If youve ever seen a rainbow or a prism split what appears to be white light into its rainbow of color components,

youve seen
chromatic dispersion. (White light comes from a source that emits many wave lengths of EM Rad. Sunlight is white light.) In a
dispersive material, different wavelengths travel at different speeds, which is the same as saying that each wavelength of EM Rad
has a different refractive index in the material! The practical result of this, as predicted by Fermats Principle, is that no one path
is the shortest for all wavelengths in most optical systems. Different wavelengths of EM Rad always follows their own fastest
route though an optical system
If youve ever seen a rainbow or a prism split what appears to be white light into its rainbow of color components, youve seen
chromatic dispersion. (White light comes from a source that emits many wave lengths of EM Rad. Sunlight is white light.) In a
dispersive material, different wavelengths travel at different speeds, which is the same as saying that each wavelength of EM Rad
has a different refractive index in the material! The practical result of this, as predicted by Fermats Principle, is that no one path
is the shortest for all wavelengths in most optical systems. Different wavelengths of EM Rad always follows their own fastest
route though an optical system
Chromatic dispersion is especially important to researchers who are designing optical equipment like cameras, optical
microscopes, and telescopes. When a lens system is not carefully designed, the system will focus different colors of light at
different spots and this doesnt give a very good image! By planning the system carefully and using a combination of lenses
made out of different materials with different indices of refraction, these chromatic aberrations can be greatly minimized
Lens systems in sensitive equipment must be carefully designed to reduce the magnitude of chromatic dispersion and other
aberrations (more on aberrations later). One way to correct for chromatic aberrations is to form a compound lens called an
achromat. This doublet is made up of a positive lens that is made from crown glass, and a negative lens that is made from flint
glass. Crown glass has moderate dispersion and flint glass has higher dispersion. The positive crown glass is made into a positive
lens, and the flint glass is made into a negative lens. The powers of two lenses in contact add: P = P
1
+ P
2
so it is possible for the
doublet to have positive power if the power of the positive lens is greater than the power of the negative lens. The different
dispersions of the two glasses, combined with a careful adjustment of the curvatures of the two lenses can result in a compound
lens that is corrected for chromatic aberrations.
The effect of chromatic dispersion is also important to people who send short pulses, which are made up of many different
wavelengths, through optical waveguides, like optical fiber. Short pulses of EM Rad are used as a way of encoding data, like
voices during a telephone call and the information on this website, so that the data can be sent from one place to another. As the
pulse travels in the waveguide, some wavelengths of light travel faster than others. As the pulses travel down the waveguide,
they increase in width and overlap with one another. If they spread too much, it is difficult to tell where one pulse begins and the
other ends, and this results in information being lost. Researchers who work in the Communications and Fiber Optics fields of
optics are developing devices to combat the effects of dispersion. (Visit the Optoelectronics, Communications, and Fiber Optics
branch to learn more.)




What is Aging?
Aging, then, is the impact of time
on our bodies. This happens on
multiple levels:
Cellular Aging: Cells age based on
the number of times they have replicated. A
cell can replicate around 50 times before the
genetic material is no longer able to be
copied accurately (because of the shortening
of telomeres). The more damage to your cells
(through free radicals and other factors), the
more your cells need to replicate.
Hormonal Aging: Without a doubt,
hormones play a big factor in aging,
especially in childhood growth and
adolescent maturity. Hormone levels change
through life, leading to menopause and other age-related changes.
Accumulated Damage: Toxins, the UV radiation from sunlight, harmful foods,
pollution and other toxins all take their toll on our bodies. Over time, these toxins can lead to
tissue damage and the body "falls behind" in maintaining and repairing your cells, tissues
and organs.
Metabolic Aging: As you go through your day, your cells are turning food into
energy, which produces by products that can be harmful. This process of metabolizing and
creating energy results in damage to your body over time. Some believe that slowing the
metabolic process (through practices such as calorie restriction) may slow aging in humans.
Theories of Aging
Erik Erikson, who took a special interest in this final stage of life, concluded
that the primary psychosocial task of late adulthood (65 and beyond) is to
maintain ego integrity (holding on to one's sense of wholeness), while
avoiding despair (fearing there is too little time to begin a new life course).
Those who succeed at this final task also develop wisdom, which includes
accepting without major regrets the life that one has lived, as well as the
inescapability of death. However, even older adults who achieve a high
degree of integrity may feel some despair at this stage as they contemplate
their past. No one makes it through life without wondering if another path
may have been happier and more productive.
Two major theories explain the psychosocial aspects of aging in older
adults. Disengagement theory views aging as a process of mutual
withdrawal in which older adults voluntarily slow down by retiring, as
expected by society. Proponents of disengagement theory hold that mutual
social withdrawal benefits both individuals and society. Activity theory, on
the other hand, sees a positive correlation between keeping active and aging
well. Proponents of activity theory hold that mutual social withdrawal runs
counter to traditional American ideals of activity, energy, and industry. To
date, research has not shown either of these models to be superior to the
other. In other words, growing old means different things for different
people. Individuals who led active lives as young and middle adults will probably remain active as older adults, while
those who were less active may become more disengaged as they age.
As older adults approach the end of their life span, they are more apt to conduct a life review. The elderly may
reminisce for hours on end, take trips to favorite childhood places, or muse over photo albums and scrapbooks.
Throughout the process, they look back to try to find the meaning and purpose that characterized their lives. In their
quest to find life's meaning, older adults often have a vital need to share their reminisces with others who care,
especially family.