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FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

Introduction
Advantages of Fiber Optics
Optica Trans!itters
T"e Optica Fiber
#osses in Optica Fiber
Optica Fiber Band$idt"
Fiber Optic Cabe Construction
Ot"er T%pes of Fibers
Optica Connectors
Optica Receivers
&esigning a S%ste!
'( Introduction)
Our current *age of tec"noog%* is t"e resut
of !an% briiant inventions and discoveries+ but it
is our abiit% to trans!it infor!ation+ and t"e
!edia $e use to do it+ t"at is per"aps !ost
responsibe for its evoution( Progressing fro! t"e
copper $ire of a centur% ago to toda%,s fiber optic
cabe+ our increasing abiit% to trans!it !ore
infor!ation+ !ore -uic.% and over onger
distances "as e/panded t"e boundaries of our
tec"noogica deveop!ent in a areas(
Toda%,s o$0oss gass fiber optic cabe offers
a!ost uni!ited band$idt" and uni-ue advantages
over a previous% deveoped trans!ission !edia(
T"e basic point0to0point fiber optic trans!ission
s%ste! consists of t"ree basic ee!ents) t"e optica
trans!itter+ t"e fiber optic cabe and t"e optica
receiver( 1See Figure '(2
T"e Optica Trans!itter)
T"e trans!itter converts an eectrica anaog
or digita signa into a corresponding optica signa(
T"e source of t"e optica signa can be eit"er a
ig"t e!itting diode+ or a soid state aser diode(
T"e !ost popuar $aveengt"s of operation for
optica trans!itters are 345+ '6'5+ or '445
nano!eters( Figure '
Most Fiber in.7 trans!ission e-uip!ent
!anufactured b% Co!!unications Speciaties
operates at $aveengt"s of 345 or '6'5n!(
T"e Fiber Optic Cabe)
T"e cabe consists of one or !ore gass
fibers+ $"ic" act as $aveguides for t"e optica
signa( Fiber optic cabe is si!iar to eectrica
cabe in its construction+ but provides specia
protection for t"e optica fiber $it"in( For s%ste!s
re-uiring trans!ission over distances of !an%
.io!eters+ or $"ere t$o or !ore fiber optic cabes
!ust be 8oined toget"er+ an optica spice is
co!!on% used(
T"e Optica Receiver) T"e receiver converts
t"e optica signa bac. into a repica of t"e origina
eectrica signa( T"e detector of t"e optica signa
is eit"er a PIN0t%pe p"otodiode or avaanc"e0t%pe
p"otodiode(
Most Fiber in.7 receiving e-uip!ent uses
PIN0t%pe p"otodiodes(
9( Advantages of Fiber Optic S%ste!s)
Fiber optic trans!ission s%ste!s 0 a fiber
optic trans!itter and receiver+ connected b% fiber
optic cabe 0 offer a $ide range of benefits not
offered b% traditiona copper $ire or coa/ia cabe(
T"ese incude)
T"e abiit% to carr% !uc" !ore infor!ation
and deiver it $it" greater fideit% t"an eit"er
copper $ire or coa/ia cabe(
Fiber optic cabe can support !uc" "ig"er
data rates+ and at greater distances+ t"an coa/ia
cabe+ !a.ing it idea for trans!ission of seria
digita data(
T"e fiber is tota% i!!une to virtua% a
.inds of interference+ incuding ig"tning+ and $i
not conduct eectricit%( It can t"erefore co!e in
direct contact $it" "ig" votage eectrica
e-uip!ent and po$er ines( It $i aso not create
ground oops of an% .ind(
'
As t"e basic fiber is !ade of gass+ it $i not
corrode and is unaffected b% !ost c"e!icas( It can
be buried direct% in !ost .inds of soi or e/posed
to !ost corrosive at!osp"eres in c"e!ica pants
$it"out significant concern(
