1

CHAPTER 1
SOURCE OF SUPPLY

The 220/132 kV Sub-Station, Chittoor is receiving power normally from the following:-
400 KV Mahadevamangalam Sub-Station through 220 KV Mahadevamangalam -
Chittoor I & II feeders.
The 220/132 KV Sub-Station, Chittoor is transporting power normally to the following:
220 KV Kalikiri Sub-Station through 220 KV Chittoor- Kalikiri feeder.
220 KV Thiruvalam Sub-Station through 220 KV Chittoor- Thiruvalam feeder.
The 132 KV alternate supply is available through the following:
132 kV Renigunta Tirupati K.P.Mitta Pakala - Chittoor feeder.
132 kV Punganoor Palamaner - Chittoor feeder.
The 220/132 kV SS Chittoor is transmitting power to the following 132 kV Sub-
Stations:-
132 kV Pakala SS through 132 KV Chittoor-Pakala feeder.
132 kV Irala SS through 132 KV Chittoor-Irala feeder.
132 KV Palamaneru, Sathipuram, Kuppam sub-stations through 132 kV Chittoor -
Palamaneru I & II feeders.
The received 220 KV Power is stepped down to 132 KV through 3 X 100 MVA [(3 x 33.33)
2 MVA] + 1 X 100 MVA of 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformers.
The 132 KV Power is stepped down to 33 kV through 2 Nos 50 MVA 132 / 33 kV Power
Transformers.
The following 220 kV equipments are individually controlled by SF 6 breakers with
spring charging mechanism breakers
220 kV Mahadevamangalam - II feeder.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformer- I HV Breaker.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformer- II HV Breaker.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformer- III HV Breaker.

2

The following 220 kV equipments are individually controlled by SF 6 Pneumatic
mechanism breakers.
220 KV Kalikiri feeder breaker.
220 KV Mahadeva Mangalam I feeder breaker.
220 KV Tiruvalam feeder breaker.
The following 132 kV equipment are individually controlled by BHEL MOCB
132 KV Palamaneru I feeder.

The following 132 kV equipments are individually controlled by SF 6 Spring charging
mechanism breakers.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformer- I LV Breaker.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Auto Power Transformer II LV Breaker.
100 MVA 220/132 kV Power Transformer III LV breaker.
50 MVA 132/33 kV Power Transformer I HV breaker.
50 MVA 132/33 kV Power Transformer II HV breaker.
132 kV Pakala feeder.
132 kV Irala feeder.
132 kV Palamaneru II feeder.
132 kV, 30 MVAR capacitor bank.
The following 33 kV Equipments are individually controlled by VCB's
33 KV KR Palli feeder breaker
33 KV Venganapalli feeder breaker
33 KV Jodichinthala feeder breaker
33 KV Santhapeta feeder breaker
33 KV BNR Peta - Ramapuram feeder breaker
33 KV KG Sathram feeder breaker
33 KV Paipalli feeder breaker
33 KV Greamspet feeder breaker
33 KV,5 MVAR Capacitor Bank I breaker
33 KV,5 MVAR Capacitor Bank II breaker
33 KV,5 MVAR Capacitor Bank III breaker
33 KV,14.4 MVAR Capacitor Bank breaker
50 MVA PTR 1 LV breaker
50 MVA PTR II LV breaker
3

The following 33 kV Equipments are individually controlled by SF 6 with spring
charging mechanism
33 kV Kothapalli - Reddigunta feeder breaker
33 kV Aragonda feeder breaker
From 33 kV Bus 10 Nos. 33 kV feeders are being fed to the following
33 KV KR Palli feeder
33 KV Venganapalli feeder
33 KV Jodichinthala feeder
33 KV Santhapeta feeder
33 KV BNR Peta - Ramapuram feeder
33 KV KG Sathram feeder
33 KV Paipalli feeder
33 KV Greamspet feeder
33 kV Kothapalli - Reddigunta feeder
33 kV Aragonda feeder
In addition to the above, there are 3 Nos. 5 MVAR Capacitor Banks & 1 No. 14.4 MVAR
capacitor banks connected to the 33 kV Bus through VCB's.
The Station auxiliary supply is taken from 33 KV/400 V, 250 kVA Station Transformer
which is connected to the 33 kV Bus. And alternate station auxiliary supply is available from
33 kV/ 4OO V, 100 kVA Station Transformer connected to the 33 kV Bus.
The Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) is available through CVT's and Wave Traps
of all 220 KV feeders and 132 KV feeders
The 220/132/33 kV Chittoor Sub-Station is normally receiving, power from 400
Mahadevamangalam Sub-Station and normally sending Power to 220 kV Kalikiri, 230 kV
Tiruvalam, 132 Pakala, Irala, Palamaner, Santhipuram & Kuppam sub-stations.
The Sub-Station is located in Chittoor town, Greamspet Back side of the District sub-jail in
Chittoor district.


4

The single line diagram of Sub-Station is shown below:


Fig 1: Single line diagram of 220/132 kv substation










5

CHAPTER-2
NEED OF A SUBSTATION
SUB-STATION:
Substations are a familiar sight alongside highways and in cities. Substations take the
electricity from power plants and from the transmission lines and transform it from high to
lower voltage. They distribute electricity to consumers and supervise and protect the
distribution network to keep it working safely and efficiently, for example by using
circuitbreakers (the industrial strength equivalent of the humble fuse) to cut power in case of
a problem.
Need for substation:
Electrical power is generated at generating stations. These stations which are located far
away from the different consumers. As we know that there is no storage device for electric
power, hence the generated power must be conveyed to the consumer premises with less
transmission and distribution losses. In order to fulfill the above conditions, we need a special
apparatus system which changes the characteristics of electric supply from one to another
are called sub-station.
Example: At generating station, the generating voltage 11KV (or) 6.6KV is stepped up to
400KV (or) 220KV (or) 33KV for transmission of electric power. The assembly of apparatus
used for this purpose is called substation. Similarly at the consumer premises the voltage is
stepped-down to consumers utilization level and the apparatus which is utilized for this
purpose is called substation.
FUNCTIONS OF SUBSTATION:
1. To switch ON and OFF the power lines known as switching operation.
2. To transform voltage from higher to lower or vice versa known as voltage transformation
operation.
3. To improve the power factor by installing synchronous condensers at the end of the line
known as power factor correction operation.
FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF SITE:
a. The site should be
i. Nearer to the load centers
ii. The site should be away from municipal dumping grounds, burial grounds etc.,
iii. The site should be away from areas where police and military rifle practices are
held
b. The site should have good drinking water supply
c. The substation site should have sufficient adjacent space to accommodate the colony with
the residential and non residential buildings
d. The site selected should have low cost
e. The site should have transportation facilities
6

f. Outdoor substations should not be located within three kilometers of any aerodromes or
military training ground.
g. The site selected should have center of gravity of load.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUB-STATIONS:
There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most important ways of
classifying them are according to
1. Service requirement
2. Constructional feature.
1 .According to service requirement
a. Transformer substations.
b. Switching Sub-stations
c. Power factor corrections sub stations
d. Frequency changer sub-stations.
e. Converting substations.
f. Industrial substation
2. According to constructional features
a. Indoor sub-stations
b. Outdoor sub-stations
c. Underground substations
d. Pole mounted sub-stations
e. Plinth mounted sub-stations

VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS:
1. Bus-bars
2. Insulators
3. Transformers
4. Circuit breakers
5. Protective relays
6. Lighting arrestors
7. Batteries .etc
7

CHAPTER-3
BUSBARS

Bus bars are defined as the conductors to which- several incoming and outgoing lines
are connected. Bus bars are made up of copper or aluminum.
Commonly used bus bar dimensions:
220 K.V 29.89mm
132 K.V 23.45mm
33 K.V 12.27mm
11 K.V. 7.77 mm
The most commonly used bus bar arrangements in substation are:
1. Single bus-bar arrangement
2. Single bus-bar system with sectionlisation.
3. Double bus-bar arrangement.
Single Bus System:
Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all the feeders and
transformer bay are connected to only one single bus as shown

Fig:2 single bus system
Advantages of single bus system:
This is very simple in design
This is very cost effective scheme
This is very convenient to operate


8

Disadvantages of single bus system:
One but major difficulty of these type of arrangement is that, maintenance of equipment of
any bay cannot be possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that
bay.
The indoor 11KV switchboards have quite often single bus bar arrangement.
Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer:
Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with circuit breaker. If there
are more than one incoming and the incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly
distributed on the sections as shown in the figure, interruption of system can be reduced to a
good extent.

Fig:3 single section bus system
Advantages of single bus system with bus sectionalizer:
If any of the sources is out of system, still all loads can be fed by switching on the sectional
circuit breaker or bus coupler breaker. If one section of the bus bar system is under
maintenance, part load of the substation can be fed by energizing the other section of bus bar.
Disadvantages of single bus system with bus sectionalizer:
As in the case of single bus system, maintenance of equipment of any bay cannot be
possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that bay.
The use of isolator for bus sectionalizing does not fulfill the purpose. The isolators
have to be operated off circuit and which is not possible without total interruption of
bus bar. So investment for bus-coupler breaker is required.

9

Double Bus System:
In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing or
incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus.
Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel through individual isolator
as shown in the figure.

Fig:4 Double bus system
By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated bus. Both of the buses are
energized and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus and
other from other bus. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to other.
There is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept close during bus transfer operation.
For transfer operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker then close the
isolator associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then open the
isolator associated with the bus from where feeder is transferred. Lastly after this transfer
operation he or she should open the bus coupler breaker.
Advantages of Double Bus System:
Double Bus Bar Arrangement increases the flexibility of system.
Disadvantages of Double Bus System:
The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance without interruption.



10

CHAPTER-4
INSULATORS
The conductors of transmission and distribution systems of over head lines are
supported by means of insulators to avoid leakage current through the supports to the earth. A
good insulator should have the following properties.
1. Mechanically very strong in order to withstand due to weight of conductor
and vibrating shocks due to heavy pressure of air.
2. High Di-electric strength.
3. High insulation resistance.
4. It should not be porous.
5. High ratio of rupture strength of flash over voltage.
6. It must free form internal cracks etc.,
7. It should not get affected due to fluids and gases of the atmosphere.

Materials used for insulators:
1. Porcelain
2. Glass
3. Steatite and special composition materials.
TYPES OF INSULATORS:
1. Pin type insulators
2. Suspension type insulators
3. Strain Insulators
4. Shackle type insulators
5. Post type insulators

Pin Insulator:
Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in power
network up to 33KV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type,
depending upon application voltage. In 11KV system we generally use one part type insulator
where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage
path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of the
insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. In order to obtain lengthy leakage path,
one, two or more rain sheds or petticoats are provided on the insulator body. In addition to
that rain shed or petticoats on an insulator serve another purpose. These rain sheds or
petticoats are so designed, that during raining the outer surface of the rain shed becomes wet
but the inner surface remains dry and non-conductive. So there will be discontinuations of
conducting path through the wet pin insulator surface.
In higher voltage like 33KV and 66KV manufacturing of one part porcelain pin insulator
becomes difficult. Because in higher voltage, the thickness of the insulator become more and
a quite thick single piece porcelain insulator cannot manufactured practically. In this case we
use multiple part pin insulator, where a number of properly designed porcelain shells are
fixed together by Portland cement to form one complete insulator unit. For 33KV tow parts
and for 66KV three parts pin insulator are generally used.
11


Fig:5 33KV PIN INSULATOR
Designing consideration of Electrical Insulator:
The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator is at a potential and bottom of the
insulator fixed to supporting structure of earth potential. The insulator has to withstand the
potential stresses between conductor and earth. The shortest distance between conductor and
earth, surrounding the insulator body, along which electrical discharge may take place
through air, is known as flash over distance.
1. When insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence the flash over
distance of insulator is decreased. The design of an electrical insulator should be such that the
decrease of flash over distance is minimum when the insulator is wet. That is why the upper
most petticoat of a pin insulator has umbrella type designed so that it can protect the rest
lower part of the insulator from rain. The upper surface of top most petticoats is inclined as
less as possible to maintain maximum flash over voltage during raining.
2. To keep the inner side of the insulator dry, the rain sheds are made in order that these rain
sheds should not disturb the voltage distribution they are so designed that their subsurface at
right angle to the electromagnetic lines of force.
Suspension Insulator:
In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size,
of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator are
quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.
In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the
line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string is
called disc insulator because of their disc like shape.
12


Fig:6 suspension insulator
Advantages of Suspension Insulator:
1. Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV(Higher voltage rating
15KV), so by using different numbers of discs, a suspension string can be made suitable for
any voltage level.
2. If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged, it can be replaced much
easily.
3. Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the line hanged on a flexible
suspension string.
4. As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting structure by suspension
string, the height of the conductor position is always less than the total height of the
supporting structure. Therefore, the conductors may be safe from lightening.


Fig:7 suspension string
Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator:
1.Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator.
2. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for pin or post
13

insulator to maintain same ground clearance of current conductor.
3. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator system, hence,
more spacing between conductors should be provided.
Strain insulator:
When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred
as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line,
the line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must
have considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating
properties.

