Choppers A general introduction

https://sites.google.com/site/pelabuet/lab-manual
Arun
January - 25 - 2012
1 Comment
Choppers
A chopper is basically a dc to dc converter whose main function/usage is to create adjustable dc
voltage from fixed dc voltage sources through the use of semiconductors.
Types of choppers
The main classification of the types of choppers is given in another post. Take a look - TYPES
OF CHOPPER CIRCUITS
There are two types of choppers AC and DC.
AC Link Chopper
In the case of an ac link chopper, first dc is converted to ac with the help of an inverter. After
that, AC is stepped-up or stepped-down by a transformer, which is then converted back to dc by
a diode rectifier. Ac link chopper is costly, bulky and less efficient as the conversion is done in
two stages.

DC Chopper
A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output
voltage directly. A chopper can be said as dc equivalent of an ac transformer as they behave in
an identical manner. This kind of choppers are more efficient as they involve one stage
conversion. Just like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step up or step down the fixed dc
output voltage. Choppers are used in many applications all over the world inside various
electronic equipments. A chopper system has a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth
control.

Principle of Chopper Operation
A chopper can be said as a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. Source to load connection
and disconnection from load to source happens in a rapid speed. Consider the figure, here a
chopped load voltage can be obtained from a constant dc supply of voltage, which has a
magnitude V
s.
Chopper is the one represented by SW inside a dotted square which can be
turned on or off as desired.

Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

Let us now take a look of the output current and voltage wave forms of a chopper. During the
time period T
on
the chopper is turned on and the load voltage is equal to source voltage V
s
.
During the interval T
off
the chopper is off and the load current will be flowing though the
freewheeling diode FD . The load terminals are short circuited by FD and the load voltage is
therefore zero during T
off
. Thus, a chopped dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. We can
see from the graph that the load current is continuous. During the time period T
on
, load current
rises but during T
off
load current decays .
Average load Voltage is given by
V
0
= T
on
/ (T
on
+T
off
) * Vs = (T
on
/T) V = A V
s
(1.0)
T
on
: on -time
T
off
: off- time
T = T
on
+T
off
= chopping period
A = T
on
/T = duty cycle
So we know that the load voltage can be controlled by varying the duty cycle A. equation 1.0
shows that the load voltage is independent of load current it can be also written as
V
0
= f. T
on
.V
s

f= 1/T = chopping frequency
Step up Choppers
In the case of the chopper circuit (Refer figure named chopper circuit) shown in beginning
of this article, V
0
or the average output voltage is less than the input voltage V
s
so this type of
chopper is called a step down chopper. For a step-up chopper we can obtain an average output
voltage V
0
greater than input voltage. Figure (a) shows the elementary form of a step-up
chopper.

Working Principle of a Step-up Chopper
In step-up chopper a large inductor, L is in series with the source voltage V
s
. This forms a closed
path as shown in the figure (b). During the time period T
on
the chopper is on the inductor stores
energy. When the chopper is turned off the current is forced to flow through the diode and load
for a time T
off
and as the inductor current cannot die suddenly. When the current decreases the
polarity of the emf induced in L is reversed. Fig (c). As a result the total voltage available across
the load is given by the equation V
0
= V
s
+ L (di/dt) . The voltage V
0
exceeds the source voltage
and hence the circuit acts as a step-up chopper and the energy which is stored in L is released to
the load.
Voltage and current waveforms

When the chopper is turned ON the current through the inductance L will increase from I
1
to I
2.
As the chopper is on the source voltage is applied to L that is v
L =
V
S
.
When the chopper is OFF, the KVL for the figure (c) can be written as
v
L
- V
0
+V
s
=0 or v
L
=V
0
-V
s
where v
L
is the voltage across L. Variation of source voltage v
S ,

source current I
S
, load voltage v
0
and load current i
O
is sketched in the fig (d) . Let us assume
that the variation of output current is linear, the energy input to inductor from the source, during
the time period T
on
, is
W
in
= V
s
(I
1
+I
2
/2) T
on

During the time T
off
the chopper is off, so the energy released by the inductor to the load is
W
off
= (V
0
-V
s
)(I
1
+I
2
/2).T
off

Let us assume that the system is lossless, then the two energies say W
in
and W
off
are equal.
So equating these two we will get
V
s
(I
1
+I
2
/2) T
on =
(V
0
-V
s
)(I
1
+I
2
/2).T
off

V
s
T
on =
(V
0
-V
s
) T
off

V
0
T
off =
V
s
(T
off +
T
on
) = V
s
.T
V
0
= V
S
(T/T
off
) = V
S
(T/T-T
on
) =V
S
(1/(1-A) .(2.0)
From the equation 2.0 we can see that the average voltage across the load can be stepped up by
varying the duty cycle. If the chopper in the figure (a) is always off, A=0 and V
0
= V
s
. If the
chopper is always on, A =1 and V
0
= infinity as we can see from the graph. In practical
applications the chopper is turned on and off so that the required step-up average output voltage,
more source voltage is obtained.

Figure shows variation of load voltage V
0
with duty cycle .
Application of Step-up Chopper

Figure shows regenerative braking of dc motor.
The principle of step-up chopper can be used for the regenerative braking of DC motors. The
armature voltage E
a
is analogy to the V
S
and voltage V
0
is the dc source voltage. When the
chopper is on the inductor L stores the energy and when it is off the inductor release the energy.
If E
a
/ (1-A) exceeds V
0
, the dc machine will work as a dc generator and the armature current
will flow in a direction opposite to the motoring mode. As the power now is flowing from dc
machine to the source V
0
it will cause regenerative breaking of the dc motor. Even at decreasing
motor speeds, regenerative breaking can be provided as the motor armature E
a
is directly
proportional to the field flux and motor speed.