Since t"e on% carrier in t"e fiber is ig"t+
t"ere is no possibiit% of a spar. fro! a bro.en
fiber( Even in t"e !ost e/posive of at!osp"eres+
t"ere is no fire "a:ard+ and no danger of eectrica
s"oc. to personne repairing bro.en fibers(
Fiber optic cabes are virtua% unaffected b%
outdoor at!osp"eric conditions+ ao$ing t"e! to
be as"ed direct% to teep"one poes or e/isting
eectrica cabes $it"out concern for e/traneous
signa pic.up(
A fiber optic cabe+ even one t"at contains
!an% fibers+ is usua% !uc" s!aer and ig"ter in
$eig"t t"an a $ire or coa/ia cabe $it" si!iar
infor!ation carr%ing capacit%( It is easier to "ande
and insta+ and uses ess duct space( 1It can
fre-uent% be instaed $it"out ducts(2Fiber optic
cabe is idea for secure co!!unications s%ste!s
because it is ver% difficut to tap but ver% eas% to
!onitor( In addition+ t"ere is absoute% no
eectrica radiation fro! a fiber(
6( OPTICA# TRANSMITTERS)
T"e basic optica trans!itter converts
eectrica input signas into !oduated ig"t for
trans!ission over an optica fiber( &epending on
t"e nature of t"is signa+ t"e resuting !oduated
ig"t !a% be turned on and off or !a% be inear%
varied in intensit% bet$een t$o predeter!ined
eves( Figure 9 s"o$s a grap"ic representation of
t"ese t$o basic sc"e!es(

T"e !ost co!!on devices used as t"e ig"t
source in optica trans!itters are t"e ig"t e!itting
diode 1#E&2 and t"e aser diode 1#&2( In a fiber
optic s%ste!+ t"ese devices are !ounted in a
pac.age t"at enabes an optica fiber to be paced
in ver% cose pro/i!it% to t"e ig"t e!itting region
in order to coupe as !uc" ig"t as possibe into t"e
fiber( In so!e cases+ t"e e!itter is even fitted $it"
a tin% sp"erica ens to coect and focus *ever% ast
drop* of ig"t onto t"e fiber and in ot"er cases+ a
fiber is *pigtaied* direct% onto t"e actua surface
of t"e e!itter(
#E&s "ave reative% arge e!itting areas and
as a resut are not as good ig"t sources as #&s(
;o$ever+ t"e% are $ide% used for s"ort to
!oderate trans!ission distances because t"e% are
!uc" !ore econo!ica+ -uite inear in ter!s of
ig"t output versus eectrica current input and
stabe in ter!s of ig"t output versus a!bient
operating te!perature( #&s+ on t"e ot"er "and+
"ave ver% s!a ig"t e!itting surfaces and can
coupe !an% ti!es !ore po$er to t"e fiber t"an
#E&s( #&s are aso inear in ter!s of ig"t output
versus eectrica current input+ but uni.e #E&s+
t"e% are not stabe over $ide operating te!perature
ranges and re-uire !ore eaborate circuitr% to
ac"ieve acceptabe stabiit%( In addition+ t"eir
added cost !a.es t"e! pri!ari% usefu for
appications t"at re-uire t"e trans!ission of signas
over ong distances(
#E&s and #&s operate in t"e infrared portion
of t"e eectro!agnetic spectru! so t"at t"eir ig"t
output is usua% invisibe to t"e "u!an e%e( T"eir
operating $aveengt"s are c"osen to be co!patibe
$it" t"e o$est trans!ission oss $aveengt"s of
gass fibers and "ig"est sensitivit% ranges of
p"otodiodes( T"e !ost co!!on $aveengt"s in
use toda% are 345 nano!eters+ '6'5 nano!eters+
and '445 nano!eters( Bot" #E&s and #&s are
avaiabe in a t"ree $aveengt"s(
#E&s and #&s+ as previous% stated+ are
!oduated in one of t$o $a%s< on and off+ or
inear%( Figure 6 s"o$s si!pified circuitr% to
ac"ieve eit"er !et"od $it" an #E& or #&( As can
be seen fro!