Fig:8 STRAIN INSULATOR




RATED
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE
NUMBER OF INSULATOR
USED IN STRAIN TYPE
TENSION
INSULATOR STRING
NUMBER OF DISC INSULATOR
USED IN SUSPENSION INSULATOR
STRING
33KV 3 3
66KV 5 4
132KV 9 8
220KV 15 14
14

Post Insulator:

Fig:9 Post type insulator
Post insulator is more or less similar to pin insulator but former is suitable for higher voltage
application. Post insulator has higher numbers of petticoats and has greater height. This type
of insulator can be mounted on supporting structure horizontally as well as vertically. The
insulator is made of one piece of porcelain but has fixing clamp arrangement are in both top
and bottom end.
The main differences between pin insulator and post insulator are,

PIN INSULATOR POST INSULATOR
1 It is generally used up to 33KV system
It is suitable for lower voltage and also for
higher voltage
2 It is single stag It can be single stag as well as multiple stags
3
Conductor is fixed on the top of the
insulator by
Binding
Conductor is fixed on the top of the insulator
with help of connector clamp
4
Two insulators cannot be fixed
together for higher
voltage application
Two or more insulators can be fixed together
one above other for higher voltage application
5
Metallic fixing arrangement provided
only on bottom
end of the insulator
Metallic fixing
arrangement provided on both top and bottom
ends of the insulator



15

CHAPTER-5
TRANSFORMERS
Definition of Transformer:
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency. This is very basic definition of transformer.
History of Transformer:
The History of transformer commenced in the year of 1880. In the year of 1950, 400KV
electrical power transformer first introduced in high voltage electrical power system. In the
early 1970s unit rating as large as 1100MVA were produced and 800KV and even higher KV
class transformers were manufactured in year of 1980.
Types of Transformer:
Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their purpose, use,
construction etc. The types of transformer are as follows:
Step Up Transformer & Step Down Transformer - Generally used for stepping up and down
the voltage level of power in transmission and distribution power network.
Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer - Former is generally used in three
phase power system as it is cost effective than later but when size matters it is preferable to
use bank of three Single Phase Transformer as it is easier to transport three single phase unit
separately than one single three phase unit.
Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer & Instrument Transformer -
Transformer generally used in transmission network is normally known as Power
Transformer, distribution transformer is used in distribution network and this is lower rating
transformer and current transformer & potential transformer, we use for relay and protection
purpose in electrical power system and in different instruments in industries are called
Instrument Transformer.
Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer - Former is generally used where ratio
between High Voltage and Low Voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use later
where the ratio between High Voltage and Low Voltage is less than 2.
Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer - Transformers designed for installing at
outdoor is Outdoor Transformer and Transformers designed for installing at indoor is Indoor
Transformer.
Use of Power Transformer:
Generation of Electrical Power in low voltage level is very much cost effective. Hence
Electrical Power are generated in low voltage level. Theoretically, this low voltage leveled
power can be transmitted to the receiving end. But if the voltage level of a power is
16

increased, the electric current of the power is reduced which causes reduction in ohmic or I
2
R
losses in the system, reduction in cross sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital
cost of the system and it also improves the voltage regulation of the system. Because of these,
low leveled power must be stepped up for efficient electrical power transmission. This is
done by step up transformer at the sending side of the power system network. As this high
voltage power may not be distributed to the consumers directly, this must be stepped down to
the desired level at the receiving end with help of step down transformer. These are the use of
electrical power transformer in the Electrical Power System.

Fig:10 Power Transformer
Two winding transformers are generally used where ratio between High Voltage and Low
Voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use Auto transformer where the ratio between
High Voltage and Low Voltage is less than 2. Again Three Phase Single Unit Transformer is
more cost effective than a bank of three Single Phase Transformer unit in a three phase
system. But still it is preferable to use later where power dealing is very large since such large
size of Three Phase Single Unit Power Transformer may not be easily transported from
manufacturer's place to work site.
Definition of Instrument Transformer:
Instrument transformers means current transformer & voltage transformer used in electrical
power system for stepping down currents and voltages of the system for metering and
protection purpose. Actually relays and meters used for protection and metering, are not
designed for high currents and voltages.
High currents or voltages of electrical power system cannot be directly fed to relays and
meters. CT steps down rated system current to 1 Amp or 5 Amp similarly voltage
transformer steps down system voltages to 110V. The relays and meters are generally
designed for 1 Amp, 5 Amp and 110V.


17

Definition of current transformer (CT):
A CT is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially
proportional to primary current and differs in phase from it by ideally zero degree.
CT Accuracy Class or Current Transformer Class :
A CT is similar to a electrical power transformer to some extent, but there are some
difference in construction and operation principle. For metering and indication purpose,
accuracy of ratio, between primary and secondary currents are essential within normal
working range. Normally accuracy of current transformer required up to 125% of rated
current; as because allowable system current must be below 125% of rated current. Rather it
is desirable the CT core to be saturated after this limit since the unnecessary electrical
stresses due to system over current can be prevented from the metering instrument connected
to the secondary of the CT as secondary current does not go above a desired limit even
primary current of the CT rises to a very high value than its ratings. So accuracy within
working range is main criteria of a CT used for metering purpose. The degree of accuracy of
a Metering CT is expressed by CT Accuracy Class or simply Current Transformer
Class or CT Class.

Fig:11 current transformer
But in the case of protection, the CT may not have the accuracy level as good as metering CT
although it is desired not to be saturated during high fault current passes through primary. So
core of protection CT is so designed that it would not be saturated for long range of currents.
If saturation of the core comes at lower level of primary current the proper reflection of
primary current will not come to secondary, hence relays connected to the secondary may not
function properly and protection system losses its reliability.
Potential Transformer Definition:
Potential Transformer or Voltage Transformer are used in electrical power system for
stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and
relays. Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are
designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of Potential Transformer Definition
18

Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer Theory:
A Voltage Transformer theory or Potential Transformer theory is just like theory of general
purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is connected across the phases or
and ground depending upon the requirement. Just like the transformer, used for stepping
down purpose, potential transformer i.e. PT has lowers turns winding at its secondary. The
system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that transformer, and
then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT.

Fig:12 Potential Transformer
The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110V. In an ideal Potential
Transformer or Voltage Transformer when rated burden connected across the secondary the
ratio of primary and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and
furthermore the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in
actual transformer there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle
between primary and secondary voltages.
Capacitor Voltage Transformer:

Fig :13 Capacitor Voltage Transformer
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer
(CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and
provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most
basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the transmission
19

line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line frequency, and a
transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective
relay. The tuning of the divider to the line frequency makes the overall division ratio less
sensitive to changes in the burden of the connected metering or protection devices. The
device has at least four terminals: a terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a
ground terminal, and two secondary terminals which connect to the instrumentation or
protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in
excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary voltage transformers would
be uneconomical. In practice, capacitor C
1
is often constructed as a stack of smaller
capacitors connected in series. This provides a large voltage drop across C
1
and a relatively
small voltage drop across C
2
.
The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave traps are
used for filtering high frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a
carrier communication network throughout the transmission network.

















