Geology 446

Hydrology-hydrogeology
Part I of the lecture notes.
Lecture 1. Significance of Water and its Study.
Significance of Water.
Water is such a vital and ui!uitous resource that its study and "anage"ent is the #rinci#al
focus of hundreds of thousands of scientists and engineers around the $orld and hundreds of
illions of dollars in costs every year.
Water is essential to all life on earth.
%he earth is the only #lanet that a##ears to have significant !uantities of $ater& the earth is also
the only #lanet that a##ears to have life '(ars "ay have had life $hen it $as $etter).
(ore than *+, of the earth-s surface is covered y $ater or ice "ore than *+, of the hu"an
ody is $ater.
Significance to You:
.eath $ithin / days $ithout $ater& less in .esert.
0verage use in 1S0 12+ Gal. #er #erson #er day.
0 #er#etual resource& ut distriution 3 degradation is a #role".
(ost serious natural resource challenge in South$estern 1.S.
The Environment for life.
0 saline solution of $ater athed the environ"ent in $hich life evolved& as s#ecies have evolved
they have e"erged fro" the $ater& ut $ithout in#uts of $ater they can only survive for hours
or days.
Water ased fluids athe the cells in the odies of all living things& this solution is !uite si"ilar to
that in the oceans fro" $hich cellular life evolved.
Definition of Hydrology:
Hydrology is the study of $ater and its ehavior in the environ"ent. %here are several ranches
of hydrology4
Surface water hydrology:
Surface water hydrology4 %he study of $ater on the surface of the earth. 'not including the
5ceans).
Groundwater hydrology:
%he study of $ater in the susurface& closely related to study of the geology of unconsolidated
de#osits and soil physics the study of $ater in soils..
Water Resources Management:
co"ining hydrology $ith #lanning& la$& econo"ics& a!uatic iology& che"istry& engineering and
often forestry this disci#line see6s to "anage $ater resources to "ini"i7e flooding& insure
$ater su##ly& "aintain or i"#rove $ater !uality& etc.
Related disciplines include:
Hydraulics4 %he study of "ove"ent and control of $ater& generally y "eans of da"s& canals&
#i#elines& etc.
Limnology4 %he study of La6es.
(eteorology4 Study of $eather including #reci#itation and at"os#heric #rocesses.
Climatologic4 Study of the long ter" cli"ate of earth.
Water water everywhere!
With increasing de"ands on a finite su##ly of clean $ater to su##ly agriculture& industrial and
"unici#al uses& sustain natural environ"ents and hel# generate electricity and dis#erse
$astes& the i"#ortance of the study of $ater continues to increase.
"E#T$RE %. The &roperties of Water The Hydrologic #ycle '
Evaporation..
Distri(ution of Water.
8*./ , in oceans
8+, of fresh re"ainder is ice ca#s '0ntarctic 3 Greenland).
Less than ./, in la6es& strea"s and ground$ater a!uifers4 su##orts all terrestrial life.
5nly .++1, in at"os#here& ut va#or 3 clouds have huge effect on cli"ate.
Distri(ution of Surface Water in $S):
0undant in southeast 'e9ce#t so"e #arts of :lorida).
and ;ortheast '<9ce#t "a=or uran areas and coastal areas).
Less aundant in (id$est.
>are in West& e9ce#t Pacific ;orth$est.
%e9as is "arginal& e9ce#t ?dee# east@ %e9as.
*. &roperties of Water.
Water consists of t$o hydrogen and one o9ygen "olecules strongly onded together.
Aecause of the nature of the "olecular and ato"ic structure of $ater& $ater has a se#aration of
charge 'also called #olarity). %his se#aration of charge has several i"#ortant effects4
Strange attraction:
Water "olecules attract each other !uite strongly for a li!uid& this in turn cause surface tension
that hel#s e9#lain $hy $ater striders can $al6 on $ater.
(ore i"#ortantly this is $hy $ater tends to re"ain in 'and to rise) in soil #ores 'ca#illarity). If
$ater had lo$er surface tension all $ater $ould drain fro" the #ores in soil and #lants $ould
not e9ist on land.
The +$niversal solvent,:
Water has a negatively charged o9ygen end and a #ositively charged hydrogen end hence "any
co"#ounds such as salts ';aBl& BaS+4& etc) $ill ra#idly dissolve in $ater. %he aility of $ater
to dissolve "ost sustances.
Houston we have a solution!
Gold and #latinu" are resistant ut all other "inerals are solule $hich accounts for the salinity
of the oceans. It also accounts for the dissolved solids and sustances in fresh$ater.
Since #lants and single celled ani"als ta6e in nutrients in a $ater solution& if $ater did not
dissolve "ost other sustances it $ould not su##ort #lants and cellular organis"s and hence
life on earth $ould not e9ist.
Weathering:
Water also dissolves roc6s and is the single "ost i"#ortant factor in all erosion on earth and
hence the nature of the landsca#e 'i.e. it is fre!uently flat and covered $ith soil) not co"#osed
of are craggy roc6s and "eteorite craters.
Density:
Water also has the very unusual #ro#erty that its density does not decrease continuously $ith
decreasing te"#erature. >ather at 4 degrees B it reaches "a9i"u" density.
Why -argaritas are possi(le:
%his "eans that ice is less dense than cold $ater and therefore ice floats. %hat "a6es fro7en
(argaritas #ossile& ut it also allo$s life to e9ist in "any northern la6es and oceans that
$ould other$ise free7e fro" the otto" u# and hence solidly.
&otholes e.plained:
Since ice e9#ands $hen it free7es 'density decreases) li!uid $ater that enters crac6s in roc6s or
#ave"ents $ill e9#and and e9ert tre"endous force rending roc6s and causing oth erosion
and #otholes.
/oiling and 0ree1ing points:
Pure $ater oils at 1++ degrees B 'C1C :) and free7es at 7ero '/C :) 'the standard scales for
te"#erature eing ased on its ehavior). Water is also used as standard for "ass in "etric
syste" '1 liter or cuic deci"eter at CD B $eighs 1 6ilogra").
)ltered States:
%hree states are4 Ice 'Solid)& Li!uid 3 Ea#or.
Water is #resent in all three on earth& #artly ecause so"e va#ori7ation occurs at all
te"#eratures aove free7ing. %herefore li!uid and va#or for"s of $ater are ui!uitous
'#articularly in the su""er in <ast %e9as). Ice "ay not e as oviously #resent ut clouds are
generally co"#osed of ice #articles even in $ar" areas.
Heat capacity:
Water has a great ca#acity to store heat $ithout a change in state. %his ca#acity has a huge effect
on gloal $eather #articularly te"#erature. %hose areas $ith little $ater va#or undergo
greater te"#erature seasonally 3 diurnally s$ings as do "oist areas. %hus the hottest and
coldest areas tend to e dry and far fro" the "oderating influences of oceans.
+) watched pot never (oils,!
%his heat ca#acity e9#lains $hy it ta6es a long ti"e to ring a #ot of $ater to oil.
%he heat ca#acity of $ater also "eans that $ater can e used in heat #u"#s and is essential to
#o$er #roduction $hich uses the heat ca#acity of $ater in cooling to$ers to condense stea"
used in turning turines.
2ther properties:
Eiscosity4 $ater is not as viscous 'syru#y) as "olasses or "otor oil or chocolate syru# ut is "ore
viscous that gasoline. 0t higher te"#eratures $ater is less viscous.
