Sag DVR

HARDWARE ENACTMENT FOR SAGACIOUS
COMPENSATION OF VOLTAGE SAG BY

SINGLE PHASE DYNAMIC VOLTAGE
RESTORER USING DSPACE RTI 1104

Dissertation submitted to
Visvesvaraya National I nstitute of Technology, Nagpur
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEMS

By
MR. B. HANUMANTHU NAIK

Under the Guidance of
MRS. R. J. SATPUTALEY
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NAGPUR 440010 (INDIA)
NOV 2013
HARDWARE ENACTMENT FOR SAGACIOUS
COMPENSATION OF VOLTAGE SAG BY
SINGLE PHASE DYNAMIC VOLTAGE
RESTORER USING DSPACE RTI 1104

Dissertation submitted to
Visvesvaraya National institute of Technology, Nagpur
I n partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
degree of

M.Tech
in
Integrated Power Systems

by
B. HANUMANTHU NAIK

Under the Guidance of
Mrs. R.J.Satputaley
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NAGPUR 440010 (INDIA)
2012 - 2013
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT) 2013
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering

Certificate

This is to certify that a project report on HARDWARE
ENACTMENT FOR SAGACIOUS COMPENSATION
OF VOLTAGE SAG BY SINGLE PHASE DYNAMIC
VOLTAGE RESTORER USING DSPACE RTI 1104,
being submitted by Mr. B. Hanumanthu Naik, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN INTEGRATED
POWER SYSTEMS, is a record of the students own work
carried by him under my supervision and guidance.

Date: (Mrs. R.J Satputaley)
Assistant Professor

Countersigned by

(Dr. M. V. AWARE)
Professor & Head of theDepartment
V.N.I.T Nagpur

Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology

DECLARATION
I, hereby, declare that the thesis titled Hardware Enactment for
Sagacious Compensation of Voltage Sag by Single Phase Dynamic
Vol tage Restorer using dSPACE RTI 1104, submitted herein for the
award of degree of Master of Technology has been carried out by me in the
Department of Electrical Engineering of Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur. The work is original and has been not submitted earlier as a
whole or in part for the award of any degree/diploma at this or any other
Institution/University.

B B. . H Ha an nu um ma an nt t h hu u N Na ai i k k
D Da at t e e : :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement is a very small bouquet for the appreciation,
recognition actuated by gratitude towards those valuable help, guidance and
criticism that led my project to the utter success.

I take up this precious opportunity to express my sound gratitude
towards my Guide Assistant Prof. Mrs. R. J. SATPUTALEY for her
treasured guidance throughout the project work.

I thank to Dr. M. V. AWARE, Professor and Head of the Electrical
Engineering Department, and extend my thanks to Dr.V.B.BORGHATE ,
Associate Professor & Dr. M.A.CHAUDHARI, Associate Professor who
were kind enough to provide me all the help so that I could work voraciously,
baring the time limit.

I also want to thank all my classmates especially (Ashok, Srinivas,
Suresh, Sandy, Rambabu, Swamy, Aneesha, Srikant, Shankar, Rachananjali
&Geethanjali) and the staff of college who directly or indirectly helped and
contributed to successful completion of my project.

And Finally I thank my parents (Mr.B.Sama Naik & Mrs.B.Mary Bi)
for their love, support and encouragement. And last but not least I am very
thankful to my Almighty- God and powerful one, who loves me abundantly.

Date: (B. Hanumanthu Naik)
CONTENTS
Page No.
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii-v
LIST OF TABLES vi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-07

1.1 Background and motivation 1
1.1.1 Power quality problems 1
1.1.2 New trends in power quality 3
1.1.3 Power electronic controllers for voltage dip
Mitigation 3
1.2 The Dynamic Voltage Restorer 5
1.3 Aims and objectives 6
1.4 Outline of Project 7
CHAPTER 2 MAJOR POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 8-26
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 What is Power Quality? 9
2.3 Causes of Poor Power Quality 9
2.4 Impact of Poor Power Quality 10
2.5 Symptoms of Power Quality Problems 10
2.6 Why Power Quality is so important? 11
2.7 Different Power Quality Problems 11
2.7.1 Voltage sag 12
2.7.1.1 Introduction 12
2.7.1.2 Voltage Sag Definition 13
2.7.1.3 General Causes and Effects of Voltage
Sags 14
2.7.1.4 Voltage Sags due to Faults 14
2.7.1.5 Voltage Sags due to Motor Starting 15
2.7.1.5.1 Motor-starting methods 16
2.7.1.6 Voltage Sags due to Transformer
Energizing 17
2.7.1.7 Estimating Voltage Sag Performance 18
2.7.1.8 Estimating the costs for the voltage sag
Events 18
2.7.2 Voltage Swell 19
2. 7. 3 Volt age Fl uctuations 20
2.7.4 Transients 20
2.7.4.1 Impulsive Transients 21
2. 7. 4. 2 Oscill atory Transi ent s 21
2.7.5 Harmonics 23
2.7.6 Interruption 24
2.8 Power Quality issues mitigation techniques 25
CHAPTER 3 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR) 27-35
3.1 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) 27
3.2 Principle of DVR Operation 27
3.3 Basic Configuration of DVR 28
3.3.1 Injection/ Booster transformer 29
3.3.2 Harmonic Filter 29
3.3.3 Voltage Source Converter 29
3.3.4 DC Charging Circuit 30
3.3.5 Control and protection 30
3.4 Operating modes of DVR 31
3.4.1 Protection mode/Bypass mode 32
3.4.2 Standby Mode 32
3.4.3 Active/Injection/Boost Mode 32
3.5 Voltage injection methods of DVR 33
3.5.1 Pre-sag/dip compensation method 33
3.5.2 In-phase compensation method 34
3.5.3 In-phase advanced compensation method 34
3.5.4 Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy
injection 35
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS OF DYNAMIC
VOLTAGE RESTORER 36-53
4.1 Design parameters 36
4.1.1 Voltage and current rating 36
4.2 Design of the DVR elements 37
4.2.1 Design of voltage source converter 38
4.2.1.1 Inverters 38
4.2.1.2 Pulse width modulation (PWM) 40
4.2.1.3 Total harmonic distortion (THD) 44
4.2.1.4 dSPACE RTI 1104 45
4.2.2 Harmonic filter 49
4.2.3 Injection/booster transformer 50
4.2.4 Storage devices 52
4.2.5 Detection and control block 52

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ON RESULTS 54-75
5.1 Matlab simulink model and simulation results 54
5.2 Hardware enactment 58
5.2.1 Main specifications 59
5.3 Problems faced 59
5.3.1 Basic conditions 60
5.4 Modes of operation 60
5.4.1 Open loop control 60
5.4.2 Closed loop operation 68
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE 76
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A DATASHEETS

Abstract

i

ABSTRACT

The battle of theoretical and practical accomplishment of DVR lies in the fact
that it has versatile usage for mitigation of voltage sag occurred in power system
loads. As the power quality issues are the drastic scenario of power system world the
importance have been amplified after the prologue of sophisticated devices, whose
concert is so responsive during the Power quality issues like voltage sag/dip, swell,
harmonic contents etc. Application of custom power devices is essential to knob out
this form of issues. So, Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) is one of the technologies
which have the ability to ensure consumers for improved power quality. DVR can
provide the most commercial solution to mitigate voltage sag by injecting voltage as
well as real power into the system. The mitigation capability of these devices is
mainly influenced by the maximum load; power factor and maximum voltage dip to
be compensated. The aim and beauty of the DVR lies in the fact that it can be used to
increase the stability and overall power quality in distribution network. This
documentary mainly speaks about the mitigation of voltage sag by single phase DVR
with the use of dSPACE RTI d1104. Hardware implemented results have been also
presented to verify the performance of Single phase DVR.

ii

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1: CBEMA Curve 02
Fig.1.2: Double conversion Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) with
an energy storage 04
Fig.1.3: Series connected dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) with an energy
Storage 04
Fig.1.4: Solid state transfer switch (SSTS) to switch between two
supply lines 05
Fig.1.5: Operation principle of a DVR. The DVR can by series voltage
injection compensate for a voltage dip at the supply side and
restore the load voltage for a sensitive load 06
Fig .2.1: Power Quality Problems at distribution side 12
Fig.2.2: Peak-Peak & RMS representation of the Voltage sag 13
Fig.2.3: Different faults cause for different sags 14
Fig. 2.4: Voltage sag due to a cleared line-ground fault 15
Fig. 2.5: Voltage sag due to motor starting 16
Fig. 2.6: Voltage sag due to transformer energizing 17
Fig. 2. 7: Example of a Voltage Swell 19
Fig. 2. 8: Volt age Flicker Caused by Furnace Operation 20
Fig. 2. 9: Lighting stroke current impulsive transient 21
Fig. 2. 10: Oscill at ory Transi ent s 21
Fig.2.11: Second and Third Harmonics in voltage waveform 24
Fig. 2. 12: Interruption 25

iii

Fig. 3.1: Location of DVR 27
Fig. 3.2: Principle of DVR with a response time of less than one
Millisecond 28
Fig. 3.3: Schematic diagram of DVR 29
Fig. 3.4: Equivalent circuit diagram of DVR 30
Fig. 3.5: Protection Mode (creating another path for current) 32
Fig. 3.6: Standby Mode 32
Fig. 3.7: Pre-sag compensation method 33
Fig. 3.8: In-phase compensation method 34
Fig. 3.9: Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection 35
Fig .4.1: Single-phase simplified model for the DVR 36
Fig .4.2: Block diagram of Dynamic Voltage Restorer 38
Fig .4.3: Single Phase Full wave Bridge Inverter 39
Fig .4.4: Hardware implementation of Inverter circuit 40
Fig .4.5: Single Pulse Width Modulation 41
Fig .4.6: Multiple Pulse Width Modulation 42
Fig .4.7: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Technique 43
Fig .4.8: dSPACE RTI 1104 connector panels 46
Fig.4.10: (a) Power supply required to operate Gate driver, (b) Gate driver
circuit of IC 4425 (c) Hardware implementation of Gate driver
circuit, (d) Pulses to Gate driver from dSPACE Control Panel
to interface 49

iv

Fig .4.11: Design of LC Filter and its hardware implementation 50
Fig .4.12: Transformers placement after polarity Test 51
Fig .4.13: Hardware implementation of Injection Transformer 52
Fig .4.14: Equivalent design of energy storage device and its hardware
implementation 52
Fig.4.15: Complete Hardware set up of DVR 53
Fig.5.1 Creation of voltage sag using large loads 54
Fig.5.2 Output waveform supply voltage, supply current and load voltage 55
Fig.5.3 Creation of 70% sag in the load voltage 55
Fig.5.4 Mitigation of sag using DVR 56
Fig.5.5 Closed-loop control using the PI controller 56
Fig.5.6 Output voltage of the single phase inverter using with and
without filter 57
Fig.5.7 Mitigation of voltage sag using DVR 57
Fig.5.8 (a): Basic Model of Open Loop Control for pulse generation 62
Fig.5.8 (b): Hardware pulses from Dspace 63
Fig.5.8 (c): Hardware pulses after gate driver circuit 63
Fig 5.9 Source Voltage 64
Fig 5.10 Load Voltage during PreSag 64
Fig 5.11 Load Voltage when sag dip occurs 65
Fig 5.12 Load Voltage when sag occurs 65
Fig 5.13 Injected Voltages by DVR 66

v

Fig 5.14 Injected Parameters by DVR 66
Fig 5.15 Load Voltage after mitigation by DVR 67
Fig 5.16 THD Analysis of Load Voltage 67
Fig 5.17 Basic Model of Open Loop Control for pulse generation 69
Fig 5.19 Load Voltage 70
Fig 5.20 Load Voltage when sag Dip occurs 71
Fig 5.24 Load Voltage after mitigation 73
Fig 5.25 Injected DVR Voltages V
DVR
73

Fig 5.26 THD Analysis of Load Voltage 74
Fig 5.27 Complete Hardware set up for sag mitigation using DVR 75

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table No:
Table Name
Page
2.1
Types of Voltage Swell
19
4.1
Switching States
39
5.1
List of Hardware components 58
5.2
System parameters 59
5.3
Overall specifications of DVR in
open loop condition
62
5.4
Overall specifications of DVR in
closed loop condition
69

Introduction

Page 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The research documented in this thesis relates to the design and control of
power converters for Custom Power System (CUPS). More precisely, focus is put on
a special class of Custom Power System device called a Dynamic Voltage Restorer.
Further information regarding the background and motivation for the current research
on the dynamic voltage restorer is provided below. Also, the aim of the thesis is
defined including an outline of the thesis.
1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION:
Power quality has been a topic of great interest for decades and several issues
have triggered interest in monitoring and improving the power quality.

