Esd 1

Electronic System Design Lab Manual
VI SEMESTER ECE
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS LIST OF EXPERIMENTS LIST OF EXPERIMENTS LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

EC1355 EC1355 EC1355 EC1355 ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN LAB ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN LAB ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN LAB ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN LAB 0 0 3 100 0 0 3 100 0 0 3 100 0 0 3 100

1. DC power supply design using buck boost converters
Design the buck-boost converter for the given input voltage variation, load current and
output voltage. Plot the regulation characteristics.

2. DC power supply design using fly back converter (Isolated type)
Design the fly back converter using ferrite core transformer for the given input voltage
variation load current and output voltage.
Plot the regulation characteristics.

3. Design of a 4-20mA transmitter for a bridge type transducer.
Design the Instrumentation amplifier with the bridge type transducer (Thermistor or any
resistance variation transducers) and convert the amplified voltage from the
instrumentation amplifier to 4 20 mA current using op-amp. Plot the variation of the
temperature Vs output current.

4. Design of AC/DC voltage regulator using SCR
Design a phase controlled voltage regulator using full wave rectifier and SCR, vary the
conduction angle and plot the output voltage.

5. Design of process control timer
Design a sequential timer to switch on & off at least 3 relays in a particular sequence
using timer IC.

6. Design of AM / FM modulator / demodulator
i. Design AM signal using multiplier IC for the given carrier frequency and modulation
index and demodulate the AM signal using envelope detector.
ii. Design FM signal using VCO IC NE566 for the given carrier frequency and demodulate
the same using PLL NE 565.

7. Design of Wireless date modem.
Design a FSK modulator using 555 and convert it to sine wave using filter and transmit
the same using IR LED and demodulate the same PLL NE 565.

8. PCB layout design using CAD
Drawing the schematic of simple electronic circuit and design of PCB layout using CAD

9. Microcontroller based systems design
Design of microcontroller based system for simple applications like security systems
combination lock etc. using 89c series flash micro controller.

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10. DSP based system design
Design a DSP based system for simple applications like echo generation, etc. using TMS
320 DSP kit.


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1. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING BUCK 1. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING BUCK 1. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING BUCK 1. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING BUCK BOOST CONVERTERS BOOST CONVERTERS BOOST CONVERTERS BOOST CONVERTERS
Aim Aim Aim Aim

Design the buck-boost converter for the given input voltage variation, load current and output
voltage. Plot the regulation characteristics.
Apparatus Required Apparatus Required Apparatus Required Apparatus Required

DC DC DC DC- -- -DC Converter Basics DC Converter Basics DC Converter Basics DC Converter Basics
A DC-to-DC converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage and produces a DC
output voltage. Typically the output produced is at a different voltage level than the input. In
addition, DC-to-DC converters are used to provide noise isolation, power bus regulation, etc. This
is a summary of some of the popular DC-to-DC converter topologies:
1. 1. 1. 1. Buck Converter Step Buck Converter Step Buck Converter Step Buck Converter Step- -- -Down Converter Down Converter Down Converter Down Converter
In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one end of the inductor.
This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor is OFF, the
current will continue flowing through the inductor but now flowing through the diode. We initially
assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the voltage at Vx will
now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the full OFF time. The average
voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the transistor provided the inductor current
is continuous.

Fig. 1: Buck Converter

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Fig. 2: Voltage and current changes
To analyse the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor current over
one cycle. From the relation

the change of current satisfies

For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not change. To get a
simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across transistor or diode while
ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time Vx=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus

which simplifies to

or

and defining "duty ratio" as

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the voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the input and output
powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input and output current
must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption that the inductor current does
not reach zero.
1.1 Transition between continuous and discontinuous 1.1 Transition between continuous and discontinuous 1.1 Transition between continuous and discontinuous 1.1 Transition between continuous and discontinuous
When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then either the transistor T1 or the
diode D1 must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage Vx is either Vin or 0. If the
inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will not be forced to either of these
conditions. At this transition point the current just reaches zero as seen in Figure 3. During the
ON time Vin-Vout is across the inductor thus

(1)
The average current which must match the output current satisfies

(2)

Fig. 3: Buck Converter at Boundary
If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point satisfies

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(3)
1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontin 1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontin 1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontin 1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous Mode) uous Mode) uous Mode) uous Mode)
As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral of voltage across the
inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The transistor OFF time is now divided into segments
of diode conduction ddT and zero conduction doT. The inductor average voltage thus gives
(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0 (4)

Fig. 4: Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction

(5)
for the case . To resolve the value of consider the output current which is half the
peak when averaged over the conduction times

(6)
Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time

(7)
Thus from (6) and (7) we can get

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(8)
using the relationship in (5)

(9)
and solving for the diode conduction

(10)
The output voltage is thus given as

(11)
defining k* = 2L/(Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the voltage ratio of
the converter.