Bo"#ressiility4 $ater in a li!uid or solid state is al"ost inco"#ressile& ut in a va#or state
stea" "ay e greatly co"#ressed. %his "a6es hydroelectric #o$er #lants #ossile.
Electrical conductivity:
$ater itself does not conduct electricity 'it is an insulator) ho$ever the dissolved ions 'li6e B0&
(g& ;a& Bl& etc) in $ater do have the aility to conduct electricity.
) shoc3ing e.perience:
0ll natural $ater has so"e ions& so $ater ends u# eing a #retty good conductor of electricity
and therefore using a hair dryer in the athtu or going $ading in a lighting stor" is not a
great idea.
**. The Hydrologic #ycle.
.istriution4
8*./ , of all $ater on earth is in the oceans and 8+, of the re"ainder is loc6ed u# in glaciers
and ice ca#s largely in the 0ntarctic and Greenland.
Ho$ever& the s"all #ro#ortion in la6es strea"s and ground$ater a!uifers is essential to all
terrestrial life.
Driving 0orces:
Since gravity drives $ater on land to return to the oceans& 0nd heat fro" the sun eva#orates
$ater in the 5ceans $hich returns to land as #reci#itation& a #rocess is necessary to "aintain
availaility of $ater in oth syste"s and hence sustain life on terra fir"a and in the seas..
The hydrologic cycle:
%he hydrologic cycle refers to the constant #rocess of eva#oration of $ater fro" the oceans 'and
to a lesser e9tent fro" la6es& forests and soil)& its assent into the at"os#here& its condensation
into clouds& its "ove"ent on the $ind and its de#osition as rain or sno$. %he rain and sno$
then return to the ocean via rivers and ground$ater flo$.
Rates:
%he #rocess of return of #reci#itated "oisture to the ocean can e ra#id 'i.e. rainfall on the ocean
itself)& "oderately ra#id 'due to strea" flo$)& or less ra#id 'infiltration into the soil and
recharge of ground$ater a!uifers). %he cycle has no eginning or end.
4apori1ation.
When $ater is converted fro" a li!uid to a va#or for" 'usually fro" eva#oration fro" the
oceans) the energy that eva#orated the $ater is neither created nor destroyed ut is converted
into a latent heart of eva#oration.
#ondensation:
When the $ater condenses this heat is released.
%he va#or "ay condense as a li!uid or a solid 'ice). %hese #articles of li!uid 'or ice) "ay coalesce
and for" tiny dro#lets. %hese dro#lets for" clouds that are lo$n aout y the #revailing
$inds. When the si7e and nu"er of these dro#lets e9ceeds the aility of a uoyant air "ass to
sus#end the"& they fall as rain or sno$ '#reci#itation).
&recipitation:
Earious #rocesses can cause #reci#itation. If $ar" "oist air "oves over land $ith cold air at the
surface this "ay trigger #reci#itation. 0lso if clouds are forced u# and over a "ountain range
y #revailing $inds the cooling of the air "ass as it rises can cause condensation then
#reci#itation. %his is ter"ed an orogra#hic effect.
Run5off and variations.
5nce #reci#itation falls it "ay either run-off into strea"s and rivers& or it "ay land on vegetation
'interce#tion) and then eva#orate or e ca#tured in #uddles $hich usually eva#orate again
'de#ression storage) or soa6 into the ground 'infiltration).
Sno$fall "ay also e converted ac6 to $ater va#or directly in a #rocess called suli"ation.
Recharge and variations
%he $ater that soa6s into the ground 'infiltrates) "ay e ra#idly discharged into strea"s
'interflo$)& it "ay re"ain in the soil as soil "oisture and gradually eva#orate& or it "ay e
ta6en u# y #lant roots and e res#ired through #lant leaves 'a #rocess called trans#iration)
or it "ay #ercolate do$n to the $ater tale and recharge ground$ater a!uifers.
6roundwater flow:
Ground$ater in turn "ay "aintain the flo$ in cree6s and s#rings 'the ase flo$) or it "ay
re"ain for thousands of years as fossil $ater in a!uifers in closed asins. It "ay even ule-
u# fro" the sea floor.
Home again home again!
%he $ater on the land all eventually returns to the oceans "ost of it $ithin a fe$ $ee6s of falling
as #reci#itation.
&rocess of Evaporation:
<va#oration re!uires an in#ut of energy 'solar) to convert li!uid $ater into va#or. <va#oration
re"oves heat fro" the li!uid $ater and carries that energy a$ay $ith the $ater va#or as
latent heat of va#ori7ation.
When $ater va#or condenses this latent heat is released at actual heat.
/onding:
0 $ater "olecule in the li!uid #hase is tied to thousands of other $ater "olecules y hydrogen
onding.
In the va#or #hase& the "olecules are se#arated so no hydrogen onding ta6es #lace.
%hus $ater va#or occu#ies 4C&+++ as "uch s#ace at standard te"#erature and #ressure 'S%P) as
li!uid $ater.
Water va#or is 6+, as dense as the at"os#here so it $ill rise.
E.ample: Why 6ore5Te. 7eeps You Dry.
]A given volume of air can only hold so much water vapor at any given temperature. The proportion of
water vapor saturation of the air adjusted for temperature is called relative humidity.
*nfluence of temperature:
0t lo$ te"#eratures the $ater "olecules are less active and hence hydrogen onding $ill cause
condensation if "uch $ater va#or is #resent. 0t higher te"#eratures "uch "ore $ater can
re"ain in the va#or #hase.
%hat e9#lains $hy it is "ore "uggy around here $hen it is hotter.
"ocal conditions:
Aecause of the "any $ater odies and the e9tensive vegetation here& hu"idity is generally aove
D+, e9ce#t $hen cold air $ith very little "oisture "oves in fro" the arctic 'or 0"arillo).
0ro1en deserts or is that desserts8
%he arctic and 0ntarctic des#ite the accu"ulation of sno$ and ice& are arid 'they receive less
than 1+ inches of #reci#itation #er year).
In arid areas& hu"idity as lo$ as 4-1+, are co""on.
$r(an heat island:
1ran areas 'even in deserts) generate their o$n $eather& hence the hu"idity in Las Eegas has
increased fro" aout D, to aout 1D, over the last D+ years.
Hot (ut not humid:
5f course if there is no source for $ater va#or such as in desert areas it doesn-t "atter ho$ hot it
gets& the hu"idity $ill not increase.
-oderating influence of moisture:
Since eva#orating $ater uses u# energy and since $ater va#or loc6s solar energy 'oth as a
va#or and as clouds) it is not sur#rising that it gets hotter in dry areas than areas $ith lots of
$ater.
Different stro3es:
Ho$ever& I #ersonally #refer a te"#erature of 112 $ith 1+, hu"idity in Las Eegas to 1+6 in
Saint Louis $ith 8+, hu"idity.
Why the Dead Sea e.ists:
Saline $ater $ill eva#orate "ore slo$ly than fresh $ater.
<va#oration $ill increase the salinity of $ater odies such as saline la6es 'the dead sea) and even
#ortions of the oceans& li6e the >ed Sea.
#old waters run deep!
Water only eva#orates fro" the surface of $ater odies and circulation of colder& dee#er $ater to
the surface hel#s reduce eva#oration.
Hence& dee# la6es have less eva#oration #er unit of surface area and far less #er unit of volu"e
than shallo$ la6es.
E.amples:
La6e (ead near Las Eegas '$hich is the largest reservoir in ;orth 0"erica) has surface $ater
te"#eratures in the *+Fs $hile C++ feet do$n the te"#erature is in the lo$ D+Fs.... Banyon
La6e is another e9a"#le.