1.1.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:
A North American analysis of power quality included data collection from
1057 site-months at 112 locations from 1990 to 1994[1], [2]. The measured data were
analyzed and classified according to the standards of ANSI C84.1-1989 and the
Computer and Business Equipment Measurement Association (CEBEMA) curve,
illustrated in Fig.1.1. More than 1, 60,000 power disturbances were recorded over the
four monitoring periods, which showed the unavailability of commercial power with
an estimated mean value of 6.17 hour per site, per year. The power disturbances were
categorized into four major events; low RMS events, high RMS events, transients and
interruptions.
The transient events took a major part with around 60%, while the interruption
took minor part with around 1%. The transients mainly came from capacitive
switching operations, when the utility applies a large bank of capacitors on a high
voltage power line to help to regulate voltage and to compensate for a poor power
factor.More than 26% of the power disturbances came from the low RMS events,
while 13% of that came from the high RMS events. Some of the high RMS events
were suspected to come from the incorrect setting of the transformers. The majority of
the low RMS events (90%) lasted less than one minute, while 4% lasted more than
thirty minutes.
Introduction

Page 2

Fig.1.1: CBEMA Curve
In a power quality investigation in Denmark from November 1996 to May
1998 around 200 delivery points was measured located in the distribution networks.
Medium and large industrial companies were excluded from the survey and more than
60% of the measuring proceeded in urban site. In total 700 data sets, each one of them
representing one week of measuring, were analyzed by the new standards, EN 50160,
IEC 1000-3-2 and the CBEMA curve. All interruptions longer than 3 minutes were
removed from the data.
The data were categorized into the events of flicker, total harmonic distortion
(THD), dip and swell, unbalance, DC voltage, and transients. Among these events, the
dips appeared as a top issue. Around 30 % of the measurements were under 85 % of
the nominal voltage, which must be avoided according to the European Standard EN
50160.
Voltage dips can cause tripping of sensitive loads and the cost associated with
short duration voltage dips can in some cases justify the insertion of power electronic
equipment to compensate for the poor power quality [3].
Introduction

Page 3

1.1.2 NEW TRENDS IN POWER QUALITY:
Some of the issues, which have renewed and triggered the interest in power
quality, can be stated as:
Higher demand on supreme power quality. IT-technology, automated
production plants and commercial activities require a good and reliable power
supply [3].
De-regulating and commercializing of the of electric energy markets has made
power quality a parameter of interest to achieve a higher price per kilowatt, to
increase the profit and share of the market [4].
Decentralization of the production of electricity with integration of alternative
energy sources and small generation plants has increased certain power quality
problems like surplus of power, voltage variations and flickers [5].
The improvements in the power electronics area and data processing capability
have made improvement in power quality possible by means of relative cost-
effective power electronic controllers [6].
These trends have triggered interest in different types of power electronic
controllers to mitigate power quality problems.

1.1.3 POWER ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS FOR VOLTAGE DIP
MITIGATION:
There are two general approaches to mitigate power quality problems. One
approach is to ensure that the process equipment is less sensitive to disturbances,
allowing it to ride-through the disturbances [7]. The other approach is to install a
custom power device to suppress or counteract the disturbances.
Many CUPS devices are commercially available in the market today such as,
active power filters (APF), battery energy storage systems (BESS), distribution static
synchronous compensators (DSTATCOM), distribution series capacitors (DSC),
dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), power factor controller (PFC), surge arresters (SA),
super conducting magnetic energy storage systems (SMES), static electronic tap
changers (SETC), solid-state transfer switches (SSTS), solid-state circuit
breaker(SSCB), static var compensator (SVC), thyristor switched capacitors (TSC)
and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
Introduction

Page 4

Focusing on the compensation of voltage dips the number of devices can be
narrowed down, and in [8] three types of devices have been compared, they are:
UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply. This could be a static converter with
double conversion to mitigate most type of power quality disturbances.
The topology is illustrated in Fig.1.2.
DVR: Dynamic Voltage Restorer is a series-connected device, which
corrects the voltage dip and restore the load voltage in case of a voltage
dip. The topology is illustrated in Fig.1.3.
SSTS: Solid State Transfer Switch to change from a faulted feeder to a
healthy feeder. The topology is illustrated in Fig.1.4.
Some of the advantages and disadvantages with the three solutions are summarized in
Table 1.1.

Fig.1.2: Double conversion Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) with energy storage

Fig.1.3: Series connected dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) with an energy storage.

Introduction

Page 5

Fig.1.4: Solid state transfers switch (SSTS) to switch between two supply lines.
In [8] and economic comparison of the three solutions have been investigated
regarding the expected savings, cost of solution per kVA, annual operating cost, total
annual cost and a benefit/cost ratio. The SSTS has the highest benefit/cost ratio if a
secondary independent feeder is present and if not the DVR is considered to be the
most cost effective solution.
1.2 THE DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER:
The dynamic voltage restorer is a series connected device, which by voltage
injection can control the load voltage. In the case of a voltage dip the DVR injects the
missing voltage and it avoids any tripping the load. Fig.1.5 illustrates the operation
principle of a DVR. Table.1.1 discusses the comparison of DVR with other custom
power devices.

Table1.1: Comparison of three solutions to protect sensitive loads from voltage
deviations.
Device Advantages Disadvantages
UPS -Can compensate for interruptions. -High cost per KW.
-High losses.
DVR -Low losses, injects only the missing
part of the supply voltage.
-Cost effective.
-Difficult to protect.
-Cannot compensate for
interruptions.
SSTS -Low stand by losses.
-Low system cost if the second
feeder is present.
-Can compensate for interruptions
and voltage dips.
-High benefit/cost ratio if a second
feeder independent feeder is present.
-Needs a second undisturbed feeder.
-Difficult to ensure an undisturbed
feeder.
-Slow response.

Introduction

Page 6

Fig.1.5: Operation principle of a DVR. The DVR can by series voltage injection
compensate for a voltage dip at the supply side and restore the load voltage for a
sensitive load
The DVR is still very rarely inserted in the grid and only relative few devices
have been inserted around the world. Commercial projects/products regarding the
DVR have been reported in [9], [10], [11], [12], [13] and [14]. Most of the described
projects include limited information about potential problems and a detailed
description of the design and control aspects.
Even though the DVR is commercially available today, the DVR is not a
matured technology and several areas regarding the design and control of this type of
devices are at the basic research level. The design of a DVR has been treated in [15],
[16] and [17] with focus on the sizing of the voltage, power and current rating. The
control strategies to limit the energy storage have been addressed and some control
issues regarding series compensation of unbalanced supply voltages have been
treated. Additionally, the DVR is a series connected device and one of the drawbacks
with series connected devices is the difficulties to protect the device during short
circuits and avoid interference with the existing protection equipment. Which have
been treated in [18] and [19].

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:
Mitigating the problem related to Voltage Sag by Using Dynamic Voltage
Restorer (DVR).
To inject appropriate voltage component to correct rapidly any change in
supply voltage to keep the load voltage balanced and constant.
Introduction

Page 7

Modeling, analysis and simulation of dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) using
MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Hardware implementation of DVR using dSPACE for mitigating voltage sag.
1.4 OUTLINE OF PROJECT:
This thesis studies about Hardware Enactment For Sagacious
Compensation Of Voltage Sag By Single Phase Dynamic Voltage Restorer Using
dSPACE RTI 1104.
The present report is structured in six chapters.
The abstract of thesis may contain a short background, and the objectives of the
current thesis.
The First chapter represents an overview of project. Firstly, Introduction about
the power system and it problems followed by brief introduction of the DVR.
Secondly, Aim and Objective of the project followed by outline of the thesis.
The Second chapter discuss about Major Power quality Problems which gives
an overview of power quality issues, which are relevant for the design and control of a
dynamic voltage restorer with focus on voltage dips and interruptions.
The Third chapter describes about the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) which
gives an overview of the introduction to DVR, the location of a DVR and the main
system, operation principle of DVR, basic configuration of DVR and converter
topologies suited for a DVR.
The Fourth chapter deals with the Design and Specifications of Dynamic
Voltage Restorer which consists of main design process and parameters for the DVR.
The Fifth chapter includes Discussion on Results with the modeling process
and parameters included in the models using MATLAB/SIMULINK. It also includes
a verification of the system model with a comparison between simulations and
experimental setup using dSPACE RTI 1104.
The Sixth chapter represents the conclusion and future scope of the thesis.

Major Power Quality Problems

Page 8

CHAPTER 2
MAJOR POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Since last 25 years there has been an increase in the use of solid state
electronic technology. This new, highly efficient, electronic technology provides
product quality with increased productivity. Today, we are able to produce products at
costs less than in the years passed, with the introduction of automation by using the
solid state electronic technology .This new technology requires clear electric power
quality. The conventional speed control systems are being replaced by modern power
electronic systems, bringing a verity of advantages to the users. Classic examples are
DC & AC drives, UPS, soft stators, etc. Since the thrusters converter technology is
rapidly gaining in the modern industrial plants, the power supply systems are
contaminated as the ideal sinusoidal current and voltage waveforms are getting
distorted. This is in turn is affecting the performance of the equipment in the electrical
network.
Adequate to superior power quality is essential for the smooth functioning of
critical industrial processes. As industries expand, utilities become more
interconnected and usage of electronically controlled equipment increases, power
quality is jeopardized. Most large industrial and commercial sites are served by
overhead lines with feeders that are subject to unpredictable and sporadic events,
e.g. lightning and contact with tree limbs. Most distribution circuits have resoling
devices that clear temporary faults through a timed series of trip and close operations.
This minimizes the possibility of long-term outages but leads to a number of
minor power disturbances. These typically occur several times a month. Many electric
utilities have increased the voltage at which they distribute power. This allows a
single circuit to serve more customers or deliver higher loads, and reduces energy
losses in the system. But it often means the overhead distribution circuit is longer,
with more exposure to disturbances. The disturbances travel farther because of lower
system impedances associated with higher voltage circuits. Sophisticated new systems
are providing vastly increased efficiency and control in critical processes. But with

Page 9

their high sensitivity even to brief variations in electric power quality, today's
computer-driven devices fail when power is disturbed for even a few milliseconds.