Types of Chopper Circuits
john
January - 31 - 2012
3 Comments
In chopper circuits, unidirectional power semiconductors are used. If these semiconductor
devices are arranged appropriately, a chopper can work in any of the four quadrants. we can
classify chopper circuits according to their working in any of these four quadrants as type A,
type B, type C, type D and type E. Let us now take a look of these classifications and the
characteristics of various classifications.
Type A Chopper or FirstQuadrant Chopper
This type of chopper is shown in the figure. It is known as first-quadrant chopper or type A
chopper. When the chopper is on, v
0 =
V
S
as a result and the current flows in the direction of the
load. But when the chopper is off v
0
is zero but I
0
continues to flow in the same direction
through the freewheeling diode FD, thus average value of voltage and current say V
0
and I
0
will
be always positive as shown in the graph.

Chopper First Quadrant
In type A chopper the power flow will be always from source to the load. As the average voltage
V
0
is less than the dc input voltage V
s

Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

Chopper Second Quadrant
In type B or second quadrant chopper the load must always contain a dc source E . When the
chopper is on, v
0
is zero but the load voltage E drives the current through the inductor L and
the chopper, L stores the energy during the time T
on
of the chopper . When the chopper is off , v
0
=( E+ L . di/dt ) will be more than the source voltage V
s
. Because of this the diode D2 will be
forward biased and begins conducting and hence the power starts flowing to the source. No
matter the chopper is on or off the current I
0
will be flowing out of the load and is treated
negative . Since V
O
is positive and the current I
0
is negative , the direction of power flow will
be from load to source. The load voltage V
0
= (E+L .di/dt ) will be more than the voltage V
s

so the type B chopper is also known as a step up chopper .
Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper
Type C chopper is obtained by connecting type A and type B choppers in parallel. We will
always get a positive output voltage V
0
as the freewheeling diode FD is present across the load.
When the chopper is on the freewheeling diode starts conducting and the output voltage v
0
will
be equal to V
s
. The direction of the load current i
0
will be reversed. The current i
0
will be
flowing towards the source and it will be positive regardless the chopper is on or the FD
conducts. The load current will be negative if the chopper is or the diode D2 conducts. We can
say the chopper and FD operate together as type-A chopper in first quadrant. In the second
quadrant, the chopper and D2 will operate together as type B chopper.

Chopper Two Quadrant
The average voltage will be always positive but the average load current might be positive or
negative. The power flow may be life the first quadrant operation ie from source to load or from
load to source like the second quadrant operation. The two choppers should not be turned on
simultaneously as the combined action my cause a short circuit in supply lines. For regenerative
braking and monitoring these type of chopper configuration is used.
Type D Chopper or Two-Quadrant Type B Chopper

Two Quadrant Type B chopper or D Chopper Circuit
The circuit diagram of the type D chopper is shown in the above figure. When the two choppers
are on the output voltage v
0
will be equal to V
s
. When v
0
= V
s
the two choppers will be off
but both the diodes D1 and D2 will start conducting. V
0
the average output voltage will be
positive when the choppers turn-on the time T
on
will be more than the turn off time T
off
its
shown in the wave form below. As the diodes and choppers conduct current only in one direction
the direction of load current will be always positive.

Positive First Quadrant Operation and Negative Fourth Quadrant Operation
The power flows from source to load as the average values of both v
0
and i
0
is positive. From
the wave form it is seen that the average value of V
0
is positive thus the forth quadrant
operation of type D chopper is obtained.
From the wave forms the Average value of output voltage is given by
V0= (V
s
T
on
-V
s
T
off
)/T = V
s
.(T
on
-T
off
)/T
Type E chopper or the Fourth-Quadrant Chopper
Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches and four diodes
arranged in antiparallel. The 4 choppers are numbered according to which quadrant they belong.
Their operation will be in each quadrant and the corresponding chopper only be active in its
quadrant.

E-type Chopper Circuit diagram with load emf E and E Reversed
First Quadrant
During the first quadrant operation the chopper CH4 will be on . Chopper CH3 will be off and
CH1 will be operated. AS the CH1 and CH4 is on the load voltage v
0
will be equal to the source
voltage V
s
and the load current i
0
will begin to flow . v
0
and i
0
will be positive as the first
quadrant operation is taking place. As soon as the chopper CH1 is turned off, the positive current
freewheels through CH4 and the diode D2 . The type E chopper acts as a step- down chopper in
the first quadrant.
Second Quadrant
In this case the chopper CH2 will be operational and the other three are kept off. As CH2 is on
negative current will starts flowing through the inductor L . CH2 ,E and D4. Energy is stored in
the inductor L as the chopper CH2 is on. When CH2 is off the current will be fed back to the
source through the diodes D1 and D4. Here (E+L.di/dt) will be more than the source voltage V
s
.
In second quadrant the chopper will act as a step-up chopper as the power is fed back from load
to source
Third Quadrant
In third quadrant operation CH1 will be kept off , CH2 will be on and CH3 is operated. For this
quadrant working the polarity of the load should be reversed. As the chopper CH3 is on, the load
gets connected to the source V
s
and v
0
and i
0
will be negative and the third quadrant operation
will takes place. This chopper acts as a step-down chopper
Fourth Quadrant
CH4 will be operated and CH1, CH2 and CH3 will be off. When the chopper CH4 is turned on
positive current starts to flow through CH4, D2 ,E and the inductor L will store energy. As the
CH4 is turned off the current is feedback to the source through the diodes D2 and D3 , the
operation will be in fourth quadrant as the load voltage is negative but the load current is
positive. The chopper acts as a step up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.