%e"#eratures in large la6es can lag air te"#eratures so eva#oration "ay e "a9i"al in the
$inter in la6es li6e La6e Su#erior.
Role of wind:
Wind also #lays an i"#ortant role in eva#oration $ith $indy hot and dry areas having the
highest eva#oration rates. :or La6e (ead esti"ated eva#oration is 2++&+++ acre feet #er year
'or C6+ illion gallons). (ore $ater than the $hole .allas area is li6ely to use in a year.
Significance:
<va#oration and other losses fro" reservoirs can e sustantial. La6e (ead losses aout 6, of
all the $ater flo$ing in the Bolorado >iver 'a >iver draining 1C, of the 1.S. and su##lying
$ater to 16 "illion #eo#le)& the other 61 "a=or da"s on the Bolorado and its triutaries cause
losses of aout 1D, of all the $ater in the river.
)pplications of evaporation:
%hin :il"s4 Ban cut eva#oration to near 7ero& ut get lo$n a$ay y $ind& so they do not $or6
$ell in #ractice.
Sand Storage .a"s4 do $or6 $ell in areas $ith infre!uent violent stor"s and general aridity
$here nor"al da"s do not $or6 $ell.
Evaporation ponds:
can reduce volu"es of li!uid $astes fro" industrial and agricultural sources ut have serious
dra$ac6s.
Salt #onds4 are "a=or source of sea salt and certain che"icals.
Evaporative cooling:
is necessary for electric generation since stea" cycle re!uires condensation $hich in turn
re!uires cooling $ater loo# at all #o$er #lants e9ce#t geother"al& $ind and solar.
Evaporation ponds:
So called eva#oration #onds $ere often unlined in the #ast& thus "uch $aste $ater infiltrated
causing ground$ater conta"ination4
E.ample:
(ission 5live Ponds.
Summary:
Water "a6es all life on earth #ossile oth y its #resence and y its "any uni!ue #ro#erties.
0ll $ater in earth is involved in different #ortions and "oving at different rates in the hydrologic
cycle
"ecture 9.
#ondensation &recipitation ' *nterception.
*ts out there!
5nly .++1, of all $ater on earth is in the at"os#here& ut $ater va#or and $ater in clouds have
a huge effect on cli"ate.
Bondensed $ater often #reci#itates in "any for"s and has "any i"#acts after it falls to ground.
#ondensation:
Bondensation is the conversion of a va#or 'a gaseous #hase) into a li!uid '#ossily suse!uently
into a solid).
#ondensation &rocess.
%he Process4
In condensation the heat energy that $as asored during eva#oration is released. %he
condensation #rocess therefore releases heat.
%he heat released during condensation can cause violent convective stor"s 'thunderstor"s&
hurricanes) to for" #articularly $hen condensation occurs ra#idly. %he #rocess of
eva#oration and condensation drives "uch of the $eather on the #lanet.
0or water vapor to condense two factors must (e present
- 1++, relative hu"idity
and
- 0 surface u#on $hich the $ater can condense.
#ondensation nuclei:
Water condenses as tiny dro#lets averaging .+++4 in dia"eter. %heses dro#lets are for"ed
around far s"aller #articles called condensation nuclei.
Bondensation nuclei are tiny #articles of sea salt& volcanic gases& air #ollution or dust.
Sources of nuclei:
Eolcanoes can affect cli"ate via this "echanis".
0lso dust stor"s "ay affect cli"ate y a si"ilar "echanis"
The dew point:
%he te"#erature at $hich 'given the #revailing hu"idity) $ater va#or #resent in the at"os#here
can condense.
Aesides sufficient $ater va#or and sufficiently lo$ te"#erature& "ost condensation in the
at"os#here re!uires condensation nuclei.
0rom dust storms to rain storms...
.ust stor"s "ay affect cli"ate y creating condensation nuclei. %hus droughts that generates
dust stor"s such as those of the dust o$l "ay so$ the seeds of their o$n de"ise.
0ormation of clouds:
Eie$ed close-u# condensed $ater is either invisile or for"s "ist or fog. When trillions of
condensed $ater dro#lets are #resent light is diffused and refracted and hence clouds a##ear
$hite or $ith a heavy urden of $ater they actually loc6 light& a##earing dar6.
$plifting e.perience:
%he $ater dro#lets held in clouds $ould fall to earth e9ce#t for $inds and convection 'heating) of
the clouds caused y the condensation #rocess $hich causes the air and the sus#ended $ater
dro#lets in the clouds to rise.
0og drip:
In arid areas near cold coastal currents4 ;a"iia& Bhile& Balifornia 'Aa=a and southern)
condensation of fog can account fro" /+, to 1++, of in#ut of $ater into the ecosyste".
Plants such as the Wel$itchia& eetles and even eucaly#tus need this in#ut to survive. .uring 8
year drought in the Santa Aarara area& cool foggy su""ers #revented a far $orse disaster.
&recipitation
%he #rocess $herey condensed li!uids or solids sus#ended in the at"os#here fall '#reci#itate)
usually stri6ing the surface.
#ritical si1e:
%he dro#lets sus#ended in clouds fall to earth $hen they have reached such a si7e that their "ass
e9ceeds the aility of $ind or rising air to 6ee# the" aloft.
%y#ically they fall as .++4 inch dro#lets '1++ ti"es the ty#ical si7e of $ater dro#lets sus#ended in
clouds).
Replenishment:
Water can fall out of a single cloud for only a short #eriod. >e#lenish"ent of the "oisture is
re!uired for #rolonged intense #reci#itation.
%his re!uires a source of $ater va#or and intense solar energy to eva#orate it and hence "ore
intense stor"s are li6ely to e near oceans and in tro#ical or su-tro#ical areas.
%he intense stor"s in the e!uatorial areas such as the Bongo or Bosta >ica.
0orms of "i:uid &recipitation:
.ri77le 0 fine "ist less than .1 inch #er hour.
>ain4 dro#lets larger than dri77le '.+C-.C inch in dia"eter).
Eega4 is rain that eva#orates after falling fro" a cloud ut efore hitting the ground.
*ntensity
>ain can e light .1 inch #er hour or less& "oderate .1-./ inches #er hour and heavy ./ or "ore
inches #er hour. %orrential rain e9ceeds 1 inch #er hour '4 inch #er hour in S.A. #roaly
"ore in Bosta >ica).
5ddities4
Eega4 is rain that eva#orates after falling fro" a cloud ut efore hitting the ground.
>aining fish or frogsG #ossile due to $ater s#outs.
Water"elon sno$G #hotosynthetic acteria in "elting sno$.
0orms of solid precipitation:
Sleet4 is for"ed y s"all #ellets of ice this caused y rain dro#s free7ing as they fall.
Sno$4 is #reci#itation of ice crystals and re!uires colder te"#eratures than sleet.
Hail4 is ice that is associated $ith thunderstor"s. %he large si7e of hail is due to a #rocess of
u#lift and aggregation of falling rain that free7es in the clouds and is re#eatedly u#lifted
'Hu"an HailstonesHHI).
*#E ST2R-:
In Jan. 188* here& a $ar" "oist front fro" the Gulf slid over "uch colder surface air fell as rain
that fro7e on the ground. In .allas it fell as sleet In the Woodlands and east& it $as $orse& ut
in Galveston there $as no #role".
Hail:
Ice that is associated $ith thunderstor"s. %he large si7e of hail is due to a #rocess of u#lift and
aggregation of falling rain that free7es in the clouds and is re#eatedly u#lifted adding ne$
coats.