20

CHAPTER-6
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Definition of Circuit Breaker :
Electrical Circuit Breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the
modern power system deals with huge currents, the spacial attention should be given during
designing of circuit breaker to safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of
circuit breaker. This was the basic definition of circuit breaker.
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker:
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal "on"
condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to
applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential
energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker which is realized if switching signal
given to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by different
ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure. But
whatever the source of potential energy, it must be released during operation. Release of
potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely fast manner. All circuit
breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are
energized by switching pulse, and the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil
plunger is typically attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the
mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker mechanism is released in forms of kinetic
energy, which makes the moving contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically
attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism. After a cycle
of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential
energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring
charging motor or air compressor or by any other means. Till now we have discussed about
mechanical working principle of circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a
circuit breaker which also should be considered in this discussion of operation of circuit
breaker.
The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to this large power there is
always dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and fixed contact during operation
of circuit breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can be quenching
safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit breaker
increases rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric
strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in numbers of ways, like by
compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the deionization process
of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of arcing path
or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses. Hence a numbers of arc quenching
processes should be involved in operation of circuit breaker.

21

Types of Circuit Breaker : According different criteria there are different types of circuit
breaker.
According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as
1) Oil Circuit Breaker
2) Air Circuit Breaker
3) SF6 Circuit Breaker
4) Vacuum Circuit Breaker

According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as
1) Outdoor Circuit Breaker
2) Indoor Breaker
According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as
1) Spring operated Circuit Breaker
2) Pneumatic Circuit Breaker
3) Hydraulic Circuit Breaker
According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as
1) High Voltage Circuit Breaker
2) Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker
3) Low Voltage Circuit Breaker












22

CHAPTER-7
RELAYS
Definition of protective relay:
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil
circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.
Now lets have a discussion on some terms related to protective relay
Pickup level of actuating signal: The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current) which is
on threshold above which the relay initiates to be operated.
If the value of actuating quantity is increased, the electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is
increased and above a certain level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism of the relay
just starts to move.
Reset level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes
in original position.
Operating Time of Relay: Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving
mechanism (for example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the relay
contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the instant when actuating
quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant when the relay contacts close.
Reset time of Relay: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity
becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal
position.
Reach of relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is less than
the pre-specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the function of distance
in a distance protection relay. This impedance or corresponding distance is called reach of the
relay.
Power system protection relays can be categorized into different types of relays.
Types of Relays:
Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on actuating
parameter and operation mechanism.
Based on operation mechanism protection relay can be categorized as Electro Magnetic relay,
Static relay and Mechanical relay. Actually relay is nothing but a combination of one or more
open or closed contacts. These all or some specific contacts the relay change their state when
actuating parameters are applied to the relay. That means open contacts become closed and
closed contacts become open. In electromagnetic relay these closing and opening of relay
contacts are done by electromagnetic action of a solenoid.
23

In mechanical relay these closing and opening of relay contacts are done by mechanical
displacement of different gear level system.
In static relay it is mainly done by semiconductor switches like thyristor. In digital relay on
and off state can be referred as 1 and 0 state.
Based on Characteristic the protection relay can be categorized as
1. Definite time Relays

2. Inverse time Relays with definite minimum time (IDMT)

3. Instantaneous Relays

4. IDMT

5. Stepped Characteristic

6. Programmed Switches

7. Voltage restraint over current relay
Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as
1. Differential

2. Unbalance

3. Neutral Displacement

4. Directional

5. Restricted Earth Fault

6. Over Fluxing

7. Distance Schemes

8. Bus bar Protection

9. Reverse Power Relays

10.Loss of excitation

11.Negative Phase Sequence Relays etc.


24

Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as
1. Current Relays
2. Voltage Relays
3. Frequency Relays
4. Power Relays etc.
Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as
1. Primary Relay
2. Backup Relay
Primary relay or primary protection relay is the first line of power system protection whereas
Backup relay is operated only when primary relay fails to be operated during fault. Hence
backup relay is slower in action than primary relay. Any relay may fail to be operated due to
any of the following reasons,
1) The protective relay itself is defective
2) DC Trip voltage supply to the relay is unavailable
3) Trip lead from relay panel to circuit breaker is disconnected
4) Trip coil in the circuit breaker is disconnected or defective
5) Current or voltage signals from CT or PT respectively is unavailable
As because backup relay operates only when primary relay fails, backup protection relay
should not have anything common with primary protection relay.
Some examples of Mechanical Relay are
1. Thermal
(a) OT Trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
(b) WT Trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
(C) Bearing Temp Trip etc.
2. Float Type
(a) Buchholz
(b) OSR
(c) PRV
(d) Water level Controls etc.
3. Pressure Switches.
4. Mechanical Interlocks.
5. Pole discrepancy Relay.
List Different protective relays are used for different power system equipment protection:
Now lets have a look on which different protective relays are used in different power system
equipment protection schemes

25

CHAPTER-8
ISOLATORS
Definition of Isolator:

Fig:17 Isolator
Circuit breaker always trip the circuit but open contacts of breaker cannot be visible
physically from outside of the breaker and that is why it is recommended not to touch any
electrical circuit just by switching off the circuit breaker. So for better safety there must be
some arrangement so that one can see open condition of the section of the circuit before
touching it. Isolator is a mechanical switch which isolates a part of circuit from system as
when required. Electrical isolators separate a part of the system from rest for safe
maintenance works.
So definition of isolator can be rewritten as Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch
which separates a part of the electrical power system normally at off load condition.
Types of Electrical Isolators:
There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement such as

Double Break Isolator

Single Break Isolator

Pantograph type Isolator
Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be categorized as

Bus side isolator the isolator is directly connected with main bus

Line side isolator the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder

26

Transfer bus side isolator the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus
Constructional features of Double Break Isolators:
Lets have a discussion on constructional features of Double Break Isolators. These have three
stacks of post insulators as shown in the figure. The central post insulator carries a tubular or
flat male contact which can be rotated horizontally with rotation of central post insulator.
This rod type contact is also called moving contact.

The female type contacts are fixed on the top of the other post insulators which fitted at both
sides of the central post insulator. The female contacts are generally in the form of spring
loaded figure contacts. The rotational movement of male contact causes to come itself into
female contacts and isolators becomes closed. The rotation of male contact in opposite
direction make to it out from female contacts and isolators becomes open.
Rotation of the central post insulator is done by a driving lever mechanism at the base of the
post insulator and it connected to operating handle (in case of hand operation) or motor (in
case of motorized operation) of the isolator through a mechanical tie rod.
Constructional features of Single Break Isolators:
The contact arm is divided into two parts one carries male contact and other female contact.
The contact arm moves due to rotation of the post insulator upon which the contact arms are
fitted. Rotation of both post insulators stacks in opposite to each other causes to close the
isolator by closing the contact arm. Counter rotation of both post insulators stacks open the
contact arm and isolator becomes in off condition. This motorized form of this type of
isolators is generally used but emergency hand driven mechanism is also provided.