9
Figure 6A+ a transistor is used to s$itc" t"e #E&
or #& on and off in step $it" an input digita
signa( T"is signa can be converted fro! a!ost
an% digita for!at b% t"e appropriate circuitr%+ into
t"e correct base drive for t"e transistor(
Overa speed is t"en deter!ined b% t"e
circuitr% and t"e in"erent speed of t"e #E& or #&(
Used in t"is !anner+ speeds of severa "undred
!ega"ert: are readi% ac"ieved for #E&s and
t"ousands of !ega"ert: for #&s( Te!perature
stabii:ation circuitr% for t"e #& "as been o!itted
fro! t"is e/a!pe for si!picit%( #E&s do not
nor!a% re-uire an% te!perature stabii:ation(
#inear !oduation of an #E& or #& is
acco!pis"ed b% t"e operationa a!pifier circuit
of figure 6B( T"e inverting input is used to supp%
t"e !oduating drive to t"e #E& or #& $"ie t"e
non0inverting input suppies a &C bias reference(
Once again te!perature stabii:ation circuitr% for
t"e #& "as been o!itted fro! t"is e/a!pe for
si!picit%(
&igita on=off !oduation of an #E& or #&
can ta.e a nu!ber of for!s( T"e si!pest+ as $e
"ave aread% seen+ is ig"t0on for a ogic *'*+ and
ig"t0off for a ogic *5*( T$o ot"er co!!on for!s
are puse $idt" !oduation and puse rate
!oduation( In t"e for!er+ a constant strea! of
puses is produced $it" one $idt" signif%ing a
ogic *'* and anot"er $idt"+ a ogic *5*( In t"e
atter+ t"e puses are a of t"e sa!e $idt" but t"e
puse rate c"anges to differentiate bet$een ogic
*'* and ogic *5*(
Anaog !oduation can aso ta.e a nu!ber of
for!s( T"e si!pest is intensit% !oduation $"ere
t"e brig"tness of an #E& is varied in direct step
$it" t"e variations of t"e trans!itted signa(
In ot"er !et"ods+ an RF carrier is first
fre-uenc% !oduated $it" anot"er signa or+ in
so!e cases+ severa RF carriers are separate%
!oduated $it" separate signas+ t"en a are
co!bined and trans!itted as one co!pe/
$avefor!( Figure > s"o$s a of t"e above
!oduation !et"ods as a function of ig"t output(
T"e e-uivaent operating fre-uenc% of ig"t+
$"ic" is+ after a+ eectro!agnetic radiation+ is
e/tre!e% "ig" 0 on t"e order of '+555+555 ?;:(
T"e output band$idt" of t"e ig"t produced b%
#E&s and #aser diodes is -uite $ide(
Unfortunate% toda%,s tec"noog% does not
ao$ t"is band$idt" to be seective% used in t"e
$a% t"at conventiona radio fre-uenc%
trans!issions are utii:ed(
Rat"er+ t"e entire optica band$idt" is turned
on and off in t"e sa!e $a% t"at ear% *spar.
trans!itters* 1in t"e infanc% of radio2+ turned $ide
portions of t"e RF spectru! on and off( ;o$ever+
$it" ti!e+ researc"ers $i overco!e t"is obstace
and *co"erent trans!issions*+ as t"e% are caed+
$i beco!e t"e direction in $"ic" t"e fiber optic
fied progresses(
>( T"e optica fiber 1#aunc"ing t"e ig"t2)
Once t"e trans!itter "as converted t"e
eectrica input signa into $"atever for! of
!oduated ig"t is desired+ t"e ig"t !ust be
*aunc"ed* into t"e optica fiber(
As previous% !entioned+ t"ere are t$o
!et"ods $"ereb% ig"t is couped into a fiber( One
is b% pigtaiing( T"e ot"er is b% pacing t"e fiber,s
tip in ver% cose pro/i!it% to an #E& or #&( @"en
t"e pro/i!it% t%pe of couping is e!po%ed+ t"e
a!ount of ig"t t"at $i enter t"e fiber is a
function of one of four factors) t"e intensit% of t"e
#E& or #&+ t"e area of t"e ig"t e!itting surface+
t"e acceptance ange of t"e fiber+ and t"e osses
6
due to refections and scattering( Foo$ing is a
s"ort discussion on eac")
Intensit%) T"e intensit% of an #E& or #& is a
function of its design and is usua% specified in
ter!s of tota po$er output at a particuar drive
current( So!eti!es+ t"is figure is given as actua
po$er t"at is deivered into a particuar t%pe of
fiber( A ot"er factors being e-ua+ !ore po$er
provided b% an #E& or #& transates to !ore
po$er *aunc"ed* into t"e fiber(
Area) T"e a!ount of ig"t *aunc"ed* into a
fiber is a function of t"e area of t"e ig"t e!itting
surface co!pared to t"e area of t"e ig"t accepting
core of t"e fiber( T"e s!aer t"is ratio is+ t"e !ore
ig"t t"at is *aunc"ed* into t"e fiber(