2.2 WHAT IS POWER QUALITY?
Electric Power Quality is a term which has captured increasing attention in
power engineering in the recent years. Even though this subject has always been of
interest to power engineers, it has assumed considerable interest in the 1990's. Electric
power quality means different things for different people. To most electric power
engineers, the term refers to a certain sufficiently high grade of electric service but
beyond that there is no universal agreement. The measure of power quality depends
upon the needs of the equipment that is being supplied. What is good power quality
for an electric motor may not be good enough for a personal computer. Usually the
term power quality refers to maintaining a sinusoidal waveform of bus voltages at
rated voltage and frequency.
Power Quality [20] broadly refers to the delivery of a sufficiently high grade
of electric service.
As per IEEE standards Power Quality [21] is defined as It is the concept of
powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable for
operation of system (equipment).
As per IEC Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of equipment or
system to function satisfactorily in its environment without introducing intolerable
disturbances to others equipments.
Many problems can result from poor power quality, especially in today's
complex microelectronics environment. Electrical disturbances on mechanical
equipment went unnoticeable in the past but can upset todays high-tech equipment
operations severely. Because approximately 80% of all power-quality problems
originate from the customer's side of the meter, facility owners, managers, designers
and other high-tech equipment users need to understand and avoid power
disturbances.

2.3 CAUSES OF POOR POWER QUALITY:
The causes of poor quality can be attributed to:
Variations in voltage, magnitude and frequency.

Page 10

Variations in magnitude can be due to sudden rise or fall of load, outages,
repetitive varying loading pattern in rolling mills, power electronic converters,
lightning etc.
Variations in frequency can rise of out of system dynamics or harmonics
injection. Consequently the voltage or current waveforms of a power system
cease to be purely sinusoidal in nature but consist of harmonics and other
noises.

2.4 IMPACT OF POOR POWER QUALITY:
The effect of these aforesaid poor power quality problems has serious
implication on the utilities and customers. Utility side impacts higher losses in
transformers, cables etc. In conductors the neutral wires can burn due to the presence
of third harmonics generated by non-linear loads. The power factor correction
capacitors may puncture due to resonant conditions at resonant frequencies near lower
order harmonics. The energy-meters, which are calibrated to operate under pure
sinusoidal conditions, may give erroneous readings. The solid-state protective relays
can mal operate due to poor power quality. There can be increased losses in cables,
transformers and conductors. The customer side of the power network also experience
adverse effects of poor power quality. The automatic processes employing adjustable
speed drives may shut down because of nuisance tripping due to even short voltage
sags. The induction synchronous motors can have increased copper and core loses,
pulsating torques and overheating with derating effect. The non-sinusoidal power
supply thus reduces torque and efficiency of the motors. The computers and
telecommunication equipment encounter loss of data and mal-operation due to poor
power supply quality. The domestic electronic gadgets such as digital clocks, VCRs
and TVs are also affected by voltage distortions.
2.5 SYMPTOMS OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:
Electronic controlled systems that stop unexpectedly.
Many systems reboots required.
Abnormal failure rate of electronic systems.
Transformers overheating.
Motors failing.
PF capacitors failing.

Page 11

Test results unreliable.
May cause financial losses to the network operators and the equipment
manufacturers too.
2.6 WHY POWER QUALITY IS SO IMPORTANT?
Power quality is an increasingly important issue for all industries. Problems with
powering and grounding can cause data and processing errors that affect production
and service quality.
Lost production: Each time production is interrupted, your business loses the
margin on the product that is not manufactured and sold.
Damaged product: Interruptions can damage a partially complete product,
cause the items to be rerun or scrapped.
Maintenance: Reacting to a voltage disruption can involve restoring production,
diagnosing and correcting the problem, clean up and repair, disposing of
damaged products and, in some cases, environment cost.

2.7 DIFFERENT POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:
Transients
Impulsive
Oscillatory
Flicker
Long Duration Voltage Variation
Over voltage
Under voltage
Sustained interruption
Voltage Unbalance
Noise
Short Duration Voltage Variation
Sag
Swell
Interruptions
Frequency Variation
Wave Distortion


Page 12

Most common problems at distribution side:
Fig.2.1 resembles most of power quality problem [22] commonly occurring at
distribution system

Fig.2.1: Power Quality Problems at distribution side
2.7.1 VOLTAGE SAG:
2.7.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Voltage sags are huge problems for many industries, and it is probably the
most pressing power quality problem today. Voltage sags may cause tripping and
large torque peaks in electrical machines. Tripping is caused by under voltage
protection or over current protection. These two protections operate independently.
Large torque peaks may cause damage to the shaft or equipment connected to the
shaft. Some common reason for voltage sags are lightning strikes in power lines,
equipment failures, accidental contact power lines, and electrical machine starts.
Despite being a short duration between 10msec to 1sec event during which a
reduction in the RMS voltage magnitude takes place, a small reduction in the system
voltage can cause serious consequences.
POWER
QUALITY
FLICKER
VOLTAGE
SAG
VOLTAGE
SWELL
HARMONICS
TRANSIENTS

Page 13

2.7.1.2 VOLTAGE SAG DEFINITION:
The IEEE defines voltage sag as a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 p.u.in rms
voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycle to 1 min. The
amplitude of voltage sag is the value of the remaining voltage during the sag.
The IEC terminology for voltage sag is dip. The IEC defines voltage dip as: A
sudden reduction of the voltage at a point in the electrical system, followed by voltage
recovery after a short period of time, from half a cycle to a few seconds. The
amplitude of a voltage dip is defined as the difference between the voltage during the
voltage dip and the nominal voltage of the system expressed as a percentage of the
nominal voltage.
Fig.2.2 shows an rms and peak-peak representation of voltage sag, the sag
starts when the voltage decreases to lower than the threshold voltage V
th
(0.9 pu) at
time T
1
. The sag continues till T
2
at which the voltage recovers to a value over the
threshold value, hence the duration of the voltage sag is (T
2
-T
1
) and the magnitude of
the voltage sag is sag to V
sag
.

Fig.2.2: Peak-Peak & RMS representation of the Voltage sag

Page 14

2.7.1.3 GENERAL CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE SAGS:

Fig.2.3: Different faults cause for different sags
There are various causes of voltage sags in a power system. Fig.2.3 illustrates
different voltage sags which can be caused by faults (more than 70% are weather
related such as lightning) on the transmission or distribution system or by switching
of loads with large amounts of initial starting or inrush current such as motors,
transformers, and large dc power supply.
The general causes and effects of voltage sags are:
Voltage Sags due to Faults
Voltage Sags due to Motor Starting
Voltage Sags due to Transformer Energizing
2.7.1.4 VOLTAGE SAGS DUE TO FAULTS:
Voltage sags due to faults can be critical to the operation of a power plant, and
hence, are of major concern. Depending on the nature of the fault such as symmetrical
or unsymmetrical, the magnitudes of voltage sags can be equal in each phase or
unequal respectively.
The magnitude and phase angle of the voltage sag is determined by the type
and the position of the disturbance and the lasting time of the voltage sag depends on
the protect way. Both balanced and unbalanced voltage sag could appear in this case.
For a fault in the transmission system, customers do not experience interruption, since
transmission systems are looped or networked. Fig.2.4 shows voltage sags on all three
phases due to a cleared line-ground fault.

Page 15

Fig.2.4: Voltage sag due to a cleared line-ground fault
Factors affecting the sag magnitude due to faults at a certain point in the system are:
i. Distance to the fault
ii. Fault impedance
iii. Type of fault
iv. Pre-sag voltage level
v. System configuration
a. System impedance
b. Transformer connections
The type of protective device used determines sag duration.
2.7.1.5 VOLTAGE SAGS DUE TO MOTOR STARTING:
Since induction motors are balanced 3 phase loads, voltage sags due to their
starting are symmetrical. When the induction-machine starts, the starting current
could be 5~10 times of the normal value in steady state, and the power factor will be
low. Each phase draws approximately the same in-rush current. This large current
will, by flowing through system impedances, cause voltage sag which may dim lights,
cause contactors to drop out, and disrupt sensitive equipment. The situation is made
worse by an extremely poor starting displacement factor usually in the range of 15 to
30 %. The time required for the motor to accelerate to rated speed increases with the
magnitude of the sag, and excessive sag may prevent the motor from starting
successfully.
The magnitude of voltage sag depends on:
i. Characteristics of the induction motor
ii. Strength of the system at the point where motor is connected.
Time (cycles)
R
M
S

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)


Page 16

Fig.2.5: Voltage sag due to motor starting
Fig.2.5 represents the shape of the voltage sag on the three phases (A, B, and C) due
to voltage sags. The magnitude of three-phase fundamental voltage decreases at the
beginning, and then it recovers since the current return to the normal value.

2.7.1.5.1 MOTOR-STARTING METHODS:
Energizing the motor in a single step (full-voltage starting) provides low cost
and allows the most rapid acceleration. It is the preferred method unless the resulting
voltage sag or mechanical stress is excessive.
Autotransformer starters have two autotransformers connected in open delta.
Taps provide a motor voltage of 80, 65, or 50 percent of system voltage during start
up. Line current and starting torque vary with the square of the voltage applied to the
motor, so the 50 per cent tap will deliver only 25 per cent of the full-voltage starting
current and torque. The lowest tap which will supply the required starting torque is
selected.
Resistance and reactance starters initially insert impedance in series with the
motor. After a time delay, this impedance is shorted out. Starting resistors may be
shorted out over several steps; starting reactors are shorted out in a single step. Line
current and starting torque vary directly with the voltage applied to the motor, so for a
given starting voltage, these starters draw more current from the line than with
autotransformer starters, but provide higher starting torque. Reactors are typically
provided with 50, 45, and 37.5 percent taps.
Part-winding starters are attractive for use with dual-rated motors (220/440 V
or 230/460 V). The stator of a dual-rated motor consists of two windings connected in
parallel at the lower voltage rating, or in series at the higher voltage rating. When
operated with a part-winding starter at the lower voltage rating, only one winding is
R
M
S

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)

Time (cycles)

Page 17

energized initially, limiting starting current and starting torque to 50 per cent of the
values seen when both windings are energized simultaneously.
Delta-wye starters connect the stator in wye for starting and then, after a time
delay, reconnect the windings in delta. The wye connection reduces the starting
voltage to 57 per cent of the system line-line voltage; starting current and starting
torque is reduced to 33 per cent of their values for full-voltage start.

2.7.1.6 VOLTAGE SAGS DUE TO TRANSFORMER ENERGIZING:
The causes for voltage sags due to transformer energizing are:
i. Normal system operation, which includes manual energizing of a transformer.
ii. Reclosing actions
The voltage sags are unsymmetrical in nature, often depicted as a sudden drop
in system voltage followed by a slow recovery. The main reason for transformer
energizing is the over-fluxing of the transformer core which leads to saturation.
Sometimes, for long duration voltage sags, more transformers are driven into
saturation. This is called Sympathetic Interaction. Fig.2.6 shows the voltage sag due
to transformer energizing
A large impulse current will be generated when the transformer injects to the
power system with no-load. The relationship among transient magnetic flux , static
maximum main magnetic flux and input initial phase angle is derived in equation

Seen from the equation, the maximum value of transient main magnetic flux
could be twice as the value in static when the initial phase angle input as zero.
Considering the residual magnetism, it will reach to 2.3 times. Since the iron core is
saturated when the transformer runs normally, the excitation current could reach to
several ten times of regular value and it is so enough to cause voltage sag.

Fig.2.6: Voltage sag due to transformer energizing
R
M
S

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)

Time (cycles)

Page 18

2.7.1.7 ESTIMATING VOLTAGE SAG PERFORMANCE:
It is important to understand the expected voltage sag performance of the
supply system so that facilities can be designed and equipment specifications
developed to assure the optimum operation of production facilities. The following is a
general procedure for working with industrial customers to assure compatibility
between the supply system characteristics and the facility operation:
1. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
transmission system faults.
2. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
distribution system faults (for facilities that are supplied from distribution
systems).
3. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the
actual performance of the production process based on voltage sag
performance calculated in steps 1 and 2.
4. Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the
performance, either on the supply system (fewer voltage sags) or within the
customer facility (better immunity).
2.7.1.8 ESTIMATING THE COSTS FOR THE VOLTAGE SAG EVENTS:
The costs associated with sag events can vary significantly from nearly zero to
several million dollars per event. The cost will vary not only among different industry
types and individual facilities but also with market conditions. Higher costs are
typically experienced if the end product is in short supply and there is limited ability
to make up for the lost production. Not all costs are easily quantified or truly reflect
the urgency of avoiding the consequences of a voltage sag event.
The cost of a voltage sag disturbance can be captured primarily through three
major categories:
Product-related losses, such as loss of product and materials, lost production
capacity, disposal charges, and increased inventory requirements.
Labour-related losses, such as idled employees, overtime, clean up, and
repair.
Auxiliary costs such as damaged equipment, lost opportunity cost, and
penalties due to shipping delays.