Fig:18 Single break isolators
Earthing Switches:
Earthing switches are mounted on the base of mainly line side isolator. Earthing switches are
normally vertically break switches. Earthing arms (contact arm of earthing switch) are
normally aligned horizontally at off condition. During switching on operation, these earthing
arms rotate and move to vertical position and make contact with earth female contacts fitted
27

at the top of the post insulator stack of isolator at its outgoing side. The earthing arms are so
interlocked with main isolator moving contacts that it can be closed only when the main
contacts of isolator are in open position. Similarly the main isolator contacts can be closed
only when the earthing arms are in open position.
Operation of Electrical Isolator:
As no arc quenching technique is provided in isolator it must be operated when there is no
chance current flowing through the circuit. No live circuit should be closed or open by
isolator operation. A complete live closed circuit must not be opened by isolator operation
and also a live circuit must not be closed and completed by isolator operation to avoid huge
arcing in between isolator contacts. That is why isolators must be open after circuit breaker is
open and these must be closed before circuit breaker is closed. Isolator can be operated by
hand locally as well as by motorized mechanism from remote position. Motorized operation
arrangement costs more compared to hand operation; hence decision must be taken before
choosing an isolator for system whether hand operated or motor operated economically
optimum for the system. For voltages up to 145KV system hand operated isolators are used
whereas for higher voltage systems like 245 KV or 420 KV and above motorized isolators are
used.















28

CHAPTER-9
LIGHTNING ARRESTORS

CAUSES OF OVER VOLTAGES:
Internal causes
External causes

Internal causes
Switching surge
Insulation failure
Arcing ground
Resonance
Switching surge: The over voltages produced on the power system due to switching are
known as switching surge.
Insulation failure: The most common case of insulation failure in a power system is the
grounding of conductors (i.e. insulation failure between line and earth) which may cause
overvoltage in the system.
Arcing ground: The phenomenon of intermittent arc taking place in line to ground fault
of a 3phase system with consequent production of transients is known as arcing ground.
Resonance: It occurs in an electrical system when inductive reactance of the circuit
becomes equal to capacitive reactance. under resonance , the impedance of the circuit is
equal to resistance of the circuit and the p.f is unity.

Types of lightning strokes
Direct stroke
Indirect stroke
(1) Direct stroke
In direct stroke, the lightning discharge is directly from the cloud to the subject
equipment. From the line, the current path may be over the insulator down the pole to the
ground.
(2) Indirect stroke
Indirect stroke results from the electro statically induced charges on the conductors due to
the presence of charge clouds.

Harmful effects of lightning
The traveling waves produced due to lightning will shatter the insulators.
If the traveling waves hit the windings of a transformer or generator it may cause
considerable damage

29

PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING :

Surge arresters are devices that help prevent damage to apparatus due to high voltages.
The arrester provides a low-impedance path to ground for the current from a lightning
strike or transient voltage and then restores to a normal operating conditions.
A surge arrester may be compared to a relief valve on a boiler or hot water heater. It will
release high pressure until a normal operating condition is reached. When the pressure is
returned to normal, the safety valve is ready for the next operation.
When a high voltage (greater than the normal line voltage) exists on the line, the arrester
immediately furnishes a path to ground and thus limits and drains off the excess voltage.
The arrester must provide this relief and then prevent any further flow of current to
ground. The arrester has two functions; it must provide a point in the circuit at which an
over-voltage pulse can pass to ground and second, to prevent any follow-up current from
flowing to ground.









fig19- 132 KV Lightning Arrester

TYPES OF LIGHTNING ARRESTORS:
1. Rod gap lightning arrestor
2. Horn gap lightning arrestor
3. Multi-gap lightning arrestor
4. Expulsion type lightning arrestor
5. Electrolytic type lightning arrestor
6. Valve type or thyrite type lightning arrestor
7. Lead oxide type lightning arrestor
8. Pellet type lead-peroxide lightning arrestor
9. Impulse protective lightning arrestor
30

CHAPTER-10

CONTROL ROOM

The room in which all the protecting and functional equipments such as ckt
breakers, relays, C.TS., Potential transformers etc., are installed is known as "CONTROL
ROOM". It is essential to control different types of equipment installed at different places in
the substation. Which is easy in the efficient with the help of protective relays.

It consists of number of control panels, relay alarms, measuring meters are placed
at the bottom. Essential meters are placed at the top. The following are different types of
control panels according to their use and design.
1. Cubical with extended control disk.
2. Cubically with separate control disk.
3. Cubical type.
4. Duplex type.
A. BATTERIES
D.C. supply mainly used for emergency purpose and also for relays testing. Generally lead-
acid cells are used for D.C. supply.
BATTERY:
It is the combination of cells either in series or in parallel. Normally they are
connected in series. These consists of +ve and +ve plates. +ve plates are made up of lead-
peroxide (Pbo) and +ve plates are made up of Sponge Lead (Pb). Type of Electrolyte used is
diluted Hydro sulphuric Acid (H
2
SO
4
).
In series connection of batteries, current is constant and batteries are having from
Lower Ampere-hour capacities to Higher Ampere-hour capacities. Batteries are charged on
constant current charging in olden days but, now normally charged is constant potential
charging.
Normally batteries always works in float voltage i.e., 2.25 V/Cell. When batteries are
fully discharged condition boost voltage (2.3V) is used. In maintenance wide batteries, we
have to replace H
2
SO
4
acid and distilled water.
APPLICATIONS OF BATTERIES IN SUB-STATIONS:
1. Telecommunication i.e., power line carrier communication
2. Lighting system
3. Switch gear operation
4. Control system i.e., relays etc
5. Micro Wave repeater stations and other applications


31

IDENTIFICATION OF FULLY CHARGED BATTERIES:
1. It gives hydrogen at Cathode and Oxygen at Anode
2. The colour of +ve and ve plates are brown and in clear gray respectively
3. Specific gravity is 1.285 gm/cum
IDENTIFICAITON OF FULLY DISCHARGED:
1. Specific gravity is 1.12 gm/cum

Normally in float position 2.2 V/Cell, a total voltage of 242V.
In boost position 2.3V/Cell at a total voltage of 253V. The output voltage must never
exceed 245V

Suppose if the float fails, Boost-charge is used at that time only 106 cells are used.
B. SERIES REACTOR
A bar stranded Copper Coil of large size and wound and for high self-inductance and
very low resistance is known as REACTOR.
NEED OF REACTORS:
Where a short circuit occurs at a point in a generation and transmission scheme, a
heavy sort CKT current flows through it. To limit that current flowing to a safe value, thus
protecting the plant. For this purpose reactors are used.
TYPES OF REACTORS ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION:
1. Dry type air cored Reactors or Unshielded Reactors
2. Oil immersed Air cored or Magnetically shielded Reactors
Dry type reactors are used upto 33K.V. only. They are generally cooled by Natural of
forced Air cooling. For high voltages, the Oil immersed Reactors are used, they are self-
cooled by Oil or fan cooled. The object of the shielding is used to avoid considerable losses
and heating under normal loads.
ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETICALLY SHIELDED REACTORS:
1. High factor of safety against flash over
2. Smaller in size because of Easy cooling
3. High thermal capacity
4. No magnetic field outside the tank to cause heating or magnetic forces in adjacent
reactors or metal structures during short circuit.