Acceptance Ange) T"e acceptance ange of a
fiber is e/pressed in ter!s of nu!eric aperture(
T"e nu!erica aperture 1NA2 is defined as t"e sine
of one "af of t"e acceptance ange of t"e fiber(
T%pica NA vaues are 5(' to 5(> $"ic" correspond
to acceptance anges of '' degrees to >A degrees(
Optica fibers $i on% trans!it ig"t t"at enters at
an ange t"at is e-ua to or ess t"an t"e acceptance
ange for t"e particuar fiber(
Ot"er #osses) Ot"er t"an opa-ue obstructions
on t"e surface of a fiber+ t"ere is a$a%s a oss due
to refection fro! t"e entrance and e/it surface of
an% fiber( T"is oss is caed t"e Fresne #oss and
is e-ua to about >B for eac" transition bet$een air
and gass( T"ere are specia couping ges t"at can
be appied bet$een gass surfaces to reduce t"is
oss $"en necessar%(
4( T"e Optica Fiber0#osses in Optica
Fiber )
Ot"er t"an t"e osses e/"ibited $"en
couping #E&s or #&s into a fiber+ t"ere are osses
t"at occur as t"e ig"t traves t"roug" t"e actua
fiber( T"e core of an optica fiber is !ade of utra0
pure o$0oss gass( Considering t"at ig"t "as to
pass t"roug" t"ousands of feet or !ore of fiber
core+ t"e purit% of t"e gass !ust be e/tre!e%
"ig"( To appreciate t"e purit% of t"is gass+
consider t"e gass in co!!on $indo$panes( @e
t"in. of $indo$panes as *cear+* ao$ing ig"t to
pass free% t"roug"+ but t"is is because t"e% are
on% '='A to C inc" t"ic.( In contrast to t"is cear
appearance+ t"e edges of a bro.en $indo$pane
oo. green and a!ost opa-ue( In t"is case+ t"e
ig"t is passing edge$ise into t"e gass+ t"roug"
severa inc"es( Dust i!agine "o$ itte ig"t $oud
be abe to pass t"roug" a t"ousand feet of $indo$
gassE
Most genera purpose optica fiber e/"ibits
osses of > to A dB per .! 1a A5B to F4B oss per
.!2 at a $aveengt" of 345n!( @"en t"e
$aveengt" is c"anged to '655n!+ t"e oss drops
to about 6 to > dB 145B to A5B2 per .!( At
'445n!+ it is even o$er( Pre!iu! fibers are
avaiabe $it" oss figures of 6 dB 145B2 per .! at
345n! and ' dB 195B2 per .! at '655n!( #osses
of 5(4 dB 1'5B2 per .! at '445 n! are not
unco!!on( T"ese osses are pri!ari% t"e resut of
rando! scattering of ig"t and absorption b% actua
i!purities $it"in t"e gass(
Anot"er source of oss $it"in t"e fiber is due
to e/cessive bending+ $"ic" causes so!e of t"e
ig"t to eave t"e core area of t"e fiber( T"e s!aer
t"e bend radius+ t"e greater t"e oss( Because of
t"is+ bends aong a fiber optic cabe s"oud "ave a
turning radius of at east an inc"(
A( Optica Fiber Band$idt")
A of t"e above attenuation factors resut in
si!pe attenuation t"at is independent of
band$idt"( In ot"er $ords+ a 6 dB oss !eans t"at
45B of t"e ig"t $i be ost $"et"er it is being
!oduated at '5 ;: or '55 M;:(T"ere is an actua
band$idt" i!itation of optica fiber "o$ever+ and
t"is is !easured in M;: per .!( T"e easiest $a%
to understand $"% t"is oss occurs is to refer to
Figure A(
As Figure A iustrates+ a ra% of ig"t t"at
enters a fiber at a s!a ange 1M'2 "as a s"orter
pat" t"roug" t"e fiber t"an ig"t $"ic" enters at an
ange cose to t"e !a/i!u! acceptance ange
1M92( As a resut+ different *ra%s* 1or !odes2 of
>
ig"t reac" t"e end of t"e fiber at different ti!es+
even t"oug" t"e origina source is t"e sa!e #E& or
#&( T"is produces a *s!earing* effect or
uncertaint% as to $"ere t"e start and end of a puse
occurs at t"e output end of t"e fiber 0 $"ic" in turn
i!its t"e !a/i!u! fre-uenc% t"at can be
trans!itted(
In s"ort+ t"e ess !odes+ t"e "ig"er t"e
band$idt" of t"e fiber( T"e $a% t"at t"e nu!ber of
!odes is reduced is b% !a.ing t"e core of t"e fiber
as s!a as possibe( Singe0!ode fiber+ $it" a core
!easuring on% 3 to '5 !icrons in dia!eter+ "as a
!uc" "ig"er band$idt" because it ao$s on% a
fe$ !odes of ig"t to propagate aong its core(
Fibers $it" a $ider core dia!eter+ suc" as 45 and
A9(4 !icrons+ ao$ !an% !ore !odes to
propagate and are t"erefore referred to as
*!uti!ode* fibers(
T%pica band$idt"s for co!!on fibers range