Page 19

2.7.2 VOLTAGE SWELL

Fi g. 2. 7: Example of a Voltage Swell
An increase in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for duration of
0.5cycles to 1 minute, called voltage swells. Swells have serious impact on equipment
function; however, they are not as common as sags. Fig 2.8 illustrates an example for
voltage sag.
Table.2.1: Types of Voltage Swell

Causes
Voltage swells are usually associated with system fault conditions - just like
voltage sags but are much less common. Due to a single line-to-ground (SLG) fault on
the system, the result is a temporary voltage rise on the un-faulted phases, which last
for the duration of the fault. Voltage swells can also be caused by the de-energization
of a very large load. The abrupt interruption of current can generate a large voltage,
per the formula Moreover, the energization of a large capacitor bank can also cause a
voltage swell, though it more often causes an oscillatory transient.
Effects:
The effects of a voltage swell are often more destructive. It may cause
breakdown of components on the power supplies of the equipment, though the effect
may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It can cause control problems and hardware
failure in the equipment, due to overheating that could eventually result to shut down.
Also, electronics and other sensitive equipment are prone to damage due to voltage
swell.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Time (sec)
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
Vol tage swell Magni tude Durati on
Instantaneous 1. 1 t o1. 8 0. 5 cycl e t o 30 cycl e
Momentary 1. 1to 1. 4 30 cycl e to 3 sec.
Temporary 1. 1 t o1. 2 3 sec. t o 1 min.

Page 20

2. 7. 3 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS:
A variation in input voltage(shown in Fig.2.8), either magnitude or frequency,
sufficient in duration to allow visual observation of a change in electric light source
intensity left unchecked, high and low-voltage conditions can result in equipment
damage, data lose erroneous readings on monitoring systems. Overloaded power
circuits are typically the cause behind under voltage conditions. Heavily loaded
motors such as air conditioners can result in intermittent low voltages. Less common
but more damaging, facilities with rapidly varying loads can cause over voltage
conditions.

Fi g. 2. 8: Voltage Flicker Caused by Furnace Operation

Method of Characterization
Frequency ,Magnitude
90 to 110 V
8 to 10 Hz
Causes
Non-linear load
Welding and arcing devices
Vulnerable equipment:
Computers; fax machines; variable frequency drives; CNC machines;
extruders; motors
Effects:
Data errors; memory loss; equipment shutdown; flickering lights; motors
Stalling/stopping; reduced motor life
2.7.4 TRANSIENTS:
The main difficulty with transients is in detection, since they manifest only as
a short duration change in voltage. The switching on and off of the electric motors

Page 21

those power air conditioners, power tools, furnace ignitions, electrostatic copiers, arc
welders and elevators causes low energy swells. Lighting usually causes larger swells.
Electrical noise is another, milder transient power irregularity that often manifests as a
computer glitch rather than an equipment failure. Essentially, electrical noise is
created when one piece of equipment interacts negative with another, or with building
grounding or wiring. Loose connections or the equipment itself can be responsible for
noise. Known noise-generating equipment includes everything from computers, radios
and fluorescent lights to fax machines, welders and light sockets

2.7.4.1 IMPULSIVE TRANSIENTS: It is unidirectional.

Fi g. 2. 9: Lighting stroke current impulsive transient

2. 7. 4. 2 OSCILLATORY TRANSIENTS: It is bidirectional.

Fi g. 2. 10: Oscillatory Transients

Where do Transi ent vol tages come from?
Transients can be generated internally, or can come into a facility from
external sources. The least common of the two are externally generated transients.
They've been described as "electronic rust".
External sources:
Lightning
Switching on or off of facility loads,
Opening and closing of disconnects on energized lines,
Switching of capacitor banks,

Page 22

Re-closure operations and tap changing on transformers
Poor or loose connections in the distribution system can also generate
Transients.
Internal Sources:
The vast majority of transients are produced within your own facility.
The main culprits are device switching, static discharge, and arcing.
Each time you turn on, turn off, load, or unload an inductive device, you
Produce a transient.
Arcing can generate transients from a number of sources. Faulty contacts in
breakers, switches, and contactors can produce an arc when voltage jumps the gap.
When this gap is "jumped" the voltage rises suddenly and the most common effect is
an oscillatory-ring-type transient.
What are the effects of transient activity?
Electronic Equipment:
Electronic devices may operate erratically. Equipment could lock up or
produced garbled results.
Electronic devices may operate at decreased efficiencies. Damage is not
readily seen and can result in early failure of affected device.
Integrated circuits may fail immediately or fail prematurely.
Motors:
Motors will run at higher temperatures when transient voltages are present.
Transients can interrupt the normal timing of the motor and result in "micro-jogging".
This type of disruption produces motor vibration, noise, and excessive heat. Motor
winding insulation is degraded and eventually fails. Motors can become degraded by
transient activity to the point that they produce transients continually which
accelerates the failure of other equipment that is commonly connected in the facility's
electrical distribution system. Transients produce hysteresis losses in motors that
increase the amount of current necessary to operate the motor. Transients can cause
early failures of electronic motor drives and controls.
Lighting:
Transient activity causes early failure of all types of lights. Fluorescent
systems suffer early failure of ballasts, reduced operating efficiencies, and early bulb

Page 23

failures. One of the most common indicators of transient activity is the premature
appearance of black "rings" at the ends of the tubes. Transients that are of sufficient
magnitude will cause a sputtering of the anodes--when these sputters deposit on the
insides of the tube, the result is the black "ends" commonly seen. Incandescent lights
fail because of premature filament failures. The same hysteresis losses produced in
motors are reproduced in transformers. Do you want to see a graphic illustration of
the results of transient activity on fluorescent tubes? Look at the ends of your
tubes.....see those dark rings? Effective transient suppression will eliminate those
rings and make your bulbs last 4 to 6 times longer.
Electrical Distribution Equipment:
The facility's electrical distribution system is also affected by transient
activity. Transient degrade the contacting surfaces of switches, disconnects, and
circuit breakers. Intense transient activity can produce "nuisance tripping" of breakers
by heating the breaker and "fooling" it into reacting to a non-existent current demand.
Electrical transformers are forced to operate inefficiently because of the hysteresis
losses produced by transients and can run hotter than normal.

2.7.5 HARMONICS:
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
whole multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate.
Any signal component having a frequency which is not an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency is designated as an inter-harmonic component or referred to
more simply as an inter-harmonic.
Harmonics and inter-harmonics are basically the result of modern
developments in electricity utilization and the use of electronic power conditioning
modules. Using switching power supplies to control loads and to reduce power
consumption results in unwanted frequencies superimposed on the supply voltage.
The presence of voltage at other frequencies is, as far as possible, to be avoided
Sources of Harmonics:
Single phase load
Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts
Small uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) units

Page 24

Fig.2.11: Second and Third Harmonics in voltage waveform.
Three phase loads
Variable speed drives
Large UPS units
Effects of Harmonics:
Problems caused by harmonic currents
Overloading of neutrals
Overheating of transformers
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
Skin effect
Problems caused by harmonic voltages
Voltage distortion
Induction motors
Zero-crossing noise
Problems caused when harmonic currents reach the supply
Neutral conductor over-heating
Effects on transformers
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
Over stressing of power factor correction capacitor banks

2.7.6 INTERRUPTION:
An interruption is a complete power loss, which can last a second or several
hours. There are momentary and sustained interruptions. A momentary interruption is
a voltage loss (<10% of nominal) for a time period between 0.5 cycles and 3 seconds).

Page 25

Fi g. 2. 12: Interruption
A temporary interruption is a voltage loss (<10% of nominal) for at time
period between 3 seconds and 1 min. A sustained interruption is the complete loss of
voltage for a time period greater than 1 min.
Momentary interruptions are more common and can happen 6 to 12 times a
year. Most utility companies such as PG&E have devices to keep these interruptions
temporary, clearing them within a few seconds. The most noticeable result of a
momentary interruption is a blinking digital clock. Sustained interruptions typically
last between 30 minutes to several hours. They occur less often, once or twice a year.
A UPS/battery backup helps protect you against a complete loss of power.
Effects of Interruptions
Stoppage of sensitive equipment (i.e. computers, PLC, ASD)
Unnecessary tripping of protective devices
Loss of data
Malfunction of data processing equipment.

2.8 POWER QUALITY ISSUES MITIGATION TECHNIQUES:
Solutions to improve the reliability and performance of a process or facility
can be applied at many different levels. The different technologies available should be
evaluated based on the specific requirements of the process to determine the optimum
solution for improving the overall voltage sag performance. The solutions can be
discussed at the following different levels of application:
1. Protection for small loads [e.g., less than 5 kilovolt amperes (KVA)]. This
usually involves protection for equipment controls or small, individual
machines. Many times, these are single-phase loads that need to be protected.

Page 26

2. Protection for individual equipment or groups of equipment up to about
300KVA. This usually represents applying power conditioning technologies
within the facility for protection of critical equipment that can be grouped
together conveniently. Since usually not all the loads in a facility need
protection, this can be a very economical method of dealing with the critical
loads, especially if the need for protection of these loads is addressed at the
facility design stage.
3. Protection at the medium-voltage level or on the supply system. If the whole
facility needs protection or improved power quality, solutions at the medium-
voltage level can be considered.
The size ranges in these categories are quite arbitrary, and many of the
technologies can be applied over a wider range of sizes. The following sections
describe the major technologies available and the levels where they can be applied.
1) Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
A continuous power supply will be used during the period of voltage sag/swell
in high efficient as 92%~97%. An expensive expense and restricted capacity is the
disadvantage of UPS.
2) Constant Voltage Transformer (CVT)
Its generally used under 20KVA power system. A balanced voltage will be
supplied even the voltage drops to the 70% of normal value and its efficiency is
between 70%~75%.
3) Static Transfer Switch (STS)
Its set in a dual-power system. When one of the power supplies has problem,
the STS will switch to another one as the power supply for the load.
4) Transformer Tap-Change (TC)
It can reduce the effect of voltage sag/swell during a certain extent, which is
determined by the adjusting range of the tap changer.
5) Motor-Generator (MG)
The inertia of the motor could be used to keep the normal voltage when the
voltage sag/swell happens.
6) Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR)
Its the cheapest device according to the other ones. It has a high efficient,
since the DVR only works when the voltage sag/swell happens.

Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

Page 27

CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR)

3.1 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR):
Among the power quality problems (sags, swells, harmonics) voltage sags
are the most severe disturbances. In order to overcome these problems the concept of
custom power devices is introduced recently. One of those devices is the Dynamic
Voltage Restorer (DVR) [23], which is the most efficient and effective modern
custom power device used in power distribution networks. DVR is a recently
proposed series connected solid state device that injects voltage into the system in
order to regulate the load side voltage. It is normally installed in a distribution system
between the supply and the critical load feeder at the point of common coupling
(PCC). Other than voltage sags and swells compensation, DVR can also added other
features like: line voltage harmonics compensation, reduction of transients in voltage
and fault current limitations.