32

LOCATIONS OF REACTORS:
Reactors scheme in power system can be divided into four types.
1. Generator Reactor scheme
2. Feeder Reactor scheme
3. Bus bar Reactor
a). Ring system
b). Tie bar system.


C. CAPACITOR BANKS:

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the
efficient operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system
can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can
be easily installed anywhere on the network.
Shunt capacitor banks are installed for a variety of reasons in industrial,distribution and
transmission systems.A common thread to all installations is the question of what,if any
series reactor should be installed with the capacitor bank.Series capacitors are used with
capacitor banks for two main reasons:
To dampen the effect of transients during capacitor switching,and to
Control the natural frequencyof the capacitor bank and system impedance to avoid
resonance or to sink harmonic current.
Capacitor switching transients:
When a capacitor bank is energized,the bank and the network are subject to transient
voltage and current.The severity of the effect is determined by the size of the
capacitor and the network impedance.
The worst case occurs when a capacitor bank is energized close to a bank that is
already connected. The inrush into the newly connected bank is determined by the
size of the capacitor bank and the inductance between the two banks.
The larger the banks and the smaller the inductance between banks, the higher will be
the inrush current.
The frequency of the inrush current is determined by the ratio of capacitor bank
reactance and the impedance between the banks.The smaller the impedance,the higher
will be the frequency.
33


Fig:20 Capacitor bank

If the only impedance between the two banks is that in the bus bar and cabling between the
banks, a very large, high frequency inrush current will flow between the banks. Large and high
frequency inrush current can damage capacitors, circuit breakers and contactors. All connected
equipment, and even remote substations are subject to voltage transients and may result in
sporadic equipment malfunction or failure. To avoid this problem , it is common practice to
insert inrush limiting reactors in series with the capacitor banks.

The protection of shunt capacitor bank includes: a) protection against internal bank faults and
faults that occur inside the capacitor unit; and, b) protection of the bank
against system disturbances.

Shunt capacitor banks (SCB) are mainly installed to provide capacitive reactive
compensation, power factor correction. The use of SCBs has increased because they are
relatively inexpensive, easy and quick to install and can be deployed virtually anywhere in
the network. Its installation has other beneficial effects on the system such as: improvement
of the voltage at the load, better voltage regulation (if they were adequately designed),
reduction of losses and reduction or postponement of investments in transmission.
The main disadvantage of SCB is that its reactive power output is proportional to the square
of the voltage and consequently when the voltage is low and the system need them most, they
are the least efficient.

THE CAPACITOR UNIT AND BANK CONFIGURATIONS

The Capacitor Unit

The capacitor unit, Fig. 1, is the building block of a shunt capacitor bank. The capacitor unit
is made up of individual capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/ series connected groups,
within a steel enclosure. The internal discharge device is a resistor that reduces the unit
residual voltage to 50V or less in 5 min. Capacitor units are available in a variety of voltage
ratings (240 V to 24940V) and sizes (2.5 kvar to about 1000 kvar).
34


Fig:21 The capacitor unit



Capacitor unit capabilities:

Relay protection of shunt capacitor banks requires some knowledge of the capabilities and
limitations of the capacitor unit and associated electrical equipment including: individual
capacitor unit, bank switching devices, fuses, voltage and current sensing devices.
Capacitors are intended to be operated at or below their rated voltage and frequency as they
are very sensitive to these values; the reactive power generated by a capacitor is proportional
to both of them (kVar 2 f V 2). The IEEE Std 18-1992 and Std 1036-1992 specify the
standard ratings of the capacitors designed for shunt connection to ac systems and also
provide application guidelines.
These standards stipulate that:
a) Capacitor units should be capable of continuous operation up to 110% of rated terminal
rms voltage and a crest voltage not exceeding 1.2 x 2 of rated rms voltage, including
harmonics but excluding transients. The capacitor should also be able to carry 135% of
nominal current.
b) Capacitors units should not give less than 100% nor more than 115% of rated reactive
power at rated sinusoidal voltage and frequency.
c) Capacitor units should be suitable for continuous operation at up to 135%of rated
reactive power caused by the combined effects of:
Voltage in excess of the nameplate rating at fundamental frequency, but not over
110% of rated rms voltage.
Harmonic voltages superimposed on the fundamental frequency.
Reactive power manufacturing tolerance of up to 115% of rated reactive power.



35

Bank Configurations

The use of fuses for protecting the capacitor units and it location (inside the capacitor unit on
each element or outside the unit) is an important subject in the design of SCBs. They also
affect the failure mode of the capacitor unit and influence the design of the bank protection.
Depending on the application any of the following configurations are suitable for shunt
capacitor banks:

a) Externally Fused

An individual fuse, externally mounted between the capacitor unit and the capacitor bank
fuse bus, typically protects each capacitor unit. The capacitor unit can be designed for a
relatively high voltage because the external fuse is capable of interrupting a high-voltage
fault. Use of capacitors with the highest possible voltage rating will result in a capacitive
bank with the fewest number of series groups.
A failure of a capacitor element welds the foils together and short circuits the other capacitor
elements connected in parallel in the same group. The remaining capacitor elements in the
unit remain in service with a higher voltage across them than before the failure and an
increased in capacitor unit current. If a second element fails the process repeats itself
resulting in an even higher voltage for the remaining elements. Successive failures within the
same unit will make the fuse to operate, disconnecting the capacitor unit and indicating the
failed one.

Fig:22 Externally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit

Externally fused SCBs are configured using one or more series groups of parallel-connected
capacitor units per phase (Fig. 23). The available unbalance signal level decreases as the
number of series groups of capacitors is increased or as the number of capacitor units in
parallel per series group is increased. However, the kiloVar rating of the individual capacitor
unit may need to be smaller because a minimum number of parallel units are required to
allow the bank to remain in service with one fuse or unit out.


36

b) I nternally Fused

Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit. The fuse is a simple piece of wire
enough to limit the current and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand the heat produced
by the arc. Upon a capacitor element failure, the fuse removes the affected element only. The
other elements, connected in parallel in the same group, remain in service but with a slightly
higher voltage across them.
Fig. illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally fused capacitor units. In general,
banks employing internally fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units in
parallel and more series groups of units than are used in banks employing externally fused
capacitor units. The capacitor units are normally large because a complete unit is not
expected to fail.