fro! a fe$ M;: per .! for ver% arge core fibers+
to "undreds of M;: per .! for standard
!uti!ode fiber+ to t"ousands of M;: per .! for
singe0!ode fibers( And as t"e engt" of fiber
increases+ its band$idt" $i decrease
proportiona%( For e/a!pe+ a fiber cabe t"at can
support 455 M;: band$idt" at a distance of one
.io!eter $i on% be abe to support 945 M;: at
9 .io!eters and '55 M;: at 4 .io!eters(
Because singe0!ode fiber "as suc" a "ig"
in"erent band$idt"+ t"e *band$idt" reduction as a
function of engt"* factor is not a rea issue of
concern $"en using t"is t%pe of fiber( ;o$ever+ it
is a consideration $"en using !uti!ode fiber+ as
its !a/i!u! band$idt" often fas $it"in t"e
range of t"e signas !ost often used in point0to0
point trans!ission s%ste!s(
F( Fiber Optics Cabe Construction )
Fiber optic cabe co!es in a si:es and
s"apes( #i.e coa/ia cabe+ its actua construction
is a function of its intended appication( It aso "as
a si!iar *fee* and appearance( Figure F is a
s.etc" of a t%pica fiber optic cabe(
T"e basic optica fiber is provided $it" a
buffer coating $"ic" is !ain% used for protection
during t"e !anufacturing process( T"is fiber is
t"en encosed in a centra PGC oose tube $"ic"
ao$s t"e fiber to fe/ and bend+ particuar% $"en
going around corners or $"en being pued t"roug"
conduits( Around t"e oose tube is a braided Hevar
%arn strengt" !e!ber $"ic" absorbs !ost of t"e
strain put on t"e fiber during instaation( Fina%+ a
PGC outer 8ac.et seas t"e cabe and prevents
!oisture fro! entering( Basic optica fiber is idea
for !ost inter0buiding appications $"ere e/tre!e
ruggedness is not re-uired( In addition to t"e
*basic* variet%+ it is aso avaiabe for 8ust about
an% appication+ incuding direct buried+ ar!ored+
rodent resistant cabe $it" stee outer 8ac.et+ and
U# approved penu! grade cabe( Coor0coded+
!uti0fiber cabe is aso avaiabe(
3( Ot"er t%pes of fibers)

T$o additiona t%pes of fiber 0 ver% arge
core dia!eter siica fiber and fiber !ade
co!pete% of pastic 0 are nor!a% not e!po%ed
for data trans!ission(
Siica fiber it t%pica% used in appications
invoving "ig" po$er asers and sensors+ suc" as
!edica aser0surger%(A0pastic fiber is usefu for
ver% s"ort data in.s $it"in e-uip!ent because it
!a% be used $it" reative% ine/pensive #E&s( An
isoation s%ste! for use as part of a "ig" votage
po$er supp% $oud be a t%pica e/a!pe of an
appication for pastic fiber(
I( Optica Connectors)
Optica connectors are t"e !eans b% $"ic"
fiber optic cabe is usua% connected to perip"era
e-uip!ent and to ot"er fibers( T"ese connectors
are si!iar to t"eir eectrica counterparts in
function and out$ard appearance but are actua%
4
"ig" precision devices( In operation+ t"e connector
centers t"e s!a fiber so t"at its ig"t gat"ering
core ies direct% over and in ine $it" t"e ig"t
source 1or ot"er fiber2 to toerances of a fe$ ten
t"ousandt"s of an inc"( Since t"e core si:e of
co!!on 45 !icron fiber is on% 5(559 inc"es+ t"e
need for suc" e/tre!e toerances is obvious(
T"ere are !an% different t%pes of optica
connectors in use toda%( T"e SMA connector+
$"ic" $as first deveoped before t"e invention of
singe0!ode fiber+ $as t"e !ost popuar t%pe of
connector unti recent%( Figure 3 s"o$s an
e/poded vie$ of t"e parts of t"is connector(
T"e !ost popuar t%pe of !uti!ode
connector in use toda% is t"e ST connector( Initia%
deveoped b% ATJT for teeco!!unications
purposes+ t"is connector uses a t$ist oc. t%pe of
design( A t%pica !ated pair of ST connectors $i
e/"ibit ess t"an ' dB 195B2 of oss and does not
re-uire aign!ent seeves or ot"er si!iar devices(
T"e incusion of an *anti0rotation tab* assures t"at
ever% ti!e t"e connectors are !ated+ t"e fibers
a$a%s return to t"e sa!e rotationa position
assuring constant+ unifor! perfor!ance(
ST connectors are avaiabe for bot"
!uti!ode and singe0!ode fibers+ t"e pri!ar%
difference being t"e overa toerances( Note t"at
!uti!ode ST connectors $i on% perfor!