3.2 PRINCIPLE OF DVR OPERATION:
A DVR is a solid state power electronics switching device consisting of either
MOSFET or IGBT, a capacitor bank as an energy storage device and injection
transformers. It is connected in series between a distribution system and a load that
shown in Fig.3.1. The basic idea of the DVR is to inject a controlled voltage
generated by a forced commuted converter in a series to the bus voltage by means of
an injecting transformer. A DC capacitor bank which acts as an energy storage device,
provides a regulated dc voltage source. A DC to Ac inverter regulates this voltage by
sinusoidal PWM technique.
Fig.3.1: Location of DVR

Page 28

SENSITIVE
LOAD
DVR
CONVERTER
ENERGY
STORAGE
SUPPLY
Voltage Sag Injected Voltage Restored Voltage
Fig.3.2: Principle of DVR with a response time of less than one millisecond
During normal operating condition, the DVR injects only a small voltage to
compensate for the voltage drop of the injection transformer and device losses.
However, when voltage sag occurs in the distribution system, the DVR control system
calculates and synthesizes the voltage required to maintain output voltage to the load
by injecting a controlled voltage with a certain magnitude and phase angle into the
distribution system to the critical load.
Note that the DVR capable of generating or absorbing reactive power but the
active power injection of the device must be provided by an external energy source or
energy storage system. The response time of DVR is very short and is limited by the
power electronics devices and the voltage sag detection time. The expected response
time is about 25 milliseconds, and which is much less than some of the traditional
methods of voltage correction such as tap-changing transformers.

3.3 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DVR:
The general configuration of the DVR consists of:
i. An Injection/ Booster transformer
ii. A Harmonic filter
iii. Storage Devices
iv. A Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
v. DC charging circuit
vi. A Control and Protection system

Page 29

DVR
ENERGY
STORAGE
SENSITIVE
LOAD
SUPPLY
LARGE
LOAD
CB PCC
FILTER
CONTROL
UNIT
Fig.3.3: Schematic diagram of DVR

3.3.1 INJECTION/ BOOSTER TRANSFORMER:
The Injection / Booster transformer is a specially designed transformer that
attempts to limit the coupling of noise and transient energy from the primary side to
the secondary side. Its main tasks are:
It connects the DVR to the distribution network which transforms and couples
the injected compensating voltages generated by the voltage source converters
to the incoming supply voltage.
In addition, the Injection / Booster transformer serves the purpose of isolating
the load from the system (VSC and control mechanism).
3.3.2 HARMONIC FILTER:
The main task of harmonic filter is to keep the harmonic voltage content
generated by the VSC to the permissible level.
3.3.3 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER:
A VSC is a power electronic system consists of a storage device and switching
devices, which can generate a sinusoidal voltage at any required frequency,
magnitude, and phase angle. In the DVR application, the VSC is used to temporarily
replace the supply voltage or to generate the part of the supply voltage which is
missing.

Page 30

There are four main types of switching devices: Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET), Gate Turn-Off thyristors (GTO), Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT).
Each type has its own benefits and drawbacks. The IGCT is a recent compact device
with enhanced performance and reliability that allows building VSC with very large
power ratings. Because of the highly sophisticated converter design with IGCTs, the
DVR can compensate dips which are beyond the capability of the past DVRs using
conventional devices.
The purpose of storage devices is to supply the necessary energy to the VSC
via a dc link for the generation of injected voltages. The different kinds of energy
storage devices are Superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES), batteries and
capacitance.

3.3.4 DC CHARGING CIRCUIT:
The dc charging circuit has two main tasks.
The first task is to charge the energy source after a sag compensation event.
The second task is to maintain dc link voltage at the nominal dc link voltage.
3.3.5 CONTROL AND PROTECTION:
The control mechanism of the general configuration typically consists of
hardware with programmable logic. All protective functions of the DVR should be
implemented in the software. The basic proportional control scheme is implemented
which is discussed below. Firstly the error signal is detected by the comparison of the
sag voltage with the supply voltage and this error signal is proportionally used to the
generation of the pulses which are given to the switches of the voltage source inverter.
Equations related to DVR
Z
line
Z
DVR
Load
V
source
V
inj
V
load
I
load

Fig. 3.4: Equivalent circuit diagram of DVR

Page 31

The system impedance depends on the fault level of the load bus. When
the system voltage ( ) drops, the DVR injects a series voltage through the
injection transformer so that the desired load voltage magnitude can be maintained.
The series injected voltage of the DVR can be written as
V
DVR
= V
L
+ Z
TH
I
L
-

V
TH
Where V
L
: The desired load voltage magnitude
Z
TH
: The load impedance.
I
L
: The load current
V
TH
: The system voltage during fault condition
The load current I
L
is given by,
L L
L
P jQ
I
V

When V
L
is considered as a reference equation can be rewritten as,
0 0 ( )
DVR L TH TH
V V Z V

, , are angles of V
DVR,
Z
TH,
V
TH
respectively and is Load power angle
1
tan
L
L
P

The complex power injection of the DVR can be written as,
*
DVR DVR L
S V I
It requires the injection of only reactive power and the DVR itself is capable of
generating the reactive power.
3.4 OPERATING MODES OF DVR:
The basic function of the DVR is to inject a dynamically controlled voltage V
DVR

generated by a forced commutated converter in series to the bus voltage by means of a
booster transformer. The momentary amplitudes of the three injected phase voltages
are controlled such as to eliminate any detrimental effects of a bus fault to the load
voltage V
L
. This means that any differential voltages caused by transient disturbances
in the ac feeder will be compensated by an equivalent voltage generated by the
converter and injected on the medium voltage level through the booster transformer.
The DVR has three modes of operation which are: protection mode, standby
mode, injection/boost mode.

Page 32

3.4.1 PROTECTION MODE/BYPASS MODE:
If the over current on the load side exceeds a permissible limit due to short circuit
on the load or large inrush current, the DVR will be isolated from the systems by
using the bypass switches (S
2
and S
3
will open) and supplying another path for current
(S
1
will be closed) as shown in Fig.3.5.
The DVR is disconnected in case of short circuit occurring inside the facility to
protect its sensitive components from excessive short circuit currents.

Fig.3.5: Protection Mode (creating another path for current)
3.4.2 STANDBY MODE: (V
DVR
= 0)
In the standby mode the inverter is not active in the circuit to keep the losses to a
minimum. The booster transformers low voltage winding is shorted through the
converter. No switching of semiconductors occurs in this mode of operation and the
full load current will pass through the primary.

Fig.3.6: Standby Mode
3.4.3 ACTIVE/INJECTION/BOOST MODE: (V
DVR
>0)
In the Injection/Boost mode the DVR is injecting a compensating voltage through
the booster transformer due to the detection of a disturbance in the supply voltage.

Page 33

3.5 VOLTAGE INJECTION METHODS OF DVR:
Voltage injection or compensation methods by means of a DVR depend upon the
limiting factors such as; DVR power ratings, various conditions of load, and different
types of voltage sags. Some loads are sensitive towards phase angel jump and some
are sensitive towards change in magnitude and others are tolerant to these. Therefore
the control strategies depend upon the type of load characteristics.
There are four different methods of DVR voltage injection which are
i. Pre-sag compensation method
ii. In-phase compensation method
iii. In-phase advanced compensation method
iv. Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection
3.5.1 PRE-SAG/DIP COMPENSATION METHOD:
The pre-sag method tracks the supply voltage continuously and if it detects
any disturbances in supply voltage it will inject the difference voltage between the sag
or voltage at PCC and pre-fault condition, so that the load voltage can be restored
back to the pre-fault condition. Compensation of voltage sags in the both phase angle
and amplitude sensitive loads would be achieved by pre-sag compensation method.
DVR prefault sag
V V V

DVR
S
L
VDVR
IL
VL
VS

Fig.3.7: Pre-sag compensation method

Page 34

3.5.2 IN-PHASE COMPENSATION METHOD:

S
L
VSag
VDVR
IL
V
p
r
e
fa
u
lt
VL

Fig.3.8: In-phase compensation method
The phase angles of the pre-sag and load voltage are different but the most
important criteria for power quality that is the constant magnitude of load voltage are
satisfied. This is the most straight forward method. In this method the injected voltage
is in phase with the supply side voltage irrespective of the load current and pre-fault
L prefault
V V

One of the advantages of this method is that the amplitude of DVR injection
voltage is minimum for certain voltage sag in comparison with other strategies.
Practical application of this method is in non-sensitive loads to phase angle jump

3.5.3 IN-PHASE ADVANCED COMPENSATION METHOD:
In this method the real power spent by the DVR is decreased by minimizing
the power angle between the sag voltage and load current. In case of pre-sag and in
phase compensation method the active power is injected into the system during
disturbances. The active power supply is limited stored energy in the DC links and
this part is one of the most expensive parts of DVR. The minimization of injected
energy is achieved by making the active power component zero by having the
injection voltage phasor perpendicular to the load current phasor.
In this method the values of load current and voltage are fixed in the system so
we can change only the phase of the sag voltage. IPAC method uses only reactive
power and unfortunately, not al1 the sags can be mitigated without real power, as a
consequence, this method is only suitable for a limited range of sags.

Page 35

3.5.4 VOLTAGE TOLERANCE METHOD WITH MINIMUM ENERGY
INJECTION:

Fig.3.9: Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection
A small drop in voltage and small jump in phase angle can be tolerated by the
load itself. If the voltage magnitude lies between 90%-110% of nominal voltage and
5%-10% of nominal state that will not disturb the operation characteristics of loads.
Both magnitude and phase are the control parameter for this method which can be
achieved by small energy injection.
Design And Specifications of DVR

Page 36

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS OF DYNAMIC
VOLTAGE RESTORER

This chapter deals with some general design procedures for the Dynamic
Voltage Restorer which are presented and followed by a more specific design. The
DVR prototype is constructed in conjunction with the M.Tech project. At the end of
the chapter the main specifications for the hardware setup is presented.
4.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS:
A simplified model for the DVR is illustrated as shown in Fig. 4.1
V
supply
Vconv
+
-
Z
supply
R
DVR
X
DVR
+
-
V
DVR
+
-
V
LOAD
Z
LOAD
+
-

Fig.4.1: Single-phase simplified model for the DVR.
Where V
supply
is the supply voltage, Z
supply
is the source impedance, V
DVR
is the DVR
voltage, V
LOAD
is the load voltage and Z
LOAD
is the load impedance.

4.1.1 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATING:
The Simplified model which is illustrated in Fig.4.1 is a single phase DVR
which consists of a controllable voltage source and a fixed resistance. This is
equivalent to the losses in the DVR and a fixed reactance and is equivalent to the
reactive elements in the DVR. The main design parameters for the DVR are the
voltage injection capability, the current handling capability and the size of the energy
storage. The voltage injection capability can be expressed as:
%
,
100%
DVR
DVR
Supply rated
V
v
V

The voltage injection capability should be chosen as low as necessary in order
to reduce equipment cost and standby losses. Losses will tend to increase if the
voltage rating of the DVR is increased if it is assumed that current rating of the DVR
current is fixed. The DVR resistance is mathematically expressed as:

Page 37

,
DVR
DVR DVR R
DVR
V
R v
I

The losses in the DVR can be grouped as losses in the transformer followed by
filter and the converter losses. The voltage injection is mostly decided based on the
requirements of compensating symmetrical and non-symmetrical voltage dips
followed by deciding the size & current rating of the DVR. As the DVR is a series
connected device, the design of the current handling capability of the DVR depends
upon:
In-rush phenomenon: as for the down-stream loads, such as starting of large
motors and magnetization of transformers.
Non-linear loads: Leads to increase in higher peak currents.
P (U) and Q (U) characteristics: as for the down-stream loads; If the DVR is
utilized to compensate severe voltage dips, the load currents may increase.
Future load extension: Currents may vary if else load is extended further.
Standby losses: Increase in the current rating of DVR tends to decrease in
standby losses of the system.