Fig. 5: Output Voltage vs Current

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As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio depends only on
the duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends to increase the output
voltage of the converter towards Vin.

2. BOOST CONVERTER STEP 2. BOOST CONVERTER STEP 2. BOOST CONVERTER STEP 2. BOOST CONVERTER STEP- -- -UP CONVERTER UP CONVERTER UP CONVERTER UP CONVERTER
The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a higher
output voltage than input is required.

Fig. 6: Boost Converter Circuit
While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows through the diode
giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor current always remains flowing
(continuous conduction). The voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig. 7 and the average
must be zero for the average current to remain in steady state

This can be rearranged as

and for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures


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Fig. 7: Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)
Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be higher than the
input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage.

3. BUCK 3. BUCK 3. BUCK 3. BUCK- -- -BOOST CONVERTER BOOST CONVERTER BOOST CONVERTER BOOST CONVERTER

Fig. 8: schematic for buck-boost converter
With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor is ON and
Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a period the average voltage
across the inductor is zero

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Fig. 9: Waveforms for buck-boost converter

which gives the voltage ratio

and the corresponding current

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can vary between lower or higher
than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the
output voltage.
RESULT: RESULT: RESULT: RESULT:


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2. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING FLYBACK CONVERTERS 2. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING FLYBACK CONVERTERS 2. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING FLYBACK CONVERTERS 2. DC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING FLYBACK CONVERTERS
Aim Aim Aim Aim

Design the fly back converter using ferrite core transformer for the given input voltage
variation load current and output voltage.

Isolated DC Isolated DC Isolated DC Isolated DC- -- -DC Converters DC Converters DC Converters DC Converters
In many DC-DC applications, multiple outputs are required and output isolation may need to be
implemented depending on the application. In addition, input to output isolation may be
required to meet safety standards and / or provide impedance matching.
1. Flyback Converter 1. Flyback Converter 1. Flyback Converter 1. Flyback Converter
The flyback converter can be developed as an extension of the Buck-Boost converter. Fig 1
shows the basic converter; Fig 2 replaces the inductor by a transformer. The buck-boost
converter works by storing energy in the inductor during the ON phase and releasing it to the
output during the OFF phase. With the transformer the energy storage is in the magnetisation of
the transformer core. To increase the stored energy a gapped core is often used.
In Fig 3 the isolated output is clarified by removal of the common reference of the input and
output circuits.

Fig. 1: Buck-Boost Converter

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Fig. 2: Replacing inductor by transformer

Fig. 3: Flyback converter re-configured
2. Forward Converter 2. Forward Converter 2. Forward Converter 2. Forward Converter
The concept behind the forward converter is that of the ideal transformer converting the input
AC voltage to an isolated secondary output voltage. For the circuit in Fig. 4, when the transistor
is ON, Vin appears across the primary and then generates

The diode D1 on the secondary ensures that only positive voltages are applied to the output
circuit while D2 provides a circulating path for inductor current if the transformer voltage is zero
or negative.

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Fig. 4: Forward Converter
The problem with the operation of the circuit in Fig 4 is that only positive voltage is applied
across the core, thus flux can only increase with the application of the supply. The flux will
increase until the core saturates when the magnetizing current increases significantly and
circuit failure occurs. The transformer can only sustain operation when there is no significant DC
component to the input voltage. While the switch is ON there is positive voltage across the core
and the flux increases. When the switch turns OFF we need to supply negative voltage to reset
the core flux. The circuit in Fig. 5 shows a tertiary winding with a diode connection to permit
reverse current. Note that the "dot" convention for the tertiary winding is opposite those of the
other windings. When the switch turns OFF current was flowing in a "dot" terminal. The core
inductance act to continue current in a dotted terminal, thus

Fig. 5: Forward converter with tertiary winding


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3. DESIGN OF A 4 3. DESIGN OF A 4 3. DESIGN OF A 4 3. DESIGN OF A 4- -- -20mA TRANSMITTER FOR A BRIDGE TYPE TRANSDUCER 20mA TRANSMITTER FOR A BRIDGE TYPE TRANSDUCER 20mA TRANSMITTER FOR A BRIDGE TYPE TRANSDUCER 20mA TRANSMITTER FOR A BRIDGE TYPE TRANSDUCER