proper% $it" !uti!ode fibers( More e/pensive
singe0!ode ST connectors $i perfor! proper%
$it" bot" singe0!ode and !uti!ode fibers(
T"e instaation procedure for t"e ST
connector is not difficut and can be easi%
!astered b% an% s%ste! instaer( Figure I s"o$s
so!e of t"e !a8or features of t"e t%pica ST
connector(
'5( Optica receiver )
T"e basic optica receiver converts t"e
!oduated ig"t co!ing fro! t"e optica fiber bac.
into a repica of t"e origina signa appied to t"e
trans!itter(
T"e detector of t"is !oduated ig"t is
usua% a p"otodiode of eit"er t"e PIN or t"e
Avaanc"e t%pe( T"is detector is !ounted in a
connector si!iar to t"e one used for t"e #E& or
#&( P"otodiodes usua% "ave a arge sensitive
detecting area t"at can be severa "undred !icrons
in dia!eter( T"is rea/es t"e need for specia
precautions in centering t"e fiber in t"e receiving
connector and !a.es t"e *aign!ent* concern
!uc" ess critica t"an it is in optica trans!itters(
Since t"e a!ount of ig"t t"at e/its a fiber is
-uite s!a+ optica receivers usua% e!po% "ig"
gain interna a!pifiers( Because of t"is+ optica
receivers can be easi% overoaded( For t"is reason+
it is i!portant on% to t"e si:e fiber specified for
use $it" a given s%ste!( If+ for e/a!pe+ a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
singe0!ode fiber $ere used $it" !uti!ode fiber+
t"e arge a!ount of ig"t present at t"e output of
t"e fiber 1due to over0couping at t"e ig"t source2
$oud overoad t"e receiver and cause a severe%
distorted output signa( Si!iar%+ if a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
!uti!ode fiber $ere used $it" singe0!ode fiber+
not enoug" ig"t $oud reac" t"e receiver+ resuting
in eit"er an e/cessive% nois% output signa or no
signa at a( T"e on% ti!e an% sort of receiver
*!is!atc"ing* !ig"t be considered is $"en t"ere
A
is so !uc" e/cessive oss in t"e fiber t"at t"e e/tra
4 to '4 dB of ig"t couped into a !uti!ode fiber
b% a singe0!ode ig"t source is t"e on% c"ance to
ac"ieve proper operation( ;o$ever+ t"is is an
e/tre!e case and is not nor!a% reco!!ended(
As in t"e case of trans!itters+ optica
receivers are avaiabe in bot" anaog and digita
versions( Bot" t%pes usua% e!po% an anaog
prea!pifier stage+ foo$ed b% eit"er an anaog or
digita output stage 1depending on t"e t%pe of
receiver2( Figure '5 is a functiona diagra! of a
si!pe anaog optica receiver(
T"e first stage is an operationa a!pifier
connected as a current0to0votage converter( T"is
stage ta.es t"e tin% current fro! t"e p"otodiode
and converts it into a votage+ usua% in t"e
!iivot range( T"e ne/t stage is a si!pe
operationa votage a!pifier( ;ere t"e signa is
raised to t"e desired output eve( T"e basic optica
receiver converts t"e !oduated ig"t co!ing fro!