The main parameter to decide the current rating of the VSC is based upon the
peak currents and the RMS currents of the grid. The main feature of IGBT switch is
that it has an overload current limit, which helps to influence the system during short
circuit and heavy loading conditions. The current handling capability of a DVR can be
defined as:
%
,
100%
DVR
DVR
load rated
I
i
I

4.2 DESIGN OF THE DVR ELEMENTS:
The most attractive mode of the thesis has come to an end by introducing this
section which includes the design of the DVR. There are many constraints which are
the most essential part to be considered while designing. The general configuration of
the DVR consists of:
i. Voltage Source Converter
ii. Harmonic Filter
iii. Injection/Booster Transformer

Page 38

iv. Storage Devices
v. Detection and Control Block
4.2.1 DESIGN OF VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER:
Voltage Source Converter has been used over here for the development of
DVR, which is equipped with fully controllable switches. The three most common
switch types considered in the required power range are MOSFETs, IGBTs and
IGCTs. The MOSFET switch has been chosen for VSC converters, because it is easy
to trigger and best suited for the actual power range. The IGBT is not necessarily the
best switch, because the current limiting behaviour is not particularly as per the
requirement of DVR.
DVR
ENERGY
STORAGE
SENSITIVE
LOAD
SUPPLY
LARGE
LOAD
CB PCC
FILTER
CONTROL
UNIT

Fig.4.2: Block diagram of Dynamic Voltage Restorer
4.2.1.1 INVERTERS:
A Power electronic device that converts DC power to AC power at the desired
output voltage and frequency is called an Inverter. Phase controlled converters when
operated in the inverter mode are called line commutated inverters. But line
commutated inverters requires an existing AC supply at the output terminals which is
used for their commutation purpose. This means that line commutated inverters
cannot function as isolated AC voltage sources or as variable frequency generators
with DC power at the input. Therefore voltages and frequencies on the AC side of the
line commutated inverters cannot be altered. On the other hand, forced commutated
inverters provide an independent AC output voltage with an adjustable voltage and
adjustable frequency and therefore it has wider applications.
Based on the operations, Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:
1. Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)
2. Current Source Inverters (CSI)

Page 39

1. Voltage Source Inverter: This type of inverter produces an AC output
voltage which can be independently controlled and isolated from load side. Due to
this feature, the VSI have many industrial applications such as adjustable speed drives
(ASD) and also in Power system especially in the field of FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission).
2. Current Source Inverter: This type of inverter produces an AC output
current which can be independently controlled and isolated from load side. These are
widely used in medium voltage industrial applications, where high quality output is
required.
Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter: It consists of two arms with a two power
semiconductor switches on each arm with anti-parallel freewheeling diodes embedded
with it (for discharging the reverse current). In case of resistive /inductive loads, the
reverse load current flow through these diodes. These diodes provide an alternative
path to inductive current which continues to flow during the turn OFF condition.

Fig.4.3: Single Phase Full wave Bridge Inverter
Table 4.1: Switching States
S1 S2 S3 S4 VA VB VAB
ON OFF OFF ON
2
S
V
-
2
S
V
VS
OFF ON ON OFF +
2
S
V
+
2
S
V
- VS
ON OFF ON OFF
2
S
V
-
2
S
V
0
OFF ON OFF ON -
2
S
V
+
2
S
V
0

Page 40

The switches S1 & S2 or S3 & S4 should operate in a pair to produce an
output. These arms of the bridge are switched such that the output voltage is shifted
from one to another and hence the change in polarity occurs in output voltage. If the
shift angle is zero, the output voltage is also zero & if the shift angle is , then
maximum voltage develops at the output. The schematic diagram of the inverter
shown in the Fig.4.3 and hardware is implemented as shown in Fig.4.4.
Fig.4.4: Hardware implementation of Inverter circuit.

4.2.1.2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):
The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique which is characterized by
the generation of constant amplitude pulse by modulating the pulse duration by
modulating the duty cycle. Analog PWM control requires the generation of both
reference and carrier signals that are fed into the comparator and based on some
logical output, the final output is generated. The reference signal is the desired signal
output may sinusoidal or square wave, while the carrier signal is either a sawtooth or
triangular wave at a frequency significantly greater than the reference.
There are various types of PWM techniques and so we get different output and
the choice of the inverter depends on cost, noise and efficiency.

Page 41

Basic PWM Techniques
There are three basic PWM techniques:
1. Single Pulse Width Modulation
2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
1. Single Pulse Width Modulation:
In this modulation there is an only one output pulse per half cycle. The output
is changed by varying the width of the pulses. The gating signals are generated by
comparing a rectangular reference with a triangular reference. The frequency of the
two signals is nearly equal.

Fig.4.5: Single Pulse Width Modulation
The rms ac output voltage
0
2
2
ON
S S
t
V V V
T

Where
=duty cycle=
ON
t
T

Modulation Index (MI) =
r
c
V
V

Where V
r
= Reverence signal voltage
V
c
= Carrier signal voltage
By varying the control signal amplitude V
r
from 0 to V
c
the pulse width ton can be
modified from 0 secs to T/2 secs and the rms output voltage V
o
from 0 to V
s
.
2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation:
In this modulation there is multiple numbers of output pulses per half cycle
and all pulses are of equal width. The gating signals are generated by comparing a
rectangular reference with a triangular reference. The frequency of the reference
signal sets the output frequency (f
o
) and carrier frequency (f
c
). The number of pulses
per half cycle is determined by p:
0
2
C
f
p
f


Page 42

Fig.4.6: Multiple Pulse Width Modulation
2
0
1
p
m
S S
m
p
V V V

Where =duty ratio=
ON
t
T

The variation of modulation index (MI) from 0 to 1 varies the pulse from 0 to /p and
the output voltage from 0 to V
s
.
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation:
In this modulation technique, there are multiple number of output pulse per
half cycle and pulses are of different width. The width of each pulse is varying in
proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the centre of the same pulse.
The gating signals are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference with a high
frequency triangular signal.
2
0
1
p
m
S S
m
p
V V V

Where p=number of pulses and = pulse width
Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation technique (SPWM) is one of the most
popular modulation techniques applied in power switching converters. This technique
has many inherent advantages including simplicity of implementation, relatively low
harmonics on the output, low switching losses, etc. The fundamental idea of the
SPWM technique is to compare a high frequency signal known as the carrier that is a
triangular signal with frequency f
s
to a low frequency signal known as the modulating
signal that is usually a sinusoidal signal with frequency fm. The sinusoidal

Page 43

modulating signal has the same frequency as that of the desired output of the power
switching converter.
SPWM technique is used to control the fundamental component of the line-to-
line converter voltage. Three-phase converter voltages are obtained by comparing the
same triangular voltage with three sinusoidal control voltages as shown in Fig.4.7.
The frequency of the triangular voltage (f
s
-carrier frequency) determines the converter
switching frequency and the frequency of the control voltages determine the
fundamental frequency of the converter voltage (f
1
-modulating frequency). Hence,
modulating frequency is equal to supply frequency in DVR.

Fig.4.7: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Technique
Amplitude modulation ratio m
a
is defined as:
control
a
tri
V
m
V

Where V
control
is the peak amplitude of the control voltage
V
tri
is the peak amplitude of the triangular voltage.

Page 44

The magnitude of the triangular voltage is kept constant and the amplitude of
the control voltage is allowed to vary. Linear range of SPWM is defined for 0m
a
1
and over modulation is defined for m
a
<1.
Frequency modulation ratio m
f
is defined as:
1
s
f
f
m
f

m
f
must be chosen as an odd integer to form an odd and half wave symmetric
converter line-to-neutral voltage (V
A0
). Therefore, even harmonics are eliminated
from the V
A0
waveform. Moreover, m
f
is chosen as a multiple of 3 in order to
eliminate the harmonics at m
f
and odd multiples of m
f
in the converter line-to-line
voltages. Harmonics in the converter voltages appear as sidebands, centered on the
switching frequency and its multiples. This is true for all values of m
a
in the linear
range. The frequencies of converter output voltage harmonics can be expressed as:
1
( )
h f
f jm k f
The fundamental component of the converter line-to-neutral voltage varies
linearly with the amplitude modulation ratio m
a
irrespective of the frequency
modulation ratio m
f
as shown in. Fundamental component of the converter line-to-line
voltage is also expressed as:
0
; 1
2
d
A a a
V
V m m
1
3
0.612 ; 1
2 2
LL a d a d a
V m V m V m
4.2.1.3 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD):
The total harmonic distortion, or THD, of a signal is a measurement of the
harmonic distortion and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all
harmonic components to the power of the fundamental frequency.
When the input is a pure sine wave, the measurement is most commonly the
ratio of sum of the powers of all higher harmonic frequencies to the power at the first
harmonic or fundamental frequency.
2 3 4 2
1 1
n
n
P
P P P P
THD
P P

This can be written as
1
1
total
P P
THD
P


Page 45

Measurements based on amplitudes (e.g. voltage or current) must be converted
to powers to make addition of harmonics distortion meaningful. For a voltage signal,
for example, the ratio of the squares of the RMS voltages is equivalent to the power
ratio
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
2
1
V V V V
THD
V

Where V
n
is the RMS voltage of nth harmonic and n=1 is the fundamental
frequency. THD is also commonly defined as an amplitude ratio rather than a power
ratio. Resulting in a definition of THD which is the square root of that given above
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
1
n
V V V V
THD
V

Measurements for calculating the THD are made at the output of a device under
specific conditions. The THD is usually expressed in percent as distortion factor or in
dB as distortion attenuation.
4.2.1.4 DSPACE RTI 1104:
By using the above SPWM technique pulses has been generated in
MATLAB/Simulink which has been fed to the switches of the inverter, but in order to
get the real time pulses we have used an interface for simulated pulses and inverter
known as dSPACE RTI 1104.
The dSPACE system is based on the DS1104 R&D Controller Board which
comprises both hardware and software. The DS1104 R&D Controller Board is a
standard board that can be plugged into a PCI slot of a PC. The DS1104 is specifically
designed for the development of high-speed multivariable digital controllers and real-
time simulations in various fields. It is a complete real-time control system based on a
603 PowerPC floating-point processor running at 250 MHz. For advanced I/O
purposes, the board includes a slave-DSP sub-system based on the TMS320F240 DSP
microcontroller.
For purposes of rapid control prototyping (RCP), specific interface connectors
and connector panels provide easy access to all input and output signals of the board.
Thus, the DS1104 R&D Controller Board is the ideal hardware for the dSPACE
Prototype development system for cost-sensitive RCP applications.
Using an adapter cable one can link external signals from the 100-pin I/O
connector on the board to Sub-D connectors. So it can make a high-density

Page 46

connection between the board and the devices of specified application via Sub-D
connectors.
Specific interface connector panels provide easy access to all the input and
output signals of the DS1104 R&D Controller Board:
The CP1104 Connector Panel provides easy-to-use connections between the
DS1104 R&D Controller Board and devices to be connected to it. Devices can
be individually connected, disconnected or interchanged without soldering via
BNC connectors and Sub-D connectors. This simplifies system construction,
testing and troubleshooting.
In addition to the CP1104, the CLP1104 Connector/LED Combi Panel
provides an array of LEDs indicating the states of the digital signals.

Fig.4.8: dSPACE RTI 1104 connector panels
Connector Pins: The CP1 to CP16 connectors are female BNC connectors.
Their shells are connected to GND. Among this CP1 to CP8 are ADC connector pins
and CP9 to CP16 are DAC connector pins. Digital I/O Connector Slot CP17 & Slave
I/O PWM Connector CP18 which is used for interfacing signals from outer system.
As dSPACE can bear a maximum voltage of +/-10V it is to be cautioned that a
voltage divider must be used to maintain a constant voltage and to ensure that it
should not exceed the limit. The hardware sensing model used for this DVR has been
shown in Fig.4.9.