Aim Aim Aim Aim
Design the Instrumentation amplifier with the bridge type transducer (Thermistor or any Design the Instrumentation amplifier with the bridge type transducer (Thermistor or any Design the Instrumentation amplifier with the bridge type transducer (Thermistor or any Design the Instrumentation amplifier with the bridge type transducer (Thermistor or any
resistance variat resistance variat resistance variat resistance variation transducers) and convert the amplified voltage from the instrumentation ion transducers) and convert the amplified voltage from the instrumentation ion transducers) and convert the amplified voltage from the instrumentation ion transducers) and convert the amplified voltage from the instrumentation
amplifier to 4 amplifier to 4 amplifier to 4 amplifier to 4 20 mA current using op 20 mA current using op 20 mA current using op 20 mA current using op- -- -amp. Plot the variation of the temperature Vs output amp. Plot the variation of the temperature Vs output amp. Plot the variation of the temperature Vs output amp. Plot the variation of the temperature Vs output
current current current current

Apparatus required

Sl.No Sl.No Sl.No Sl.No Components Components Components Components Type/Range Type/Range Type/Range Type/Range
Quantity Quantity Quantity Quantity
1 OpAmp MA741 3
2 Thermister or RTD - 1
3 Ammeter (0-20)mA 1
4
Resister
8k,47k,
470k, 100k,
470, 1meg
1,2, 2, 2,1,4
5 DRB - 1
6 Power supply
5V, 15V,(0-5)V 1,1
A 4 A 4 A 4 A 4- -- -20ma Transmitter For A Bridge Type Transducer 20ma Transmitter For A Bridge Type Transducer 20ma Transmitter For A Bridge Type Transducer 20ma Transmitter For A Bridge Type Transducer
4 44 4- -- -20 mA 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA is an analog electrical transmission standard for industrial instrumentation and
communication. The symbol "mA" is standard SI notation for milliampere, or 1/1000 of an
ampere. The signal is a current loop where 4 mA represents zero percent signals and 20 mA
represents the one hundred percent signal.
The reason zero is at 4 mA and not 0 mA is that this "live zero" allows the receiving
instrumentation to differentiate between a zero signal and a broken wire or a dead instrument.
This standard was developed in the 1950s and is still widely used in industry today, even though
many attempts have been made to replace it with digital forms of communication such as
fieldbus and Profibus. Its benefits of being a widely followed standard, low cost, its reliability and
immunity to electrical noise keep it in regular use. Current loop is also much easier to
understand and debug than more complicated digital fieldbuses. Using fieldbuses and solving
related problems usually requires much more education and understanding than required by
simple current loop solutions. Additional digital communication to the device can be added to
current loop using HART Protocol.

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Process Process Process Process- -- -control use control use control use control use
For industrial process control instruments, analog 4-20 mA and 10-50 mA current loops
are commonly used for analog signaling, with 4 mA representing the lowest end of the range
and 20 mA the highest. The key advantages of the current loop are that the accuracy of the
signal is not affected by voltage drop in the interconnecting wiring, and that the loop can supply
operating power to the device. Even if there is significant electrical resistance in the line, the
current loop transmitter will maintain the proper current, up to its maximum voltage capability.
The live-zero represented by 4 mA allows the receiving instrument to detect some failures of the
loop, and also allows transmitter devices to be powered by the same current loop (called two-
wire transmitters). Such instruments are used to measure pressure, temperature, flow, pH or
other process variables. A current loop can also be used to control a valve positioner or other
output actuator. An analog current loop can be converted to a voltage input with a precision
resistor. Since input terminals of instruments may have one side of the current loop input tied to
the chassis ground (earth), analog isolators may be required when connecting several devices in
series.
Taking the point of view of the source of current for the loop, devices may be classified as
active (supplying power) or passive (relying on loop power). For example, a chart recorder may
provide loop power to a transmitter instrument such as a pressure transmitter. The pressure
transmitter modulates the current on the loop to send the signal to the strip chart recorder, but
does not in itself supply power to the loop and so is passive. Another loop may contain two
passive chart recorders, a passive pressure transmitter, and a 24 V battery. (The battery is the
active device). Panel mount displays and chart recorders are commonly termed 'indicator
devices' or 'process monitors'. Several passive indicator devices may be connected in series, but
a loop must have only one transmitter device and only one power source (active device).
The relationship between current value and process variable measurement is set by
calibration, which assigns different ranges of engineering units to the span between 4 and 20
mA. Occasionally the mapping between engineering units and current was inverted, so that 4
mA represented the maximum and 20 mA the minimum.