t"e optica fiber bac. into a repica of t"e origina
signa appied to t"e trans!itter(
T"e detector of t"is !oduated ig"t is
usua% a p"otodiode of eit"er t"e PIN or t"e
Avaanc"e t%pe( T"is detector is !ounted in a
connector si!iar to t"e one used for t"e #E& or
#&( P"otodiodes usua% "ave a arge sensitive
detecting area t"at can be severa "undred !icrons
in dia!eter( T"is rea/es t"e need for specia
precautions in centering t"e fiber in t"e receiving
connector and !a.es t"e *aign!ent* concern
!uc" ess critica t"an it is in optica trans!itters(
Since t"e a!ount of ig"t t"at e/its a fiber is
-uite s!a+ optica receivers usua% e!po% "ig"
gain interna a!pifiers( Because of t"is+ optica
receivers can be easi% overoaded( For t"is reason+
it is i!portant on% to t"e si:e fiber specified for
use $it" a given s%ste!( If+ for e/a!pe+ a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
singe0!ode fiber $ere used $it" !uti!ode fiber+
t"e arge a!ount of ig"t present at t"e output of
t"e fiber 1due to over0couping at t"e ig"t source2
$oud overoad t"e receiver and cause a severe%
distorted output signa( Si!iar%+ if a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
!uti!ode fiber $ere used $it" singe0!ode fiber+
not enoug" ig"t $oud reac" t"e receiver+ resuting
in eit"er an e/cessive% nois% output signa or no
signa at a( T"e on% ti!e an% sort of receiver
*!is!atc"ing* !ig"t be considered is $"en t"ere
is so !uc" e/cessive oss in t"e fiber t"at t"e e/tra
4 to '4 dB of ig"t couped into a !uti!ode fiber
b% a singe0!ode ig"t source is t"e on% c"ance to
ac"ieve proper operation( ;o$ever+ t"is is an
e/tre!e case and is not nor!a% reco!!ended(
As in t"e case of trans!itters+ optica
receivers are avaiabe in bot" anaog and digita
versions( Bot" t%pes usua% e!po% an anaog
prea!pifier stage+ foo$ed b% eit"er an anaog or
digita output stage 1depending on t"e t%pe of
receiver2( Figure '5 is a functiona diagra! of a
si!pe anaog optica receiver(
T"e first stage is an operationa a!pifier
connected as a current0to0votage converter( T"is
stage ta.es t"e tin% current fro! t"e p"otodiode
and converts it into a votage+ usua% in t"e
!iivot range( T"e ne/t stage is a si!pe
operationa votage a!pifier( ;ere t"e signa is
raised to t"e desired output eve(
T"e basic optica receiver converts t"e
!oduated ig"t co!ing fro! t"e optica fiber bac.
into a repica of t"e origina signa appied to t"e
trans!itter(
T"e detector of t"is !oduated ig"t is
usua% a p"otodiode of eit"er t"e PIN or t"e
Avaanc"e t%pe( T"is detector is !ounted in a
connector si!iar to t"e one used for t"e #E& or
#&( P"otodiodes usua% "ave a arge sensitive
detecting area t"at can be severa "undred !icrons
in dia!eter( T"is rea/es t"e need for specia
precautions in centering t"e fiber in t"e receiving
connector and !a.es t"e *aign!ent* concern
!uc" ess critica t"an it is in optica trans!itters(
Since t"e a!ount of ig"t t"at e/its a fiber is
-uite s!a+ optica receivers usua% e!po% "ig"
gain interna a!pifiers( Because of t"is+ optica
receivers can be easi% overoaded( For t"is reason+
it is i!portant on% to t"e si:e fiber specified for
use $it" a given s%ste!( If+ for e/a!pe+ a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
singe0!ode fiber $ere used $it" !uti!ode fiber+
t"e arge a!ount of ig"t present at t"e output of
F
t"e fiber 1due to over0couping at t"e ig"t source2
$oud overoad t"e receiver and cause a severe%
distorted output signa( Si!iar%+ if a
trans!itter=receiver pair designed for use $it"
!uti!ode fiber $ere used $it" singe0!ode fiber+