'Hu"an HailstonesHHI).
0reas $ith strong thunder-stor"s li6e ;. %e9as have heavy hail 'C ls. or "ore)...
Snow:
Sno$4 :alling ice crystals& each is uni!ue. %here is a $hole field of sno$ hydrology& "ostly
concerned $ith esti"ating "oisture content.
1+ inches of sno$ corres#ond to aout1 inch of li!uid $ater. &%he dryer and colder& the ?dryer@
the sno$. Po$der co""on in 1tah and ;evada& 21 feet of sno$ one year in %ahoe...
Su(limation:
Eery little fallen sno$ eva#orates although a sustantial #ortion can suli"ate. When the sno$
"elts gradually "uch infiltrates into the soil recharging shallo$ ground$ater and "aintaining
flo$ in strea"s.
Ho$ever& unusually $ar" $eather& es#ecially if acco"#anied y rain& can cause ra#id "elting
and flooding.
)l(edo:
Sno$ has a very high aledo and hence clean sno$ reflects light cooling the environ"ent&
ho$ever dirty sno$ asors light and "elts faster.
Sno$ can have a $ide range of $ater e!uivalents. :resh no$ averages aout 1+, $ater
e!uivalent. In dry areas sno$ has a lo$er $ater e!uivalent so sno$ in 1tah or ;evada is "ore
A #o$dery than sno$ in 5hio. Sno$ "ay e co"#acted over ti"e increasing its $ater
e!uivalent.
*mplications of snow (ehavior:
Since "any areas in the $est de#end on s#ring run-off fro" "elting sno$ to $ater cro#s&
generate hydroelectricity and su##ort uran de"and esti"ation of availale $ater su##ly is
i"#ortant.
Weather processes:
%here are three #rocess that cause condensation and induce #reci#itation4
Byclonic
Bonvective
5rogra#hic.
0ll de#end on the cooling of "oist air as it rises ut the #rocess that cause this are different.4
#yclonic:
Ban e due to $ar" air sliding over cold air or cold air sliding under $ar" air.
<9a"#les4 In an ice stor" 'li6e those in Huntsville in 24 3 82& $ar" "oist air fro" the Gulf
slides over "uch colder air at the surface and falls as rain that fro7e $hen on ground.
:arther ;orth it falls as sleet or even sno$ and causes fe$ #role"s.
:arther south no #role"s only rain.
Hurricanes:
5ver tro#ical oceans this #rocess can #roduce huge convective stor"s called hurricanes& cyclones
or ty#hoons de#ending on $hat ocean is involved.
) hurricane (y any other name...
5ver tro#ical oceans this #rocess can #roduce huge convective stor"s called hurricanes& cyclones
or ty#hoons de#ending on $hat ocean is involved. Aecause "ore heat and "ore "oisture is
involved the #o$er of these stor"s in #ro#ortionately greater.
#onvection:
%he #rocess of heat transfer. Bonvection egins $hen the sun heats "oist air causing it to rise. 0s
it rises& condensation ta6es #lace releasing heat energy this drives the #rocess of further
heating and u#-lift and condensation. %his ?heat engine@ runs as long as heat fro" the sun is
#resent and a source of "oist air is availale.
Hence thunderstor"s are li6ely in the afternoon ut less li6ely in the early "orning. '%ornado
$atch in 0"arillo).
"ightning:
%he #rocess of ice falling through a cloud causes a se#aration of charge et$een the to# and
otto" of the cloud and this #otential energy difference is released in the for" of a sto6e of
lighting.
%he sound #roduced y the ra#ids e9#ansion of air induced y the heating of the air as the
lighting #asses through it causes thunder. :re!uently thunderstor"s are acco"#anied y hail.
Wotan;s hammer...
Ice falling through a cloud causes a se#aration of charge 'voltage) et$een the to# and otto" of
the cloud and et$een the cloud and ground& lighting restores this voltage difference.
%hunder is the sound #roduced y the ra#id e9#ansion of air induced y the heating due to the
4+&+++ degree te"#. of lighting.
#onvection ' Tornadoes.
Bonvective stor"s derive their energy fro" the release of heat as a result of condensation.
%his energy can have devastating i"#act as anyone fro" Jarrel& Waco& Wichita :alls or fro" any
of the hundreds of co""unities that have e9#erienced #o$erful tornadoes can attest.
2rographic precipitation:
.ue to the #resence of "ountains.
(ountains force "oisture laded air "asses to rise& causing condensation and #reci#itation. %he
$ettest #laces on earth are on the $ind$ard side. (ountains #roduce the driest areas as $ell
on lee$ard side& an area called the rain shado$ and the greatest contrasts in #reci#itation over
short distances.
<9a"#les include4 Bascades. Ha$aii and the (t WhitneyK .eath Ealley area.
2rographic precipitation:
(ountains force "oisture-laded air "asses to rise& causing condensation and #reci#itation. %he
$ettest #laces on earth are on the $ind$ard side of "ountains. (ountains #roduce the driest
areas as $ell on their lee$ard side 'the rain shado$) and the greatest contrasts in #reci#itation
over short distances.
The grass is greener on the other side of the mountain...
<9a"#les4 Bascades&5ly"#ic #enKLa6i"a.
Ha$aii MonaKdrylands.
(t. WhitneyK .eath Ealley area.
%he higher the "ountains and the stronger the #revailing stor" #atterns& the stronger $ill e the
rain-shado$ effect.
"ocal color:
Local factors such as "ountains 'orogra#hy)& =ungles 'rain forest)& large la6es '?la6e effect@
sno$s) and "ove"ent of $ar" and cold air "asses 'fronts) driven y the =et strea" cause
local variations in #reci#itation.
*ts wetter if not (etter in the tropics...
Water can fall out of a single cloud for only a short #eriod. >e#lenish"ent of the "oisture is
re!uired for #rolonged& intense #reci#itation. %his re!uires a source of $ater va#or and
intense solar energy to eva#orate it. Intense stor"s are li6ely to e near oceans and in tro#ical
areas such as the Bongo or Bosta >ica.
Dou(le whammy:
Intense $eather if t$o or "ore factors e9ist.
Bheri#ungi& India4 strong orogra#hy& convective and cyclonic.
Gulf coast4 strong convective and cyclonic.
%ornado alley4 very strong cyclonic and "oderate convective 'hail 3 tornados).
5ly"#ic #eninsula& Mona Boast4 cyclonic and orogra#hic.
.esert (ountains4 Strong orogra#hic and convective flash floods.
Drip Drip Drip...
:og dri#4 in arid areas near cold coastal currents4 ;a"iia& Bhile& Balifornia4 condensation of
fog can account fro" /+, to 1++, of in#ut of $ater. Wel$itchia& eetles and even eucaly#tus
need this in#ut.
.uring 8-year drought in Southern Balifornia& cool foggy su""ers #revented a far $orse
disaster.
Wettest ' Driest...
Bherra#un=i in 0ssa" 'India)4 strong orogra#hy& convective and cyclonic factors.
Mona Boast 3 (t. Waialeale on Mauai also.
0taca"a .esert in Bhile& no "easurale rainfall in several hundred years4 Strong rain shado$
'0ndes& strong negative effect)& cold coastal current 'Hu"olt& no convection)& (id-latitude N
no cyclonic activity.
;a"i also...
*nterception:
%he #rocess $herey vegetation 'generally the forest cano#y) interce#ts rain or sno$ efore it
reaches the ground. %his "oisture then eva#orates fro" the leaves. Interce#tion can account
for a loss of 1+-C+, of all #reci#itation.