Design Procedure Design Procedure Design Procedure Design Procedure

Problem: Design a (4-20) mA transmitter for a Thermister based Temperature indicator to
indicate 30
o
C to 60
0
C as 4-20 mA.
Design Data: At 30
o
C RT = 8k, at 60
o
C RT = 3k

Design of Bridge:
At 30
o
C RT = 8k, Differential Voltage
VD = ((R4/(R4 + R2) - (RT/(RT + R1) = 0V ----(1)

At 60
o
C RT = 3k, Differential Voltage
VD = ((R4/(R4 + R2) - (RT/(RT + R1) = 400mV ----(2)
From equation 1 and 2, R1 = R2 = 51.3 k 47 k, R4 = 8k.

Design of Differential Amplifier:

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Output of Differential amplifier = (0-4)V for 30
o
C to 60
0
C Temperature variation.
Gain of Differential amplifier = 10, Assume Rf =1 Meg , Ri = Rf / 10 = 100k

Design of Summing Amplifier:

Output of Summing Amplifier = (2 to 10) V for (0-4) V input.
Assume, Gain of Summing Amplifier = 2, Rf =1 Meg , Ri = Rf / 2 = 500k 470k
V2 1V

Design of V to I Converter:

Input voltage (2 10) V
Required output Current = (4 - 20) mA
Ri = 500 470 .

4 44 4- -- -20 mA Transmitter Bridge Circuit 20 mA Transmitter Bridge Circuit 20 mA Transmitter Bridge Circuit 20 mA Transmitter Bridge Circuit
HI
1meg
100k
HI
R4
8k
1meg
470
100k
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
0
RTD
(4-20) mA
HI
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
15
0
470k
HI
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
LO
R1
47k
15
0
LO
1meg
0
V2
R2
47k
1meg
LO
LO
470k
0
5 V


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Observation Observation Observation Observation
For temperature from 30
o
C to 60
0
C measure the current and tabulate the same.

Sl. No. Sl. No. Sl. No. Sl. No. Temperature ( Temperature ( Temperature ( Temperature (
o oo o
C) C) C) C)
Resistance of Resistance of Resistance of Resistance of
Thermistor (k Thermistor (k Thermistor (k Thermistor (k ) )) )
Output Output Output Output
Current(mA) Current(mA) Current(mA) Current(mA)

Result Result Result Result:


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5. DESIGN OF PROCESS CONTROL TIMER 5. DESIGN OF PROCESS CONTROL TIMER 5. DESIGN OF PROCESS CONTROL TIMER 5. DESIGN OF PROCESS CONTROL TIMER

Aim Aim Aim Aim

Design a sequential timer to switch on & relays in a particular sequence using timer IC

Apparatus required Apparatus required Apparatus required Apparatus required

Sl.No Sl.No Sl.No Sl.No Components Components Components Components Type/Range Type/Range Type/Range Type/Range
Quantity Quantity Quantity Quantity
1 Counter IC 7490 1
2 AND gate IC 7408 1
3 OR gate IC 7432 1
4 NOT gate IC 7404 1
5 XOR gate IC 7486 1
6 LED 6
7 Pulse generator 1
8 Powersupply 5V 1

Process Control Timer Process Control Timer Process Control Timer Process Control Timer



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6. DESIGN OF AM / FM MODULATOR / DEMODULATOR 6. DESIGN OF AM / FM MODULATOR / DEMODULATOR 6. DESIGN OF AM / FM MODULATOR / DEMODULATOR 6. DESIGN OF AM / FM MODULATOR / DEMODULATOR
Aim Aim Aim Aim
iii. Design AM signal using multiplier IC for the given carrier frequency and modulation
index and demodulate the AM signal using envelope detector.
iv. Design FM signal using VCO IC NE566 for the given carrier frequency and demodulate
the same using PLL NE 565.


Am Modulator Am Modulator Am Modulator Am Modulator
The basic operation performed in Amplitude Modulation is multiplying two signals
together to produce a modulated signal s(t). The first signal is called the carrier signal and is
made of a pure sine wave at a high frequency fc. The carrier signal does not contain any
information and serves mainly to "carry" the contents of the information signal to higher
frequencies so that it can be radiated through an antenna. The second signal is called the
complex envelope signal g(t). The complex envelope signal has particular meaning in AM where
it provides the slow varying envelope to the fast varying modulated signal s(t). The complex
envelope g(t) is strongly related to the modulating or information signal m(t).