Fig 23 Internally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit

c) Fuse less Shunt Capacitor Banks

The capacitor units for fuse less capacitor banks are identical to those for externally fused
described above. To form a bank, capacitor units are connected in series strings between
phase and neutral, shown in Fig.

The protection is based on the capacitor elements (within the unit) failing in a shorted mode,
short- circuiting the group. When the capacitor element fails it welds and the capacitor unit
remains in service. The voltage across the failed capacitor element is then shared among all
the remaining capacitor element groups in the series. For example, is there are 6 capacitor
units in series and each unit has 8 element groups in series there is a total of 48 element
groups in series. If one capacitor element fails, the element is shortened and the voltage on
the remaining elements is 48/47 or about a 2% increase in the voltage. The capacitor bank
continues in service; however, successive failures of elements will lead to the removal of the
bank.

37

The fuse less design is not usually applied for system voltages less than about 34.5 kV. The
reason is that there shall be more than 10 elements in series so that the bank does not have to
be removed from service for the failure of one element because the voltage across the
remaining elements would increase by a factor of about E (E 1), where E is the number of
elements in the string.

The discharge energy is small because no capacitor units are connected directly in parallel.
Another advantage of fuse less banks is that the unbalance protection does not have to be
delayed to coordinate with the fuses.

Fig 24 Fuseless shunt capacitor bank and series string

d) Un fused Shunt Capacitor Banks

Contrary to the fuse less configuration, where the units are connected in series, the un fused
shunt capacitor bank uses a series/parallel connection of the capacitor units. The un fused
approach would normally be used on banks below 34.5 kV, where series strings of capacitor
units are not practical, or on higher voltage banks with modest parallel energy. This design
does not require as many capacitor units in parallel as an externally fused bank.

















38

CHAPTER-11
POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION

Fig:25 -Power Line Carrier Communication
Different communication technologies are being used for the transmission of information
from one end to another depending on the feasibility and needs. Some
include Ethernet cables, fiber optics, wireless transmission, satellite transmission, etc. A vast
amount of information travels through the entire earth every day and it creates an essential
need for a transmission medium that is not only fast but economically reasonable as well.
One of the technologies that fit in the above stated criteria is PLCC.
PLCC, Power Line Carrier Communication, is an approach to utilize the existing power
lines for the transmission of information. In todays world every house and building has
properly installed electricity lines. By using the existing AC power lines as a medium to
transfer the information, it becomes easy to connect the houses with a high speed network
access point without installing new wirings.

This technology has been in wide use since 1950 and was mainly used by the grid stations to
transmit information at high speed. Now a days this technology is finding wide use in
building/home automation as it avoids the need of extra wiring. The data collected from
different sensors is transmitted on these power lines thereby also reducing the maintenance
cost of the additional wiring. In some countries this technology is also used to provide
Internet connection.

History

The idea of using an existing medium to send the communication signals is as old as the
telegraph itself. But it had not been possible until the recent decades. The first significant step
in the field was when two patents were issued to American Telephone and Telegraph
Company in the name of 'Carrier Transmission over Power Circuits' in 1920. After four years
39

later in 1924 two other patents were filed for the systems transmitting and receiving
communication signals over three phase power lines.

Harsh characteristics of the power cables were the key problem in further development.
Researchers were involved to overcome the unpredictable characteristics of the power lines.
Since the early 1980, spread spectrum power line communication was the main focus of the
research. This technology is now developed far better than that initial improvement and is
promising a reliable utilization in home automation and security systems.

Applications of PLCC :

PLCC technology can be deployed into different types of applications in order to provide
economic networking solutions. Hence merging with other technologies it proves useful in
different areas. These are few key areas where PLC communications are utilized:
1. Transmission & Distribution Network: PLCC was first adopted in the electrical
transmission and distribution system to transmit information at a fast rate.
2. Home control and Automation: PLCC technology is used in home control and
automation. This technology can reduce the resources as well as efforts for activities
like power management, energy conservation, etc.
3. Entertainment: PLCC is used to distribute the multimedia content throughout the
home.
4. Telecommunication: Data transmission for different types of communications like
telephonic communication, audio, video communication can be made with the use of
PLCC technology.
5. Security Systems: In monitoring houses or businesses through surveillance cameras,
PLCC technology is far useful.























40

CHAPTER-12
EARTHING

A connection to be the general mass of the earth by means of an earth electrode. An
object is said to be earthed when it is electrically connected to an earth Electrode.
The Earthing practice is adopted at such stations should be in such a manner as to
provided for the following purpose.
1. Safely to personnel.
2. Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy fault currents.
3. To provide earth connections for the Earthed Neutral system.
4. To provide discharge path for lighting arrestors, gap etc.,
Generally two types of Earthing systems are mostly used. Those are
1. Pipe Earthing.
2. Plate Earthing
Every type of earthing should satisfy the following conditions as per the rural Electrification
Corporation Limited.
1. Voltage drop between nominal earth part's which any one is liable to be in
simultaneous contact shall not exceed 55 V.
2. Earthing Conductors shall not be set in concrete.
3. Preferably Earthing conductors should not be run in metal conduits.
4. The Earth resistance of the system shall not exceed the limits specified
below.
Power Stations : 0.5 ohms
Major sub-stations : 1.0 ohms
Other sub-stations : 2.0 ohms
Distribution transformer sub-station : 5.0 ohms
Tower, poles etc. : Less than 25 ohms
In substations grid system of earthing is generally used. The grid comprises a number of
meshes. These are bounded to the general mass of earth by a number of low resistance earth
electrodes. -The size of Electrode 4 x 5m buried horizontally. Each conductor shall be made
of copper and have a cross-sectional area of not less than 1.3 sq cms. Conductors forming
earth grid shall be laid in the ground at a depth of not less lhan 30 cm below.
Earthing practice can be broadly divided into the following two types.
1. Equipment earthing.
2. System Earthing or Grounding of power system neutrals.


Fig26- Eathing pit
41

CHAPTER-13
SAFETY RULES OF EHT SUBSTATION

Safety Requirements in construction of Transmission Lines & Substations:

Safety shall form an integral, part of work processes to ensure safety for employees including
employees of contractors and sub-contractors as well as visitors.