/enefits ' detriments of interception:
Interce#tion reduces availale $ater ut it also greatly reduces the i"#act of raindro#s on are
soil $hich $ould cause oth erosion and "uch "ore ra#id run-off.
%his "ore ra#id run-off fro" denuded areas in turn causes flooding.
E.ample:
Aurned cha#arral sho$s i"#act of vegetation loss on flooding...
0fter $ildfires& floods and deris flo$s can occur in strea"s and rivers& in southern Balifornia in
#articular.
If a heavy stor" event occurs $ithin a cou#le of years of a $ild fire a flood is a good #ossiility.%o
reduce this ris6& reseeding& and catch"ent asins are used. Historical studies y Meller
indicate that there is a strong relationshi# et$een deris flo$s and fires.
&recipitation &atterns
>egional 3 Gloal #atterns are due to several influences4
Latitude
Gloal circulation #atterns
Pro9i"ity to oceans
5rogra#hic effects
Seasonal Eariations4 "any areas have strong seasonal variations in rainfall.
Seasonality:
Bhanges in $ind #atterns can cause a strong rainy season such as in India and southeast 0sia and
northern 0ustralia $here su""er "onsoons are critical to the survival of "ore than 1 illion
#eo#le.
Wea6er seasonal #atterns occur else$here& such as $inter rains and sno$ in the far $est and
su""er thunderstor"s in the (id$est.
5ther areas of the 1.S. have a "ore unifor" distriution of rainfall.
"ong Term 4ariation in Rainfall.
In "any areas '#articularly in the $estern 1.S.) a series of $et years alternate $ith a series of
dry years ut the lengths of these series can vary usually not e9ceeding D in a ro$.
Balifornia has one of the "ost variale and intensely studied long ter" #reci#itation #atterns.
Sta(ility vs. vulnera(ility:
Ho$ever its very de#endaility in these areas "a6es these areas vulnerale& due to lac6 of
alternative sources and storage ca#acity.
Weather -odification:
Silver Iodine has een used to create nucleation centers to induce condensation and for"ation of
$ater dro#lets that $ill fall-out do$n $ind as rain& (ethod is often called cloud seeding..
How $sed:
Silver iodide s"o6e released fro" #lanes& to$ers or roc6ets is used in the $estern 1.S. to increase
local #reci#itation in the $atersheds of #o$er da"s and areas de#endent of #reci#itation for
$ater su##ly.
>adar and radiosondes are used to deter"ine a##ro#riateness of a stor" syste".
Where it #an Wor3.
Silver iodide only $or6s to $ring "oisture out of clouds $ith sufficient "oisture and lo$ 'ut not
frigid) te"#eratures.
Possile D,-1+, increase on local #reci#itation.
E.amples:
Pro=ect S6y$ater.
PG<.
Bua.
Santa Aarara Bounty.
)dvantages and Disadvantages of #loud Seeding:
Ban increase #reci#itation $ith #ro#er #lanning and hel# generate additional hydroelectric
#o$er or "ore $ater in a $ater su##ly reservoir.
(ay decease #reci#itation fro" $ar" stor"s
(ay e ?roing Peter to #ay Paul@.
Bould cause local flooding.
%he sad story of the Harris Arothers....
HYDR2"26Y "E# <= *nfiltration Soil -oisture Recharge '
Transpiration.
Soil: ) critical part of hydrology.
Soil #ro#erties and #rocesses control things li6e run-off of rainfall and hence flooding
0lso recharge of ground$ater and in "any cases its flo$ as $ell
Soil can e eroded y $ater and soil "oisture su##orts all terrestrial #lants& so hydrology is
critical to soil science and agrono"y as $ell
#omposition of soils:
Soils are co"#osed of various layers $ith differing #ro#erties. Ho$ever in hydrology $e are
interested in the co"#osition of soil $ith res#ect to the ehavior of $ater in it.
Horizons:
(ost soils have hori7ons 'layers) $ith different #ro#erties $ith de#th& generally less organic
"atter and "ore consolidation at de#th.
(any soils have 7ones of elluviation 'leaching) and 7ones of accu"ulation due to $ater
"ove"ent through soil.
"ayers upon layers:
%hese layers are the unsaturated or vadose zone& the capillary fridge and the groundwater zone& the
saturated zone is co"#osed of these last t$o 7ones. See diagra"...
-ineralogical properties:
Blays have huge i"#act due to "ineralogy. <9#ansive '?fat clays@) i.e. montmorillinite, e9#and
to 2 ti"es original volu"e $hen $et.
:at clays cause huge #role"s 'second "ost costly natural ha7ard in 1.S.).
Ho$ever& ?lean clays@ 'kaolin) do not e9#and.
Lateritic soils4 Iron and alu"inu" o9ides. :ound in tro#ics have #oor fertility& lin6ed to
destruction caused y loss of the rain forest.
Dirt is not simple:
Soils are #rinci#ally co"#osed of "inerals that resist $eathering& these "inerals include silicon
dio9ide& and alu"inu" and iron o9ides. %hese "inerals carry a net negative charge. Hence
soils have the aility to attract #ositive ions 'cations) li6e Ba& ;a& (g & M& S54& P54& ;5/ <tc.
Eye on #ations:
%hese cations are essential #lant nutrients. In e9cess they can cause $ater !uality #role"s.
%he tendency of a soil to attract these cations is "easured y its cation exchange capacity.
E.ample:
6oleta Water District waste5water reuse pro>ect.
Gy#su" 'calciu" sulfate) can lo$er the #H of soil and re#lace sodiu" $ith calciu" causing
flocculation of the clays and aggregation of the soil.
Texture:
Ban e sandy& silty or clayey. .e#ends on si7e of soil #articles4 Sand is "ore than C""& silt
C""-.++C "" and clay less than .++C "".
Blay or organic "atter has "ost i"#ortant effect on soil. %oo littleKtoo "uch clay #roduces #oor
tilth& ideal soil has peds: clu"#s of larger #articles held together y so"e clay.
0 "i9ed soil li6e this is called a loam.
Porosity:
>anges fro" 1+, to 4+,. It is the #ercentage of holes. If soil has too lo$ a #orosity it cannot
hold $ater or #rovide air to #lant roots.
Blays have higher #orosity 'ut s"aller #ores).
Ideally& half of #ores should hold air $hile half should hold $ater.
E.amples of porosity:
Porosity of earth "aterials varies4 clays can have 6+, #orosities & sands ty#ically have 4+,
#orosity& co"#acted soils $ith an e!ual #ro#ortion of sand& silt and clay can have as little as
CD, #ore s#ace.
Types of porosity:
>oc6s can have primary porosity and secondary porosity consolidated roc6s have less than C,
#ri"ary #orosity& ho$ever if fractured they can have higher #orosities ut generally less than
soils.
What is in them pores!
Pore s#ace can e occu#ied y air or $ater. 0 ty#ical agricultural soil $ill have 4+, #orosity
$ith C+, air and C+, $ater. %his is ideal for gro$ing #lants.
Why worry a(out porosity:
(easuring #orosity is i"#ortant to esti"ating the volu"e of $ater in a soil.
Soil water
'also called soil moisture) is $ater that enters the soil through infiltration and either re"ains in
the unsaturated 'vadose) 7one or #ercolates do$n to recharge ground$ater.
*mportance:
Soil $ater is i"#ortant ecause it hel#s to hold soils together& su##lies $ater to #lants& su##lies
dissolved nutrients to #lants and is the source fro" $hich ground$ater a!uifers are
recharged.