not enoug" ig"t $oud reac" t"e receiver+ resuting
in eit"er an e/cessive% nois% output signa or no
signa at a( T"e on% ti!e an% sort of receiver
*!is!atc"ing* !ig"t be considered is $"en t"ere
is so !uc" e/cessive oss in t"e fiber t"at t"e e/tra
4 to '4 dB of ig"t couped into a !uti!ode fiber
b% a singe0!ode ig"t source is t"e on% c"ance to
ac"ieve proper operation( ;o$ever+ t"is is an
e/tre!e case and is not nor!a% reco!!ended(
As in t"e case of trans!itters+ optica
receivers are avaiabe in bot" anaog and digita
versions( Bot" t%pes usua% e!po% an anaog
prea!pifier stage+ foo$ed b% eit"er an anaog or
digita output stage 1depending on t"e t%pe of
receiver2( Figure '5 is a functiona diagra! of a
si!pe anaog optica receiver(
T"e first stage is an operationa a!pifier
connected as a current0to0votage converter( T"is
stage ta.es t"e tin% current fro! t"e p"otodiode
and converts it into a votage+ usua% in t"e
!iivot range( T"e ne/t stage is a si!pe
operationa votage a!pifier( ;ere t"e signa is
raised to t"e desired output eve(
Figure '' is a functiona diagra! of a si!pe
digita optica receiver( As in t"e case of t"e anaog
receiver+ t"e first stage is a current0to0votage
converter( T"e output of t"is stage+ "o$ever+ is fed
to a votage co!parator+ $"ic" produces a cean+
fast rise0ti!e digita output signa( T"e trigger
eve ad8ust!ent+ $"en it is present+ is used to
*touc" up* t"e point on t"e anaog signa $"ere t"e
co!parator s$itc"es( T"is ao$s t"e s%!!etr% of
t"e recovered digita signa to be tri!!ed as
accurate% as desired(
Additiona stages are often added to bot"
anaog and digita receivers to provide drivers for
coa/ia cabes+ protoco converters or a "ost of
ot"er functions in efforts to reproduce t"e origina
signa as accurate% as possibe(
It is i!portant to note t"at $"ie fiber optic
cabe is i!!une to a for!s of interference+ t"e
eectronic receiver is not( Because of t"is+ nor!a
precautions+ suc" as s"ieding and grounding+
s"oud be ta.en $"en using fiber optic eectronic
co!ponents(
''(&esigning a optica fiber )
@"en designing a fiber optic s%ste!+ t"ere
are !an% factors t"at !ust be considered 0 a of
$"ic" contribute to t"e fina goa of ensuring t"at
enoug" ig"t reac"es t"e receiver( @it"out t"e rig"t
a!ount of ig"t+ t"e entire s%ste! $i not operate
proper%( Figure '9 identifies !an% of t"ese factors
and considerations(

T"e foo$ing step0b%0step procedure s"oud
be foo$ed $"en designing an% s%ste!(
&eter!ine t"e correct optica trans!itter and
receiver co!bination based upon t"e signa to be
trans!itted 1Anaog+ &igita+ Audio+ Gideo+ RS0
969+ RS0>99+ RS0>34+ etc(2(
3
&eter!ine t"e operating po$er avaiabe
1AC+ &C+ etc(2(
&eter!ine t"e specia !odifications 1if an%2
necessar% 1I!pedances+ Band$idt"s+ Specia
Connectors+ Fiber Si:e+ etc(2(
Cacuate t"e tota optica oss 1in dB2 in t"e
s%ste! b% adding t"e cabe oss+ spice oss+ and
connector oss( T"ese para!eters s"oud be
avaiabe fro! t"e !anufacturer of t"e eectronics
and fiber(
Co!pare t"e oss figure obtained $it" t"e
ao$abe optica oss budget of t"e receiver( Be
certain to add a safet% !argin factor of at east 6
dB to t"e entire s%ste!(
C"ec. t"at t"e fiber band$idt" is ade-uate to
pass t"e signa desired(
If+ after perfor!ing t"e above cacuations+ it
is discovered t"at t"e fiber band$idt" is inade-uate
for trans!itting t"e re-uired signa t"e necessar%
distance+ it $i be necessar% eit"er to seect a
different trans!itter=receiver 1$aveengt"2
co!bination+ or consider t"e use of a o$er oss
pre!iu! fiber(
I

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