Modulating signal (information) ( ) ( ) t f A t m
m m
2 cos = simple case
Complex envelope signal ( ) ( ) [ ] t m A t g
c
+ = 1 for Amplitude Modulation
Carrier signal
t f j
c
e
2

Modulated signal ( ) ( ) { }
t f j
c
e t g t s
2
Re =

It can be shown that the modulated signal s(t) reduces to the expression in Equation 1.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t f f
A A
t f f
A A
t f A t s
m c
m c
m c
m c
c c
+ + + = 2 cos
2
2 cos
2
2 cos 1
The Fourier Transform for positive frequencies of the modulated signal is given by Equation 2.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m c
m c
m c
m c
c
c
f f f
A A
f f f
A A
f f
A
f S + + + =
4 4 2
.2
Figure 1 shows the complex envelope signal g(t) and the carrier signal on the left and the
modulated signal for Am = 0.5 on the right. It can be seen that the complex envelope g(t)
corresponds to the slow varying envelope in the modulated signal s(t).

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0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-2
-1
0
1
2
v
o
l
t
s
complex envelope
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-2
-1
0
1
2
time in microseconds
v
o
l
t
s
carrier

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
time in microseconds
v
o
l
t
s
modulated signal

Figure 1: Time representation of amplitude modulation of a sine wave
(fc = 100 kHz, fm = 10 kHz, Ac = 1 and Am = 50% modulation)

Figure 2 shows the frequency magnitude spectrum of the AM modulated signal s(t). There are
three frequency components. The strongest component occurs at the frequency of the carrier
signal fc. The other two components have the same magnitude and occur at the difference
frequency fc - fm and at the sum frequency fc + fm. One notes that the magnitude of the
components at the difference frequency fc - fm and at the sum frequency fc + fm is proportional to
Ac and Am, while the magnitude of the component at the carrier frequency fc is only proportional
to Ac. It is therefore possible to increase or decrease the magnitude of the fc - fm and at the fc +
fm components without changing the magnitude of the carrier frequency component by
changing Am. The value of Am therefore represents the relative amount of the modulating signal
m(t) compared to the carrier signal. The value of Am, often expressed in percent is called the
modulation index. More generally, the modulation index is defined as
c
A
A A
M
=
2
min max

where Amax, Amin and Ac are the maximum, minimum and average amplitudes of the envelope of
the modulated signal s(t) respectively.
|S(f)|
0 f
c
-f
m
f
c
+f
m
f
f
c
A
c
------
2
A
c
A
m
--------
4
A
c
A
m
--------
4

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
frequency in kHz

Figure 2: Frequency representation of amplitude modulation of a sine wave
(fc = 100 kHz, fm = 10 kHz, Ac = 1 and Am = 50% modulation)


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Frequency Modulatio Frequency Modulatio Frequency Modulatio Frequency Modulation nn n
Frequency modulation (FM) is the standard technique for high-fidelity communications as
is evident in the received signals of the FM band (88-108 MHz) vs. the AM band (450-1650 KHz).
The main reason for the improved fidelity is that FM detectors, when properly designed, are not
sensitive to random amplitude variations which are the dominant part of electrical noise (heard
as static on the AM radio). Frequency modulation is not only used in commercial radio
broadcasts, but also in police and hospital communications, emergency channels, TV sound,
wireless (cellular) telephone systems, and radio amateur bands above 30 MHz.
The basic idea of an FM signal vs. an AM signal is shown in Fig. 3. In an FM signal, the
frequency of the signal is changed by the modulation (baseband) signal while its amplitude
remains the same. In an AM signal, we now know that it is the amplitude (or the envelope) of
the signal that is changed by the modulation signal. The FM signal can be summarized as
follows:

Figure 3 Figure 3 Figure 3 Figure 3: FM representation vs. AM representation.
1. The amplitude of the modulation signal determines the amount of the frequency change from
the center frequency.
2. The frequency of the modulation signal determines the rate of the frequency change from the
center frequency.
3. The amplitude of the FM signal is constant at all times and is independent of the modulation
signal.