Page 47

230 V
1 AC
SUPPLY
100K
2K
V
o
u
t

Fig.4.9: Voltage Sensor
S out
out
out
V R
V
R R

The voltage rating of the outputs being gathered from dSPACE is of 5V which
is difficult to drive gate pulse required by the MOSFET switches of the inverter. A
minimum of +12V is required to TURN ON MOSFET switch and -12V is required to
TURN OFF MOSFET, So to amplify 5V of dSPACE gate signal, Gate driver circuit
is required.
1- AC
Supply
4
7
0
F
4
7
F
470F
47F
15V DC
5VDC
7815
7805

(a)

Page 48

5
V
24
7
5
23
6
6
N
1
3
7
1
5
V
V
C
C
V
E
G
N
D
N
/
C
N
/
C
N
/
C
I
N

A
I
N

B
G
N
D
N
/
CV
S
4 7 0
470
4
7
0
5
0
5
0
1K
1 K 0 . 0 1 F
4.7V
TO SWITCH (S1)
1
A
1
Y
2
A
2
Y
3
A
3
Y
G
N
D
V
C
C
6
A
6
Y
5
A
5
Y
4
A
4
Y
7 4 L S 0 7
G
A
T
E

D
R
I
V
E
R
TO SWITCH
(S2)
TO SWITCH
(S3)
TO SWITCH
(S4)
G
A
T
E

D
R
I
V
E
R
G
A
T
E

D
R
I
V
E
R
G
A
T
E

D
R
I
V
E
R
4
4
2
5
F R O M d S P A C E
B
U
F
F
E
R

I
C
O
P
T
O
C
O
U
P
L
E
R
D
R
I
V
E
R

I
C
(b)

Page 49

(c) (d)
Fig.4.10: (a) Power supply required to operate Gate driver, (b) Gate driver circuit of
IC 4425 (c) Hardware implementation of Gate driver circuit, (d) Pulses to Gate driver
from dSPACE Control Panel to interface

4.2.2 HARMONIC FILTER:
1. Inductor Design:
Magnetic cores used in power electronic applications like transformers
and inductors usually fall in four broad categories. The first is bulk metal, like
electrical steels which are processed from furnace into ingots and then hot and cold
rolled. Second is powdered core materials where are manufactured from various types
of iron powders mixed with special binding agents and then die-pressed into toroids,
EE cores and slugs. The third is ferrite materials which are ceramics of iron oxide,
alloyed with oxides or carbonate of Mn, Zn, Ni, Mg, or Co. The most recent category
is of metallic glasses where the bulk metal is rapidly quenched from molten state to
obtain a glassy state without a regular arrangement of metallic atoms in the material.
One of the design objectives is to derive most general procedures for inductor
construction. Theoretically, it should be possible to accurately design the inductor
using just the property of permeability of the core material. But practically, the design
procedure for Ferrite, Amorphous and Powdered material is different, mainly because
vendors follow different conventions and specify the material properties in many
ways. Amorphous and powder cores also have nonlinear permeability, ie the
permeability varies with the applied field, temperature, air gap etc. Hence the design
procedure for different materials is heavily affected by the available data from

Page 50

vendors, and it is not possible to define a single generalized accurate design process
for all materials.
2. Capacitor Selection:
Metallised Polypropylene capacitors are AC capacitors that are
especially designed for high frequency current operation. These capacitors are
constructed from polypropylene films on which an extremely thin metal layer is
vacuum deposited. The metal layer typically consists of aluminium or zinc of
thickness in range of 0.02mm to 0.05mm. Several such layers are wound together in a
tubular fashion to get higher capacitance.
Metallised film capacitors are characterized by small size, wide operating
frequency range, low losses, and low to medium pulse handling capabilities, low
parasitic impedances and self-healing. In regular film-foil capacitors, if the electrode
foils of opposite potential are exposed to each other because of wearing away of the
dielectric, the foils will short and the capacitor will be destroyed. But in case of
metallised polypropylene capacitors, because of the extremely thin metal layer, the
contact points at the fault area are vaporised by the high energy density, and the
insulation between foils is maintained. Due to the above reasons, these capacitors are
perfectly suited for grid connected filter operation. The designing parameters of
inductor as 10 mH and capacitor as 105 F of LC filter have been analysed from the
reference paper [24].

F
R
O
M

I
N
V
E
R
T
E
R
T
O

I
N
J
E
C
T
I
O
N

T
R
A
N
S
F
O
R
M
E
R
10 mH
1
0
5

F
LC FILTER

Fig.4.11: Design of LC Filter and its hardware implementation.

4.2.3 Injection/Booster Transformer:
The transformers used throughout this project should be run over by a polarity
test which is the most accurate point while making a coupling with source voltage. It
is based upon the process of aiding and apposing flux direction which plays a crucial

Page 51

role while placing the device in the circuit. By using injection transformer (after
running through polarity test) it has been shown in the Fig.4.12 clearly regarding the
connection of sensitive loads with the high loads.
The filtered inverter output is injected to the line with the help of an injection
transformer. The Injection / Booster transformer is a specially designed transformer
that attempts to limit the coupling of noise and transient energy from the primary side
to the secondary side. The basic function of this transformer is to connect the DVR to
the distribution network couples the injected compensating voltages generated by the
voltage source inverters to the incoming supply voltage and it has to maintain low
impedance on the load side to avoid voltage drop across the load. The design of this
transformer is very crucial because, it faces saturation, overrating, overheating, cost
and performance. The injected voltage may consist of fundamental, desired
harmonics, switching harmonics and dc voltage components. If the transformer is not
designed properly, the injected voltage may saturate the transformer and result in
improper operation of the DVR and a practical hardware has been designed as shown
in Fig.4.13
CONVERTER
ENERGY
STORAGE
LARGE
LOAD
FILTER
CONTROL
UNIT
1:1
230/230V
1:1
115/115V
SENSITIVE
LOAD
SUPPLY
CB
PCC
D
V
R
Fig.4.12: Transformers placement after polarity Test


Page 52

Fig.4.13: Hardware implementation of Injection Transformer.
4.2.4 Storage Devices:
DC energy storage device provides the real power requirement of the DVR
during compensation as shown in Fig.4.14 with the use of rectifier circuit. Various
storage technologies have been proposed including Flywheel energy storage, Super-
conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and Super capacitors these have the
advantage of fast response. An alternative is the use of lead-acid battery batteries were
until now considered of limited suitability for DVR applications since it takes
considerable time to remove energy from them. Finally, conventional capacitors also
can be used. But rectifier has been used here to convert 230 V AC to (0-230) V DC
which maintain variable DC supply rather than constant DC.

Fig.4.14: Equivalent design of energy storage device and its hardware implementation

4.2.5 Detection and Control Block:
The basic proportional control scheme is implemented which is discussed
below. Firstly the error signal is detected by the comparison of the sag voltage with
the supply voltage and this error signal is proportionally used to the generation of the
pulses which are given to the switches of the voltage source inverter.

Page 53

Fig.4.15: Complete Hardware set up of DVR
Discussion on Results

Page 54

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION ON RESULTS

5.1 MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Now the scenario of real time DVR system comes into picture. The real word
proposed DVR topology and control algorithm has been used here for emergency
control during the voltage sag. The heavy load has been considered as the cause of
disturbance in the simulations. The test system is modeled first in
MATLAB/SIMULINK [25] software and enacted as hardware. Fig.5.1 shows the
intentional creation of voltage sag by switching ON large loads suddenly. Fig.5.2
shows the initial conditions, supply voltage of 230V
rms
and load voltage of 200V
rms

when there is no occurrence of sag (Pre Sag condition). Switching ON of heavy load
of 1.3KW across a sensitive load has created voltage sag of 130V
rms
which is
resembled in Fig.5.3 and Fig.5.4 shows the SIMULINK for mitigating 70% voltage
sag by introducing a DVR in series with the sensitive load. The DVR has been
modeled by its components in the MATLAB/SIMULINK software to make more
effect of real simulation results. A single phase inverter has been used so that each
phase could be controlled separately.

Fig.5.1: Creation of voltage sag using large loads

Page 55

Fig.5.5 shows the closed loop control using PI Controller to compare the sag
and produce the error signal to trigger as pulses. After the pulses are fed to inverter
which generates the output voltage as shown in Fig 5.6. After injecting these voltages
into the load in series with load voltage the occurred sag will be mitigated. The
Fig.5.7 shows the mitigation of voltage sag after the voltage parameter has been
injected by DVR

Fig.5.2: Output waveform supply voltage, supply current and load voltage

Fig.5.3: Creation of 70% sag in the load voltage

Page 56

Fig.5.4: Mitigation of sag using DVR

Fig.5.5: Closed-loop control using the PI controller

Page 57

Fig.5.6: Output voltage of the single phase inverter using with and without filter.

Fig.5.7: Mitigation of voltage sag using DVR

Page 58

5.2 HARDWARE ENACTMENT
The Hardware enactment had been so crucially built up. Each and every device
has been used with utmost care. Many practical problems have been observed while
developing this project throughout the tenure of this project. Even the day before
starting this thesis to script, small difficulties have been overcome to process out an
attractive and exact desired output of this project.
The main focus to describe the above thought is that all the switches used over
here, ICs etc will never work as of ideal case. So cautiousness and constant patience
is more important while building up a hardware project.

Table.5.1: List of Hardware components
Sr
No
Component Rating Purpose
1 Buffer 74LS07 Driver Circuit
2 Regulator 7805, 7815 Driver Circuit
3 Driver IC MIC 4425 Driver Circuit
4 Opto Coupler 6N137 Driver Circuit
5 Capacitors 470 F, 47 F, 0.01 F Driver Circuit
6 Resistors 50 , 100 , 470 Driver Circuit
7 Bridge Rectifier MIC W08M Driver Circuit
8 Zener Diode 4.7 V Driver Circuit
9 Connectors 2 Pin, 5pin Driver Circuit
10 MOSFET IRF460 Inverter
11 Heat Sinks For Every Switch Inverter
12 Connectors 2 Pin, 4 Pin Inverter
13 Resistors 1 K Inverter
14 Resistors 100 K, 2 K Voltage Divider
15 Capacitors 0.01 F Voltage Divider
16 Connectors 4 Pin Voltage Divider
17 DC Capacitor 330 F, 450 V DC-Link
18 Resistor 10 K (10W) DC-Link
19 Bridge Rectifier MIC KBPC2510 DC-Link
20 Switch SPST DC-Link

Page 59

21 Dimmerstat (0-230)V, 8A, 1 Power Supply
22 dSpace RTI 1104 Trigger Pulse Interface
23 Transformers 230/230V, 1 KVA (1:1) Isolation
24 Step Down Transformer 230/115V, 2 KVA Isolation
25 Transformer 110/110V 1 KVA (1:1) Injection Transformer
26 Capacitor 105 F, 250V Harmonic Filter
27 Inductor 10 mH Harmonic Filter
28 Rheostat 1 , 5A Source Impedance
29 MCB 10 A, 240 V High Load Switch
30 Bulb 40 W, 230 V Sensitive Load
31 Bulb 1000 W, 230V High Load

5.2.1 MAIN SPECIFICATIONS:
Table.5.2: System parameters
Sr No Specifications Rating
1 Nominal Grid Voltage 110 Vrms
2 Nominal Load Voltage 110 Vrms
3 Switching/Sampling freq 1 KHz

5.3 PROBLEMS FACED:
While measuring triggering pulses of Driver circuit it is mandatory to use
differential probes to avoid many mis-matches and problems by measuring
with normal probes.
Specifications of Switches need be analyzed perfectly while choosing
MOSFET switches.
Gate resistors used for gate terminal of MOSFET Switches should be placed
near Switch and avoid placing near driver IC which may get overheated and
leads to damage to driver IC.
Transformers should be necessarily used for isolation purpose to avoid
problems while interfacing devices.