Provisions relating to Transco:- A sound and scientific management system should be set
up which shall include:
a) Formulation of a written statement of policy in respect of safety and health of employees.
b) Defining and documenting responsibilities for all levels of functionaries to carry out
safety related activities including responsibilities of the contractors.
c) Preparing detailed Safety Manual complying with statutory requirements, manufactures'
recommendations, BIS and any other relevant standards and codes.
d) Establishing procedures to identify hazards that could give rise to the potential of injury
health impairment or death and measures to control impact of such hazards.
e) Providing adequate human, physical and financial resources to implement the safety
management system. !
f) Providing safe working environment and evolving framework for occupational safety and
health.
g) Providing and maintaining medical facilities. ;
h) Providing adequate training to all employees to make them aware of safety related issues.
i) Establishing system for accident reporting, analysis, investigation and.
Implementation of recommendations.
j) Establishing system for proper communication, documentation and record of management
in relation to occupational safety and health,
k) Filing periodic and other returns to the statutory bodies as required various Acts; and
Rules within stipulated time.
1) Formulating emergency management plan for quickly and effectively dealing with
probable emergencies that stipulated time.
m) Establishing methodology for internal and external audit of safety management system.
n) Establishing system for periodic monitoring and review of safety system by Management.
o)Overseeing the safety performance of the contractors.

Detailed site specific safety manuals should be prepared. However common safety j
manuals may be prepared for similar installations. Safety Manuals be prepared for
construction of Transmission Lines and Substations and for Operation & Maintenance of
Lines & Substations.

Provisions relating to Contractor:

Transco shall incorporate requisite safety provisions in the contract document which
are required to be compiled by the contractor's personnel during execution of contract to
facilitate safe working during execution of works.

Contractor shall observe safety requirements as laid down in the contract as well as
comply with statutory requirements as provided in the existing Acts/ Rules. In case of sub-
42

contracts, it shall be the responsibility of main contractor that all safety
requirements are followed by the employees/staff of the sub-contractors.
One of the employees of the contractor shall act as safety coordinator, who will liaison with
safety officer on matters relating to safety.
Contractor shall be responsible for non-compliance of any of the safety measures,
implications, injuries, fatalities and compensation arising out of such situations or incidents.
In case of any accident, contractor shall immediately submit a statement of such accidents to
the department and the safety officer concerned for the project showing the details of
accident, any injury/casualties, extent of property damage and remedial action taken to
prevent recurrence. The contractor shall submit a statement of various accidents to the
department at the end of each month within a week.

Reporting of accidents:

i) Notice of any accident, resulting in death of any person or in such bodily injury which is
likely to cause death or prevents the injured person from working for a period of 48 hours of
more, shall be sent to the statutory authorities within the prescribed time as per the Factories
Act and Rules or the Building and other Construction workers (Regulation of Employment
and Conditions of Service) Act and Rules as applicable.
ii) Cases of outage of a substation or a transmission line 132KV above due to any accident
related to any equipment (e.g. fire, explosion, emission of hazardous chemicals, collapse of
transmission tower, flooding of sub-station area) shall be reported to the Authority within 24
hours, whether or not any death or disablement is caused to any person.

Emergency Management Plan:

i. An on site emergency management plan shall be formulated for a) each substation and
b) group of transmission lines for quickly and effectively dealing with probable
emergencies like fore, explosion, gas leakages, landslides, floods etc. and reducing
response time.

ii. Provisions to be made for the onsite emergency management plans shall conform to
the following:
a. Major fire in cable gallery
Major fire in transformer yard
iii. Onsite emergency management plan for the substations and lines should be prepared
by the department before commissioning. In case of existing substations and lines the
plan may be prepared within 90 days. However in case of construction of Substations
and lines, emergency action plan shall be prepared, before commencement of
construction activity, to handle emergencies like fire, explosion, collapse of lifting
appliances and transport equipment, collapse of building or structures, gas leakages,
landslides, floods etc.
iv. Department should ensure that a mock drill of the onsite emergency
management plan is conducted at least once every six months.





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Medical facilities:

Medical facilities shall be provided to arrange immediate relief to accident victims. A fully
equipped first-aid box shall be made available at the plant or at the site. A few persons (say 5)
should be trained in first-aid procedures amongst whom at least one shall always be available
during the working period. Arrangements for procuring ambulance van for transportation of
persons involved in serious accident or sickness to the hospital' shall be made at short notice.

Training and Awareness:

Regular training programmes should be conducted for all employees covering general safety
awareness, first-aid, emergency procedures including shock treatment, use of personal
protective equipment, safety pre-cautions while handling electro-mechanical equipment, use
of different types of firefighting equipment, response in the event of emergencies including
fire, floods, landslides, earthquakes etc., site specific hazards and relevant safety acts, rules
and regulations.
Safety Manual for construction of Substations and lines:
A safety Manual shall be prepared with the following contents:
Safety policy, Safety organization, Responsibilities of contractor, responsibilities of
employees, Reporting of accidents, Enquiry of accident, dangerous occurrence,
1

occupational health and medical facilities, emergency management plan, location of safety
equipment and emergency facilities in the substation, safety inspections/audits, Safety
training, awareness and promotion, Personal protection equipment, communication facilities,
Fire prevention and protection, emergency escape routes.

Safe working environment:

Illumination and emergency lighting, Noise pollution, Harmful gases and dust pollution,
Thermal radiation, Ventilation, confined spaces.

Safety In handling oils, Safety in painting works, Safety in transportation, earth moving
equipment and other construction equipment/machinery, Safety in use of electricity.
Safety in handling electrical equipment such as: Earthing of equipment, working on ! bus-
bars, transformers, circuit breakers, insulators etc, Working on lines during ! installation
of insulators, stringing of conductors, jumpering and fixing of spacers/vibration
dampers, DHV/HV static capacitor banks, opening or splicing de-energized conductors or
overhead ground wires, storage batteries, testing of
:
MV/HV/EHV equipment, SF6
gas filled equipment.

Housekeeping, Safety in material handling, safety in use of lifting machines and tackles,
Safety while lifting heavy equipment, fencing of rotating machinery, Safety during
demolition and excavation Safety while working in any rainy and foggy environment, safety
during blasting, Safety. A Safety manual for O&M of Substations and Lines shall be prepared
with the following contents.



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i) Procedure for obtaining permission to work for carrying out O&M of equipment,
ii) Safety in O&M of various electro-mechanical equipment as
per recommendations of manufactures
iii) Safety of structures/buildings
iv) Safety in work shop and garages
Safe working clearance
Guarding of live apparatus
Operation on live apparatus
General provision relating to maintenance
Working in areas containing exposed live HV/EHE conductors
Demarcation of work areas
Working on remotely controlled and automatically controlled equipment
Working on equipment containing or operated by compressed air.
v) Safe handling, collection and disposal of hazardous waste
vi) Safety in substations/Switchyard/Switch boards


































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REFERENCES :

[1]C.L.Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, 3rd edition, New Age International (P) Limited,
Publishers, 2005.

[2]B.L.Soni, Gupta, Bhatnagar, Chakrabarthy, A Text Book on Power System Engineering,
Dhanpat Rai & Co, 2007.

[3]T.S.Madhava Rao, Power System Protection: Static Relays, 2nd edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill inc., US2004.

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_substation.