*nfiltration:
Infiltration occurs $hen $ater on the surface of a soil eco"es dee# enough to overco"e surface
tension and egin to "ove into the soil under the force of gravity and or soil suction.
In a soil that is not saturated& the soil #articles e9ert an attractive force on $ater called soil
suction.
Down the Worm hole:
If large ga#s e9ist such as $or" holes or crac6s in the soil the $ater $ill ra#idly infiltrate.
Ho$ever if the soil is are& then the i"#act of rain dro#s "ay cause s"all #articles to loc6 these
#ores and slo$ infiltration. Hence& "ore of the rainfall $ill run-off often leading to erosion
and flooding.
Permeability:
Is the aility of $ater to enter and drain through soil4
Generally lo$ for clays. Poor drainage can cause flooding and starve #lant root for o9ygen.
Sandy soils can have too high a #er"eaility so $ater is lost easily.
*mpermea(ility:
Soils can eco"e i"#er"eale due to co"#action& ut also due to che"ical #rocesses.
%he "olecular structure of clay "inerals can e altered so that the aggregation of clays that hel#s
#er"eaility is reversed and the for"erly flocculated clay "inerals are dispersed.
0ield #apacity:
%he !uantity of $ater that a soil can hold against the force of gravity is the field capacity of the
soil.
Speciic retention
Is the ground$ater e!uivalent of field ca#acity& e9ce#t that it allo$s for a "uch longer #eriod for
the soil to drain.
Speciic yield
%he !uantity of $ater than can e #roduced fro" a given volu"e of an a!uifer.
S#ecific retention #lus s#ecific yields e!uals the #orosity of the a!uifer.
Soil Suction:
Soil suction is "easured in at"os#heres. Soils at field ca#acity are at aout ./ at"os#heres . 0
soil suction of ./ at"os#heres '/+ centiars) is ideal for "ost #lants.
Range of soil suction:
Soil suctions et$een 1-1D ars are li6ely to e9ceed the #oint $here the #lant can no longer
otain $ater& causing it to $ilt.
0orever wet!
Water eva#orates very slo$ly fro" the susurface. Particularly in fine grained soils. So elo$
the root 7one $ater in a soil is li6ely to re"ain al"ost #er"anently.
%hus even in dry deserts there is $ater availale to #lants at de#th.
2smosis:
Plant roots can also cause $ater to "ove under the force of osmotic #ressure.
Ba#illarity accounts for the e9istence of the capillary fridge
Wilting point:
%his #oint is the wilting point it $ill vary for each ty#e of #lant.
So"e desert #lants can $ithstand soil suctions in e9cess of 1++ ars.
Transpiration:
Plants e9tract $ater fro" the soil y overco"ing the soil suction and the surface tension of the
$ater. When a soil is saturated& the soil suction is nearly 7ero& as a soil dries the soil suction
increases.
Significance of Transpiration.
In areas such as the 0"a7on >ain-forest the trans#ired $ater accounts for "uch of the $ater
va#or that sustains the heavy rainfall of that region.
In dryer regions #lants such as "es!uite& salt cedar and other #herato#hytes such u# $ater that
could sustain grass-lands or #rovide flo$ in $hat $ould e #erennial strea"s
E.amples:
Potato far"ers in Idaho
White >oc6 Banyon.
/ehavior of soil water.
Water "oves through soil under the forces of gravity& and the attraction of the soil "atri9 for the
$ater "olecules called capillarity 'or soil suction) and the attraction of the $ater "olecules for
each other 'surface tension).
Water does not always flow downward.
Water $ill "ove either do$n$ard& u#$ard or side$ays in a soil in res#onse to the co"ination of
ca#illarity and gravity.
)pplications of soil water (ehavior:
Irrigation4 "ost irrigators use "ethods such as furro$ irrigation and or flood irrigation.
(ore recently s#rin6lers have een used. Including center #ivot syste"s.
0ll these "ethods cause a large #ro#ortion of the $ater to eva#orate.
Drip irrigation:
0 ne$ "ethod of irrigation uses dri# or tric6le "ethods. %his a##roach $as develo#ed in Israel.
.ri# irrigation a##lies $ater at a slo$ rate directly to each #lant.
0dvantages4 of dri# include less eva#oration& lo$ laor costs& less sensitivity to $ater !uality.
Wor6s $ell on slo#es.
Disadvantages:
include installation cost& clogging& unifor"ity of flo$& uild u# of salts and saturation of the root
7ones.
!nterlow:
So"e soil "oisture "ay enter the soil and flo$ out hori7ontally. %his is interflow and is "ost
co""on in areas $ith variale to#ogra#hy.
Recharge
%he #rocess of infiltrating soil $ater "oving do$n into and re#lenishing ground$ater a!uifers.
E.ample: "as 4egas.
(easuring infiltration4
Infiltration is difficult to "easure directly.
If one has a #oint "easure"ent of #reci#itation and derives an area average for a asin and then
"easures the discharge of a river draining the asin& the difference et$een total #reci#itation
and total discharge over the long ter" should e e!ual to the total of infiltration and
eva#oration 'if ground$ater storage re"ained constant).
"imitations:
Ho$ever& this re!uires long-ter" "easure"ents of #reci#itation and eva#oration and discharge
and an understanding of the recharge and discharge of the ground$ater a!uifers.
0loodwater diversion:
:re!uently flood$ater is diverted to recharge asins in areas $ith a high #er"eaility.
Erosion:
<rosion and loss of to# soil and flooding are a"ong the "ost serious #role"s facing "an.
Soil conservation:
(any "ethods to reduced the" have een develo#ed.
In agriculture a cover cro# "ay e gro$n to #rotect are soil& or contour #lo$ing or conservation
tillage "ay e used.
In forestry $here old "ethods of ti"er harvesting caused oth stri#ing of vegetation and
co"#action of the soil& ne$ a##roaches are eing i"#le"ented.
(any civil engineering #ro=ects no$ use either "ulch or geo-te9tiles to reduce erosion.
E.ample:
In southern Balifornia a co"ination of recharge asins and deris da"s is used to se#arate
sedi"ent fro" $inter flood $aters and then ca#ture the less turid $ater do$nstrea" and
divert into shallo$ off-strea" asins. Water soa6s through the floor of these asins& gradually
recharging ground$ater a!uifers.
Evaporation ?Seepage@ &onds:
So called eva#oration #onds $ere often unlined in the #ast& thus "uch $aste $ater infiltrated
causing ground$ater conta"ination4
E.ample:
(ission 5live Ponds.
#yanide heap leach
%he #rinci#les of infiltration can e a##lied to #urification of ores and is no$ the leading "ethod
of #roducing gold in the 1S0.
E.ample:
Aullfrog "ine ;evada.
Soil Series:
Soil series are defined y #resence of a given set of #ro#erties and are na"ed for a ty#ical location
$here this soil is found
So ?San Jacinto clay@ or ?0"arillo silty loa"@ are then "a##ed.
%he .e#con soil series underlies SHS1& 'thin sandy layer $ith organic "atter overlying a thic6
clay $ith iron). Soil has #oor drainage and lo$ fertility& su=ect to erosion.
"ecture A. -easuring #omponents of the Hydrologic #ycle.
-easuring Evaporation:
Since #utting a la6e inside a #lastic ag is not feasile& various "ethods to esti"ate eva#oration
have een develo#ed.
So"e "ethods use cli"atic factors such as te"#erature& hu"idity& $ind s#eed& etc ut the est
"ethod is to use an eva#oration #an.