VI SEMESTER ECE
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Mathematically, an FM signal is written as:
V = Asin
c
t + m
f
sin
m
t ( )
where A = the amplitude of the signal

c
= center frequency (frequency for no modulation signal)

m
= modulation frequency
and m
f
= FM modulation index = /f
m

where = maximum frequency shift caused by the modulation signal
f
m
= frequency of the modulation signal.
The spectrum of an FM signal is quite complicated and is dependent on m
f
. Actually, it follows a
Bessel Function (you will study this in a senior-level math course) and is given by:

FM Spectrum = J
0
m
f
( )cos
c
t ( ) Center Frequency
c
( )
J
1
m
f
( )cos
c

m
( )t cos
c
+
m
( )t
[ ]
Components at
c
+ /
m
( )
+J
2
m
f
( )cos
c
2
m
( )t +cos
c
2
m
( )t
[ ]
Components at
c
+ /2
m
( )
J
3
m
f
( )cos
c
3
m
( )t cos
c
+3
m
( )t
[ ]
Components at
c
+ /3
m
( )
+ .....

where J
0
m
f
( ), J
1
m
f
( ) etc. are in volts, and are the levels of the frequency components of the
FM signal for A = 1 V.
Figure 4 gives some spectrum representation for various modulation indices. Notice from
Table 1 that for m
f
= 2.4, there is no power in the center frequency component (J
0
(2.4) =0). This
also occurs at m
f
= 5.5, 8.6, ... . This does not mean that there is no power transmitted in the
signal. All that it means is that for m = 2.4, 5.5, ..., there is no power at the center frequency and
all of the power is in the sidebands.
The bandwidth of an FM signal depends on the modulation index (m
f
), and is approximated by
the well-known Carson s Rule:

BW = 2 (+ f
m(max)
)

where f
m(max)
is the maximum frequency of the modulating signal. The factor (2) in the
equation is to account for both the upper and lower sidebands (left and right of the carrier). This
equation gives the bandwidth which contains 98% of the signal power.

VI SEMESTER ECE
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Figure 4 Figure 4 Figure 4 Figure 4: Frequency spectrum of FM signals with different m
f
and same modulating frequency.

The best way to understand FM signals is to consider a real life example. Let us take an Ann
Arbor station, 107.1 FM, broadcasting at 107.1 MHz with a power of 50 KW. The bandwidth of
the modulation signal is from 30 Hz to 15 KHz which is excellent for high-fidelity broadcast. The
maximum deviation set by the FCC, (), is 75 KHz. The range of the modulation index is
therefore:

m
f(min)
= /f
m(max)
= 75 KHz/15 KHz= 5 (for f
m
= 15 KHz)
to
m
f(max)
= /f
m(min)
= 75 KHz/30 Hz = 2500! (for f
m
= 30 Hz)

Notice that the modulation index changes a lot with the modulation frequency (from 2,500 to 5).
For the 15 KHz signal, m
f
= 5, we see that the frequency components are up high up to J
6
and
drop quickly afterwards. This means that the bandwidth of the signal is 6x15 KHz = 90 KHz on
each side of the center frequency (a total bandwidth of 180 KHz). We can also use Carsons rule
and, BW = 2 ( + f
m(max)
) = 180 KHz or 90 KHz on each side of the center frequency.
For the 30 Hz signal and m
f
= 2,500, a huge number of sidebands exist but remember that there
are now spaced at only 30 Hz apart. The total bandwidth of the signal is BW = 2 (+ f
m(min)
) =
150 KHz or 75 KHz on each side of the center frequency. This means that the bandwidth of the
FM signal changes from +/- 75 KHz to +/- 90 KHz from the carrier depending on the modulation
frequency.
Commercial FM stations are therefore spaced 200 KHz apart to avoid interference for all
modulating frequencies. In order to even isolate the stations further, FCC only assigns alternate
stations for a certain area. For example, in the Detroit/Ann Arbor area, the stations are 107.1,
107.5 (and 93.1, 93.5, 93.9, ...) spaced 400 KHz apart. In adjoining areas, such as Toledo to the
south (or Lansing to the north, but very far from Toledo), the stations are also centered at 400
KHz, but they are 107.3, 107.7, etc... (and 93.3, 93.7, 94.1 etc...). This allows inexpensive radios
with bad-to-acceptable selectivity to receive FM stations without interference from adjoining
stations (since they are 400 KHz away and not only 200 KHz away). The 200 KHz-away stations
are very far and therefore their signals would appear as noise in the receiver. However, as
mentioned before, FM receivers have excellent noise rejection and therefore are not affected by
the far-away stations.

