reportsthatthisconversionoftemplestoZenwasnotalways
spontaneous.Thereisthestoryofonelocalgovernorwho
wascalledtoKamakuraandinthecourseofapublic
assemblyaskedpointedlywhetherhisfamilyhadyetbuilta
Zenmonasteryintheirhomeprovince.Theterrifiedofficial
declaredhehadbuiltamonasteryforahundredZenmonks,
andthenracedhometostartconstruction.
8. AdiscussionofthecontributionofZentoJapanesecivilization
maybefoundinHoover,ZenCulture.AnoldersurveyisD.T.
Suzuki,ZenandJapaneseCulture(Princeton,N.J.:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1959).
9. Yampolsky,ZenMasterHakuin,p.8.
10. PhilipYampolsky,"MuromachiZenandtheGozanSystem,"
inJohnW.HallandToyodaTakeshi,eds.,Japaninthe
MuromachiAge(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
1977),p.319.
11. OneofthebestpoliticalhistoriesofthiseraisSansom,
HistoryofJapan.ForthehistoryofZen,thebestwork
appearstobeMartinCollcutt,TheZenMonasticInstitutionin
MedievalJapan(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,in
press),arevisedversionofthedissertationcitedabove.
12. EnglishsourcesonIkkyuarelesscommonthanmightatfirst
besupposed.Themostexhaustivestudyandtranslationof
originalIkkyuwritingstodateiscertainlythatofJames
Sanford,"Zen-ManIkkyu"(Ph.D.dissertation,Harvard
University,1972).Thereisalsoalivelyandcharacteristically
insightfulessaybyDonaldKeene,"ThePortraitofIkkyu,"in
ArchivesofAsianArt,Vol.20(1966-67),pp.54-65.This
essayhasbeencollectedinDonaldKeene,Landscapesand
Portraits(PaloAlto:KodanshaInternational,1971).Another
workofIkkyuscholarshipisSonjaArntzen,"APresentationof
thePoetIkkyuwithTranslationsfromtheKyounshu'Mad
CloudAnthology'"(Unpublishedthesis,UniversityofBritish
Columbia,Vancouver,1966).
13. SeeThomasCleary,TheOriginalFace:AnAnthologyof
RinzaiZen(NewYork:GrovePress,1978),p.13.An
exampleofaNasrudin-esqueparabletoldaboutIkkyuisthe
storyofhisapproachingthehouseofarichmanonedayto
begforfoodwearinghistornrobesandstrawsandals.The
mandrovehimaway,butwhenhereturnedthefollowingday
intheluxuriousrobeofaBuddhistprelate,hewasinvitedin
forabanquet.ButwhenthefoodarrivedIkkyuremovedhis
robeandofferedthefoodtoit.
14. Sanford,"Zen-ManIkkyu,"p.48.
15. Ibid.,p.68.
16. Ibid.pp.80-81.
17.TranslatedbyKeene,LandscapesandPortraits,p.235.
ProfessorKeene(personalcommunication)hasprovideda
revisedand,hebelieves,morefullyaccuratetranslationof
thisverseasfollows:
Aftertendaysoflivinginthistemplemymind'sinturmoil;
Redstrings,verylong,tugatmyfeet.
Ifonedayyougetaroundtolookingforme,
Trytherestaurants,thedrinkingplacesorthebrothels.

Henotesthatthe"redstrings"ofthesecondlinerefertothe
tiesofphysicalattachmenttowomenthatdrewIkkyufromthe
templetothepleasurequarters.
18. JonCovellandYamadaSobin,ZenatDaitoku-ji(NewYork:
KodanshaInternational,1974),p.36.
19. Sanford,"Zen-ManIkkyu,"p.221.
20. Ibid.,p.226.
21. Ibid.,p.235.
22. Ibid.,p.225.
23. Ibid.,pp.253-54.AtranslationmayalsobefoundinCleary,
OriginalFace;andinR.H.BlythandN.A.Waddell,"Ikkyu's
Skeletons,"TheEasternBuddhist,N.S.7,3(May1973),pp.
111-25.AlsoseeBlyth,ZenandZenClassics,Vol.7.
24. Sanfordclaims("Zen-ManIkkyu,"p.341)thatIkkyu'sproseis
"almosttotallyunknown"inJapan.
25. Ibid.,pp.326-27.
26. Ibid.,p.172.
27. JanCovell(ZenatDaitoku-ji,p.38)says,"Ikkyu'sownink
paintingsareunpretentiousandseeminglyartless,always
withtheflung-inktechnique.Hiscalligraphyisrankedamong
history'sgreatest..."
28. Sanford,"Zen-ManIkkyu,"p.342.

18. 18. 18. 18. HAKUIN:JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN HAKUIN:JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN HAKUIN:JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN HAKUIN:JAPANESEMASTEROFTHEKOAN

1. Yampolsky,ZenMasterHakuin,p.116.Thisisundoubtedly
thedefinitiveworkbyandaboutHakuininEnglishandhas
beenusedforallthequotationsthatfollow.Another
translationofsomeofHakuin'sworksisR.D.M.Shaw,The
EmbossedTeakettle(London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1963).
AshorttranslationofHakuin'swritingsmaybefoundin
Cleary,OriginalFace.Perhapsthemostincisivebiographical
andinterpretivematerialmaybefound,respectively,in
Dumoulin,HistoryofZenBuddhism;andIsshuandSasaki,
ZenDust.
2. Yampolsky,ZenMasterHakuin,p.117.
3. Ibid.,p.18.
4. Ibid.,pp.118-19.
5. Ibid.,p.119.
6. Ibid.,p.121.
7. Ibid.,pp.31-32.
8. Ibid.,p.33.
9. Ibid.,p.49.
10. Ibid.,p.33.
11. Ibid.,pp.52-53.
12. Ibid.,p.53.
13. Ibid.,p.58.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.,p.35.
16. Ibid.,pp.63-64.
17. The"greatballofdoubt,"knowninChineseasi-t'uan,wasa
classicZenphraseandhasbeentracedbyRuthFuller
Sasaki(ZenDust,p.247)backtoatenth-centuryChinese
monk,whoclaimedinapoem,"Theballofdoubtwithinmy
heart/Wasasbigasabigwickerbasket."Hakuin'sanalysisof
the"greatballofdoubt"istranslatedinZenDust,p.43.
18. Hakuin'sinventionofhisownkoans,whichwerekeptsecret
andneverpublished,isasignificantdeparturefromtheusual
techniqueofsimplytakingsituationsfromtheclassic
literature,anddemonstratesbothhiscreativityandhis
intellectualindependence.Italsoraisesthequestionof
whethertheyreallywere"koans"underthetraditional
definitionof"publiccase"orwhethertheyshouldbegivena
differentname.
19. Yampolsky,ZenMasterHakuin,p.164.
20. ThekoansystemofHakuinisdiscussedbyYampolskyinZen
MasterHakuin,p.15;andbySasaki,inTheZenKoan,pp.
27-30.
21. Yampolsky,ZenMasterHakuin,p.32.
22. SeeD.T.Suzuki,Sengai:TheZenMaster(Greenwich,
Conn.:NewYorkGraphicSociety,1971);BurtonWatson,
Ryokan:ZenMonk-PoetofJapan(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1977);andJohnStevens,OneRobe,One
Bowl:TheZenPoetryofRyokan(NewYork:Weatherhill,
1977).

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