Evaporation pans
Since a #an is shallo$ and "ade of "etal it has a higher eva#oration rate than an actual $ater
ody.
)ctual studies:
Studies of eva#oration y 1SA>& 1SGS at La6e Hefner& indicate that the $ater ody eva#orates
*+, as "uch as a neary #an.
%his esti"ate is usually $ithin 1D, of correct.
Learly esti"ates for #an eva#oration have een develo#ed for the $orld and range fro" /+ inches
#er year to C++ inches #er year.
Ay coincidence La6e (ead is located in an area $ith C++ inches of eva#oration #er year.
-easuring &recipitation.
(easuring Sno$.
(easuring >ain
Predicting $eather #atterns
0ssessing long-ter" cli"ate
-easuring snow.
Sno$ "ay e "easured in a conventional gauge y "elting the accu"ulated sno$ '"easuring
volu"e is not a very useful "easure& $hyH).
5r a continuously $eighing gauge can e used.
-easuring snow5water e:uivalents
Sno$ occu#ies consideraly "ore volu"e than the li!uid $ould.
0 $et sno$ can e * ti"es $hile a ?dry@ sno$ can e 1/ ti"es. 1sually a 1+O "ulti#lier is used
as a rule of thu".
%he etter the sno$ is for s6iing the $orse it is for irrigation '$hyH).
Snow #ourse Survey:
%his can e done y sno$ course surveys.
%o #erfor" such surveys a transect is chosen and de#th of sno$ and density of sno$ are
"easured along this transect.
0lso aerial surveys and tele"etered stations are used.
How to measure snow:
%he #oint "easure"ents of sno$-$ater e!uivalent are converted into volu"e esti"ates over
entire river asins.
%hese esti"ates are correlated $ith historical infor"ation to develo# etter esti"ates of run-off.
#rystal (alls may wor3 (etter:
Ho$ever& #redicting ti"ing of runoff and a"ount of additional sno$ andKor suli"ation is a
challenge.
>e"ote sensing is no$ aiding this effort.
With these esti"ates reservoirs and irrigation districts can #lan for "ost efficient use of an
generally scare resource.
<s#ecially since their needs "ay not coincide.
-easurement of &recipitation.
Preci#itation is "easured in inches or "illi"eters of $ater.
%he si"#lest gauge is a can& a ruler can e inserted to "easure the de#th of $ater.Blear #lastic
rain gauges are co""on and chea#.%o #revent eva#oration or irds drin6ing the $ater& a
gauge $ith a narro$ nec6 and a narro$er calirated "easuring tue is used y the national
$eather service. High $ind $ill result in under-esti"ation.
-odern gauges:
Since recording rainfall even daily is a #ain& recording rain gauges are eco"ing "ore co""on.
%hese ty#ically use a uc6et inside a gage and a scale or use a ti##ing uc6et. %hese are often
tele"etered or have a >5( chi# that can store #reci#itation "inute y "inute for 6 "onths.
Radar:
>adar can also e used to esti"ate #reci#itation and is #articularly suitale for s#otty& fast
"oving stor"s such as are co""on in %e9as.
%here is an evolving net$or6 of radar and .o##ler radar sites used y ;ational Weather Service.
Remote Sensing.
.ata gathered fro" satellites can hel# create regional esti"ates of rainfall as $ell as #redict
"a=or stor"s and hurricanes.
)pplications:
%here are "any a##lications for rainfall and intensity data....
0griculture.
Bivil <ngineering.
Water Su##ly.
:lood Warning.
Dendrochronology
Study of tree rings.
Ban aid studies of long ter" #reci#itation.
*nterpretation and )nalysis of &recipitation
>ainfall and sno$fall data are used to "a6e decisions ranging fro" $hether to ta6e an u"rella
to the
.ecision to evacuate a city or release $ater $orth "illions of dollars into the sea to avoid over-
to##ing a reservoir.
)vaila(le data:
0ctual rainfall for various durations ranging fro" hourly to average for a century are
"aintained y the ;ational Weather Service.
:ro" this data intensity on an hourly& daily $ee6ly etc asis is easily calculated.
-a.imum &ro(a(le Storm Event:
Ay si"#le statistical "ethods the "a9i"u" #roale stor" for any duration of the stor" event
and recurrence interval can e esti"ated.
%y#ically the "a9i"u" hourly and "a9i"u" C4 hour stor" events for recurrence intervals of 1&
1+ CD& D+ and 1++ years are deter"ined
$se of ma.imum pro(a(le storm event data:
%his infor"ation is used in thousands of decisions every year.
%his "ethod de#ends on the rainfall events eing rando" events. %hey "ay or "ay not e truly
rando" ut this is the est availale assu"#tion.
Reality vs. theory:
1nfortunately& rainfall is usually "easured at a single #oint $hile the effects of rainfall such as
flooding& stage height at a "easuring station& etc are felt else$here and reflect the total
contriution of rainfall over a large area.
E.tending point data to an area:
In order to convert an esti"ate of rainfall at a #oint into an esti"ate for an area of interest such
as a $atershed or a river asin& a "ethod of e9tra#olation of #oint data to a larger s#atial
area "ust e e"#loyed.
%his is called co"#uting an area average. In order to develo# an area average esti"ate there are
three "ethods4
-ethods of aerial averaging:
%he arith"etic average "ethod is si"#le& $or6s $ell $ith even distriution of gages.
%he %heissen #olygon "ethod is the area $eighted average. It can account for uneven
distriution of gages& can ta6e into account data outside asin $ith a##ro#riate $eight and
can e uilt into a GIS ased syste" 'use of a #lani"eter is out of date).
E.amples:
1se y %W.A& /. a##lication to conta"inant hydrogeology. and the Isohyetal (ethod4 1ses
contour lines of e!ual rainfall. 0rea et$een contours is "easured and arith"etic average of
the contour values is "ulti#lied y the area et$een the contours and divided y the total
asin area. Ban e auto"ated $ith GIS.
"ocating Rain 6ages:
In order to e used to deter"ine accurate area averages of rainfall& locations of rain gages "ust
e chosen carefully. In #articular& locations in head$ater areas& and uran areas is i"#ortant.
0lso in areas of "a9i"u"& "ini"u" and average #reci#itation $ithin a asin.
E.amples:
Eentura >iver :lood Warning Syste".
-easuring Stream5flow.
Stage gauges
Stilling $ellKfloat "ethod
Pressure transducer ased strea" level sensors.
-easuring #urrent.
If a stage gauge& float or level sensor is used
%o esti"ate strea" flo$ the velocity of the strea" "ust e deter"ined.
%his is done $ith either a #ro#eller current "eter or an ultrasonic current "eter.
-easuring suspended sediment.
1se a sedi"ent sa"#ler attached to a $ading rod or sus#ended fro" a cale$ay.
Sa"#le is ta6en to la then stirred u# and a hygro"eter is used to deter"ine change in s#ecific
gravity over ti"e. %he s#ecific gravity of $ater $ith "ore sus#ended sedi"ent is higher.
-easuring soil properties.
Infiltro"eter
Lysi"eter.
%ensio"eter
;eutron #roe.
*nfiltrometer:
Locally& one can use an infiltro"eter to "easure infiltration for s"all areas of the very surface of
soils.
"ysimeter:
<9#eri"entally& one can construct a lysi"eter& essentially a container in $hich $e #lace soil and
gro$ #lants in a field. %his container has a drain at the otto" $here the infiltrating $ater is
collected and "easured.