VI SEMESTER ECE
24

FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage- -- -Controlled Oscillator: Controlled Oscillator: Controlled Oscillator: Controlled Oscillator:
1. Connect the LM 566C as shown below. The center frequency is set by R
o
, C
o
, V
5
/V
+
. Set V
+

(V
cc
) to 10 V.
2. Measure the output voltage V
o
(pin #4). It should be a triangular wave with a frequency of
100-110 KHz and Vppk around 1.8 V.
3. Connect the signal generator to the modulation input (V
s
) and set it to a sine wave
with f = 5 KHz and Vppk= 200 mV. Basically, the voltage at pin #5 is now varying
by +/- 0.1 V.
The output frequency of the LM 566 will vary by +/- 10 KHz (this is the maximum deviation).
This is the case of m
f
= 2 (since f
m
=5 KHz). Notice how the amplitude of the FM signal
remains constant. Look at the output in frequency domain and check that this is correct (do
not make any sideband measurements). Choose a center frequency of 244 KHz. You will see
other sidebands due to the third harmonic of the triangular wave.
4. Change from a sine wave to a square wave with Vppk = 400 mV. You will have now only two
frequencies, one around 80 KHz and one around 120 KHz. This is an FSK signal, which is
generated by the VCO.
5. Disconnect the connection to pin #5.
6. Connect the circuit shown below to the LM 566. Notice the 10 K/560 voltage divider at
the output of the LM 566, and the 0.1 F capacitor DC block between the LM 566 and the
LM 386.
7. Measure the output of the LM 386. It should be a nice triangular wave with Vppk around
1.6 V
8. Connect a 1.6 nF capacitor in parallel with the 560 resistor. This capacitor results in a
corner frequency of around 180 KHz and therefore passes the 100 KHz components and
attenuates the third and fifth harmonic components of the triangular wave. Look at the
output waveform of the LM 386 and notice that it now resembles a sine wave.
9. Measure the frequency components of the LM 386 output for the quasi-sine waveform
(Vppk, fundamental and second/third harmonic levels only)
10. Connect V
s
to pin #5 of the LM 566 through the 4.7 F DC-block capacitor, and set V
s
to 200
mV
ppk
, f = 5 KHz sinewave. Measure the output voltage of the LM 386. Look at the resulting
waveform and plot the graph.
FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage FM Generation Using LM 566C Voltage- -- -Controlled Os Controlled Os Controlled Os Controlled Oscillator: cillator: cillator: cillator:


VI SEMESTER ECE
25

FM Demodulation Using LM 565 Phase Locked Loop: FM Demodulation Using LM 565 Phase Locked Loop: FM Demodulation Using LM 565 Phase Locked Loop: FM Demodulation Using LM 565 Phase Locked Loop:


Modulated
Output

VI SEMESTER ECE
26

8. PCB LAYOUT DESIGN USING CAD 8. PCB LAYOUT DESIGN USING CAD 8. PCB LAYOUT DESIGN USING CAD 8. PCB LAYOUT DESIGN USING CAD
Aim Aim Aim Aim
Drawing the schematic of simple electronic circuit and design of PCB layout using CAD

Pcb Layout Design Using Cad Pcb Layout Design Using Cad Pcb Layout Design Using Cad Pcb Layout Design Using Cad

Preparing a Capture design for Layout is a two-part process. First, you must create a valid
design and then create a netlist in an .MNL format for Layout. After you have prepared your
Capture design, you can create a new Layout design using the .MNL netlist.

Preparing a Capture design for Layout is a two-part process. First, you must create a valid
design. Then, you need to create a netlist in a .MNL format in Capture and read it into Layout.

To prepare your Capture design To prepare your Capture design To prepare your Capture design To prepare your Capture design

If you want to send part or net information from a Capture schematic design, add a user-defined
property with a name from the property tables and assign a value to the property. The property
name must be in uppercase, as given in the tables.

1 On your schematic page, select the objects you want to send to Layout, then right-click
and choose Edit Properties from the pop-up menu. The property editor will appear.

2 Click the down arrow on the Filter by drop-down list to expand the list, and select Layout.
The columns in the spreadsheet change to display properties available in Layout. The cells
below each property column heading appear white with hash marks, indicating that these
properties are not yet assigned to the part or net.

3 Assign values to the properties of the selected objects on the schematic by clicking on a
cell, typing in the value, and pressing ENTER or clicking Apply. The hash marks disappear and
the property is applied to the object.

4 Assign PCB footprints to each of your schematic parts. Use only Layout footprint names,
selecting from those shown in the OrCAD Layout for Windows Footprint Libraries, or those in
your custom footprint libraries.

The pin numbers for pin names where no number exists must match the pad names on the
Layout footprint.
Layout cannot accept PCB footprint names or part values that include spaces. Check your
design to eliminate spaces or tabs in these property values. Capture's spreadsheet editor is very
useful for this.
The layer names you use as property values must be among the standard Layout layer
names. The via names you use as property values must be among the standard Layout via
names.