Page 60

Polarity test need to be checked out thoroughly before using any transformers
to clear out aiding or opposing techniques.
After measuring the output of inverter, analyze THD and identify the
harmonics, based on which designing of filters is processed.

5.3.1 BASIC CONDITIONS:

DVR is basically connected in series with the load.
The gate pulses provided for the inverter has been bypassed through dSPACE
system.
A Resistive load (Bulbs) has been used as shown in with a RMS load voltage
of 110 Volts for open loop.
Intentionally sag has been induced by switching a high resistive load (higher
ratings Bulbs) suddenly, which is connected along with actual sensitive load
(lower rating Bulb).
Differential probe has been used here with a multiplying factor of 20X for
every measurement throughout the tenure of the project.

5.4 MODES OF OPERATION:
1) Open Loop Control
2) Closed Loop Control

5.4.1 OPEN LOOP CONTROL:
The working of DVR can be segregated into two basic operational modes. One
of the modes is without controlling process known as open loop and with the help of
controlling process as the closed loop control.
Open loop control deals with the process of operating DVR model manually
whenever voltage sag occurs across the load. This process speaks about the
comparison of voltage sag with normal voltage to generate pulses and further feeding
it to inverter for generating an injected voltage. But this voltage can be injected only
when DVR is turned ON manually. So the mitigation of Sag [26] can be delayed by
processing it manually.

Page 61

The basic model of open loop control for pulse generation required in
hardware for DVR [27] using MATLAB Simulink has been shown in
Fig.5.8(a).
MATLAB simulink pulses have been interfaced with dSAPCE which are
shown in Fig.5.8 (b).
By using gate driver circuit pulses are amplified from 3V
p-p
to 30V
p-p
which is
shown in Fig.5.8 (c).
The Fig.5.9 speaks about the load working normally for sensitive load of Bulb
40 W with a Source voltage =16.0 V p-p (i.e. 1620 = 320 Vp-p i.e
113.3Vrms).
Now suddenly when a high load of 1000W is switched ON a voltage sag has
been occurred across the load as shown in Fig.5.10 working under pre sag
condition with a Load voltage =15.6 V p-p (i.e. 15.620 = 312 Vp-p i.e
110.3Vrms) and it clearly shows the marks for various modes of operation.
The load voltage has been working with voltage dip developing voltage sag.
Point A resembles the occurrence of sag by switching ON high resistive load
which dips the sensitive load voltage and is clearly visualized in Fig.5.11
(12.420 = 248 Vp-p i.e 87.6 Vrms).
It means that sag has been occurred for 64 Vp-p as shown in Fig.5.12 (i.e
1.60220 = 64 Vp-p i.e. 22.7 Vrms). So the contribution of DVR comes into
picture.
Area B resembles the time when DVR has been switched ON manually as
shown in Fig.5.10.
Now the injected voltage of 64 V p-p by DVR has been observed which is
represented in Fig.5.13 (i.e V
DVR
= 3.220 = 64 Vp-p i.e 22.6 Vrms).
Fig.5.14 shows the way of injected voltage by DVR which increases the
voltage from 248 Vp-p to 312 Vp-p.
After the injection of voltage as shown in Fig.5.15, the measured Load
voltage=15.6 Vp-p (i.e. 15.620 = 312Vp-p i.e 110.3 Vrms).
The overall THD analysis of Load voltage sag has been observed as shown in
Fig.5.16 which has been reduced to nearly 5.7%, maintaining a THD within
limit.

Page 62

Point C (Fig.5.10) again shows about the time when DVR has been turned
OFF to have a clear understanding regarding the operation of DVR and the sag
continues.
The overall specification which has been measured for complete operation of
DVR in open loop condition is tabulated below.

Table.5.3: Overall specifications of DVR in open loop condition
Parameter Peak to Peak (20) RMS
Vs = 16.0 V p-p 320 V 113.3 V
V
L
= 15.6 V p-p 312 V (Pre Sag) 110.3 V
V
L
= 12.4 V p-p 248V (During Sag) 87.6 V
Sag = 1.62 = 3.2V p-p 64V 22.7 V
Injection = 3.2V 64V 22.7 V

Fig.5.8 (a): Basic Model of Open Loop Control for pulse generation


Page 63

Fig.5.8 (b): Hardware pulses from dSPACE
(Channel 1: Carrier signal Channel 2: Reference Signal
Channel 3: Pulse for switches S
1
& S
2
3
& S
4
)

Fig.5.8 (c): Hardware pulses after gate driver circuit
(Channel 1: Pulse for switches S
1
& S
2
3
& S
4
)

Page 64

Fig.5.9: Source Voltage:
(Channel 1: Voltage across Source V
s
Channel 2: Voltage across Load V
L

Channel 3: Injected DVR Voltage V
dvr
Channel 4: Voltage across inverter V
inv
)

Fig.5.10: Load Voltage during PreSag :
s
L

dvr
inv
)

Page 65

Fig.5.11: Load Voltage when sag dip occurs:
s
L

dvr
inv
)

Fig.5.12: Load Voltage when sag occurs :
s
L

dvr
inv
)

Page 66

Fig.5.13: Injected Voltages by DVR:

Fig.5.14: Injected Parameters by DVR

Page 67

Fig.5.15: Load Voltage after mitigation by DVR

Fig.5.16: THD Analysis of Load Voltage

V
L

Page 68

5.4.2 CLOSED LOOP OPERATION
Closed loop control deals with the process of operating DVR model
automatically whenever voltage sag occurs across the load. This process speaks about
the comparison of voltage sag with normal voltage to generate pulses and further
feeding it to inverter for generating an injection voltage. This process automatically
injects the voltage in series with the load to mitigate the voltage sag. Here it ensures
that there is no delay in processing it due to controlling methods.
The basic model of closed loop control for pulse generation required in
hardware for DVR [28], [29] using MATLAB Simulink [30] has been shown
in Fig.5.17.
The Fig.5.18 speaks about the Load voltage working normally for sensitive
load of Bulb 40 W with a Load voltage =17.6 Vp-p (i.e. 17.620 = 352 Vp-p
i.e 124.5 Vrms).
Now suddenly when a high load of 1000W is switched ON a voltage sag has
been occurred across the load as shown in Fig.5.19 working under pre sag
condition with a Load voltage =17.6 V p-p (i.e. 17.620 = 352 Vp-p i.e
124.5Vrms). The load voltage has been working with a voltage dip developing
voltage sag.
Point A resembles the occurrence of sag by switching ON high resistive load
which dips the sensitive load voltage and is clearly visualized in Fig.5.20
(1220 = 240 Vp-p i.e 84.9 Vrms).
It means that sag has been occurred for 5.6 Vp-p as shown in Fig.5.21 &
Fig.5.22 (i.e 2.8220 = 112 Vp-p i.e. 39.5 Vrms). So the contribution of
DVR comes into picture.
Area B resembles the time when DVR has been switched ON automatically as
shown in Fig.5.23.
Now the injected voltage of 5 V p-p by DVR has been observed which is
represented in Fig.5.25 (i.e V
DVR
= 520 = 100 Vp-p i.e 35.4 Vrms).
After the injection of voltage as shown in Fig.5.24, the measured Load
voltage=17.6 Vp-p (i.e. 17.620 = 352Vp-p i.e 124.5 Vrms).
The overall THD analysis of Load voltage sag has been observed as shown in
Fig.5.26 which has been reduced to nearly 5.45%, maintaining a THD within
limit.

Page 69

Point C (Fig.5.23) again shows about the time when DVR has been turned
OFF automatically to have a clear understanding regarding the operation of
DVR and the sag continues.
The overall specification which has been measured for complete operation of
DVR in closed loop condition is tabulated below.
Table.5.4: Overall specifications of DVR in closed loop condition
Parameter Peak to Peak (20) RMS
Vs = 17.6 V p-p 352 V 124.5 V
V
L
= 17.6 V p-p 352 V (Pre Sag) 124.5 V
V
L
= 12.0 V p-p 240 V (During Sag) 84.9 V
Sag = 2.82 = 5.6 V p-p 112 V 39.5 V
Injection = 5V 100 V 35.4 V

Fig.5.17: Basic Model of Open Loop Control for pulse generation

Page 70

Fig.5.18: Source voltage
(Channel 1: Voltage across Source Vs; Channel 2: Voltage across Load V
L
)

Fig.5.19: Load voltage
L
)

Page 71

Fig.5.20: Load voltage when sag Dip occurs
L
)

Fig.5.21: Load voltage when sag occurs
L
)

Page 72

Fig.5.22: Load voltage when sag occurs
L
)

Fig.5.23: Source voltage
s
L

dvr
)
A
B
A C

Page 73

Fig.5.24: Load voltage after mitigation
s
L

dvr
)

Fig.5.25: Injected DVR Voltages V
DVR

s
L

dvr
)

Page 74

Fig.5.26: THD Analysis of Load Voltage

The thought of the author conveys many issues experienced during the tenure of
this project. The main origin of any project starts with the software analysis rather
than indulging directly into hardware enactment. So the complete production of this
project started with the bean of MATLAB SIMULINK which has initialized and
enhanced the desire of developing DVR. So basically this episode prologue with
simulation results of DVR which has involved an epic device known as dSPACE
which showered all the eradication of minute problems while generating triggering
pulses required for the heart of the DVR, the inverter. As the simulation results
excited the next episode of Hardware analysis with the production of driver circuit
which has migrated the analysis towards the production of injection voltage required
to mitigate the voltage sag which is the basic aim of this project. Finally it has
sprinkled a spark of merriment in heart, the day when DVR has worked through and
implemented its duty in a desired manner and thats the epilogue of this project.
It is the case when power system network is connected to DVR and complete set
up has been shown in Fig.5.27 for mere understanding. It has been noticed that
controlling scheme is the important fact of the complete system for future scope.


Page 75

Fig.5.27: Complete Hardware set up for sag mitigation using DVR

Conclusion & Future Scope

Page 76

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
CONCLUSION:
The documentary of this thesis has been pleasantly scripted with keen
curiosity and paramount heed. Each and every theme has been reviewed by many
skilled members to avoid any perplexity or gaffe throughout the libretto. The
simulation results have healed up the wounds before initializing this project which
excited the view of power quality issues to instigate a hardware project.
The triggering of this project escorted to edifice up DVR model in a software
analysis which has allowed creating a power quality issue of voltage sag. This voltage
sag wag intentionally created by switching on high loads and it has been analyzed.
The harvest of simulation was completely satisfied by analyzing the mitigation of sag
intellectually. It has then migrated towards the building up DVR model in hardware
era.
Hardware scenario has been geared up with drafting up driver circuit which
had induced the driving pulses with the help of dSPACE by comparing normal
voltage with voltage sag and fed to inverter. This inverter has yielded with harmonic
distortions. This distorted harvest has been filtered out by LC filter. The furnished
capitulate has been tried to infuse in series with the load and it has been keenly
pragmatic that DVR has involved in mitigating sag effectively. The efficient
mannered mitigation was superiorly observed for closed loop.

FUTURE SCOPE:
As the DVR modeled over here is of single phase, it can have a glowing
developed scope in future for three phase DVR by using different level inverters.
Many modulation techniques and few control methods can be adopted in the area of
harmonic eradication.
I would like to cease it by saying that DVR is not only reserved to mitigate sag
but it can have wider applications when equipped with many practical working
devices for controlling different types of power quality disturbances, by using
advanced controllers.

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