VI SEMESTER ECE
27

To create a netlist for Layout To create a netlist for Layout To create a netlist for Layout To create a netlist for Layout

1 Open the Capture project.

2 Select the design in the project manager and choose Create Netlist from the Tools menu.
The Create Netlist dialog box appears.

3 Choose the Layout tab. The Layout tab appears.

4 In the PCB Footprint group box, ensure that {PCB Footprint} appears in the Combined
property string text box.

5 In the Netlist File text box, ensure that the path to the netlist file is correct. The netlist
takes the name of the Capture project and adds a .MNL extension.

6 Click OK. Capture processes the netlist, then creates an .MNL file and saves it in the
directory specified in step 6.

It is not necessary to run Capture and Layout simultaneously to take advantage of forward
annotation.
If Capture is unable to create a .MNL file, the errors are written to the Capture session log
and to the .ERR file in the target directory for the .MNL file.

Preparing PCB layout using Autoroute Preparing PCB layout using Autoroute Preparing PCB layout using Autoroute Preparing PCB layout using Autoroute
This command systematically autoroutes your printed circuit board design from start to
finish, automatically sweeping through the design. If you have set any of the fanout commands
(Fanout Board, Fanout DRC/Route Box
, or Fanout Component) before you choose the Autoroute Board command, Layout executes the
appropriate fanout operation before any routing sweeps.

You set routing priorities and characteristics using the Route Sweep, Route Pass, and Route
Layer commands.

You can interrupt autorouting at any time by pressing ESC
, then restart by choosing the Resume Routing command.

If you want to autoroute a design after you have routed it to completion, you must edit the Route
Pass spreadsheet and change the passes from Done to Yes.


VI SEMESTER ECE
28
Circuit Diagram Circuit Diagram Circuit Diagram Circuit Diagram

U1
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
R5
U2
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
R9
R7
R4
R1
U3
AD741
3
2
7
4
6
1
5
+
-
V
+
V
-
OUT
OS1
OS2
0
R2
R8
R10
R3

PCB Layout PCB Layout PCB Layout PCB Layout

Top layer Top layer Top layer Top layer


VI SEMESTER ECE
29

Bottom layer Bottom layer Bottom layer Bottom layer

Top & Bottom layer Top & Bottom layer Top & Bottom layer Top & Bottom layer



VI SEMESTER ECE
30

9. MICROCONTROLLER BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN MICROCONTROLLER BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN MICROCONTROLLER BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN MICROCONTROLLER BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN
Aim Aim Aim Aim
Design of microcontroller based system for simple applications like security
systems combination lock etc.

Algorithm Algorithm Algorithm Algorithm
Microcontroller based security systems

1. Read number of bytes in the password
2. Initialize the password
3. Initialize the Keyboard Display IC (8279) to get key and Display
4. Blank the display
5. Read the key from user
6. Compare with the initialized password
7. If it is not equal, Display E to indicate Error.
8. Repeat the steps 6 and 7 to read next key
9. If enterer password equal to initialized password, Display O to indicate open.

Program Program Program Program
LABEL LABEL LABEL LABEL MNEMONICS MNEMONICS MNEMONICS MNEMONICS OPERANT OPERANT OPERANT OPERANT COMMENTS COMMENTS COMMENTS COMMENTS
MOV 51H,#
MOV 52H,#
MOV 53H,#
MOV 54H,#
MOV R1,#51
MOV R0,#50
MOV R3,#04
MOV R2,#08
MOV DPTR,#FFC2
MOV A,#00
MOVX @DPTR,A
MOV A,#CC
MOVX @DPTR,A
MOV A,#90
MOVX @DPTR,A
MOV A,#FF
MOV DPTR,#FFCO
LOOP: MOVX @DPTR,A

VI SEMESTER ECE
31
DJNZ R2,LOOP
AGAIN: MOV DPTR,#FFC2
WAIT: MOVX A,@DPTR
ANL A,#07
JZ WAIT
MOV A,#40
MOVX @DPTR,A
MOV DPTR,#FFCO
MOVX A,@DPTR
MOV @R0,A
MOV A,@R1
CJNE A,50H,NEQ
INC R1
DJNZ R3,AGAIN
MOV DPTR,#FFCO
MOV A,#OC
MOVX @DPTR,A
XX: SJMP XX

NEQ: MOV DPTR,#FFCO
MOV A,#68
MOVX @DPTR,A
YY: SJMP YY

Observation Observation Observation Observation

Result Result Result Result

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Electronic System Design Lab Manual

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