Difficulties:
<ven $ith e9#eri"ental "easure"ents& esti"ating infiltration is very difficult and esti"ating the
#ortion of $ater that enters the soil that #ercolates do$n to recharge ground$ater is even
harder.
$se of other factors:
Ho$ever ased of vegetation& slo#e& rainfall intensity& soil te9ture& soil thic6ness& and #ree9isting
soil "oisture an a##ro9i"ate esti"ate can e otained. %his "ay e vital in #redicting floods
or designing structures.
-easuring &orosity:
0 soil sa"#le is ta6en $ith a hollo$ auger and $etted and allo$ed to drain. %he saturated soil is
then $eighed. %he soil is then coo6ed for "any hours and $hen totally dry it is $eighed again.
Mno$ing the $eight of $ater& the differences in the "ass of the sa"#le and the volu"e of the
sa"#le& the volu"e of #ore s#ace and hence the #orosity can e deter"ined.
-easuring soil water.
%he si"#le "ethod is si"ilar to "ethod for "easuring #orosity.
%he soil sa"#le is $eighed& dried and $eighed again. %he difference is the $eight of $ater in the
soil. %hat is converted into a volu"e e!uivalent and is co"#ared to the volu"e of the soil
sa"#le.
The tensiometer:
%he tensio"eter is a tue $ith a #orous cera"ic ti#. %he tue is filled $ith $ater and the
tensio"eter is driven into the soil to the de#th of the root 7one and soil suction dra$s $ater
through the #ores of the ti# out of the tue. %he force $ith $hich the $ater is dra$n out is
"easured $ith a vacuu" gage. %he device $or6s et$een the li"its of ./ to .2D at"os#heres&
this covers the range et$een field ca#acity and the #oint $hen "any cro#s need $ater.
*n5place methods:
!n"situ 'ie in #lace "easure"ents ) use either tensio"eters or neutron #roes.
The neutron pro(e
%his #roe uses a source of neurons. %his source usually radio-active coalt is lo$ered into the
soil. High energy neutrons are e"itted fro" the source and travel in a rando" #ath into the
soil so"e neutrons hit hydrogen in $ater "olecules and are converted to lo$ energy neurons.
%hese are "easured y a detector. ;eutron #roes can e lo$ered into dee# oreholes and can
"easure the #orosity of saturated for"ations. 0lso it can "easure soil "oisture in dry soils.
$tility:
Hence tensio"eters are very useful in scheduling irrigation since they can "easure the actual
availaility of $ater to #lant roots.
<9a"#le4 Lu"a orange grove.
"ogging hydrologic data.
%he days $hen technicians visited re"ote sites and daily or hourly recorded data into field
noteoo6s are ra#idly #assing.
Instead data is recorded electronically& saved to co"#uter "e"ory chi#s in data-loggers and
either accesses y la#-to# co"#uters& y #honeK"ode"& y radio& y cell #hone tele"etry or
y satellite.
Telemetry:
>ain gages can e tele"etered and net$or6ed into a co"#uteri7ed flood $arning syste"4
Hydrology "ecture < B. Run5off ' Hydrographs:
The run5off cycle:
refers to that #ortion of the hydrologic cycle that starts $hen #reci#itation reaches the earths
surface and ends $hen $ater flo$s ac6 into the sea 'sin6).
Water that infiltrates into the soil and is asored and trans#ired y #lants is not #art of the run-
off cycle.
Li6e$ise& $ater interce#ted and eva#orated is not #art of the cycle.
/ase 0low vs. run5off:
Water that recharges ground$ater or is involved in interflo$ "ay e #art of the cycle as
ground$ater discharge 'ase flo$).
Run5Cff starts:
When #reci#itation e9ceeds the infiltration ca#acity of a soil the $ater #onds on the surface and
$hen de#ressions are filled egins to flo$ overland under the force of gravity.
%his is ter"ed overland flo$.
0actors affecting over5land flow.
%he "agnitude of overland flo$ de#ends on factors affecting infiltration ca#acity as $ell as on
slo#e and the roughness of the terrain.
Landsca#es that have heavy vegetation cover or "any de#ressions $ill have less ra#id and less
e9tensive overland flo$ than s"ooth and are landsca#es. Slo#e is a "a=or factor in the s#eed
of overland flo$.
*nterflow:
Inter-flo$ is the #rocess of shallo$ saturated susurface flo$.
5ccasionally& a tunnel $ill e eroded in the susurface via interflo$ and the #heno"ena of #i#ing
"ay occur.
*nfluent vs. E.fluent streams:
Ground$ater only discharges to "aintain aseflo$ if the $ater tale is aove the strea" ed
level& this is an Influent strea". in arid areas #er"eale alluvial sedi"ents in the channel&
strea" $ater $ill see# out of the strea" into the ground.
0 strea" that recharges a $ater tale is said to e e9fluent.
Rivers that run dry:
(any strea"s and rivers are e9fluent throughout "ost of their drainage4 <9a"#le4 >eese >iver.
(any strea"s are influent in so"e reaches and e9fluent in others. <9a"#le4 Aarley Bree6.
(an can utili7e an influent strea" y diversion in a higher #ortion4 <9a"#le %aft Bree6.
2ver5(an3 flow:
5ver the long ter" the $ater tale is generally rather flat 'hence the use of the ter" tale)&
ho$ever after a #articularly large stor" event added $ater $ill e #resent in a strea"& it $ill
cover the ed and la# against the an6s 'or even flo$ aove the an6s $hich is ter"ed
flooding or technically ?over-an6 flo$@).
0lood Stages
%his #eriod of rising $ater levels in the stea"s is in the rising stage.
If the an6s are earthen& then so"e of this $ater saturates the an6s and is stored in soils. %his
$ater in an6 storage is aove the #revailing level of the $ater tale.
%his is only te"#orary as this $ater $ill see# ac6 into the strea" fairly ra#idly after $ater
levels suside during the falling stage.
Duration:
%he duration of these stages can vary fro" "inutes to "onths4 de#ending on a"ount of flo$
added y stor"s and location of strea" section 'reach).
%he farther do$n strea" a reach is& the longer duration and the s"aller the a"#litude of the rise
and fall of the $ater levels are li6ely to e for any given si7e stor".
0actors affecting run5off:
D. Weather:
Gloal 3 local cli"ate have a huge effect on run-off& as does ti"ing of stor" events.
0 single ?CD year stor"@ 'a stor" $ith a esti"ated recurrence interval of once in CD years) can
#roduce a $ide range of run-off de#ending on antecedent #reci#itation #atterns.
If the stor" event follo$s on the heels of a series of ?D year stor"s@ then the ground is li6ely to e
saturated and the infiltration ca#acity of the soil lo$ or nil.
Drought then flood
Bonversely& if the ?CD year stor"@ follo$s an unusually dry #eriod the "agnitude of the resulting
flood "ay e greatly reduced.
Ho$ever& if an e9tended drought has $ithered vegetation and a6ed the soil& flooding "ight e
even $orse that the first scenario. %his is one reason the droughts often end $ith floods.
E.ample:
Great %e9as drought of 18D+s.
?%he %i"e It ;ever >ainedG@
Timing is everything
%i"ing is i"#ortant& $ar" rains "elting sno$ on fro7en ground $ill cause s#ring floods.
<9a"#le4 ;. .a6ota floods s#ring efore last.
Elevation:
0s one goes u# in elevation #reci#itation tends to increase.
2rographic effects:
Increase in run-off fro" "ountainous areas is due to4 cooler te"#eratures induce less
eva#otrans#iration and orogra#hic effects #roduce "ore #reci#itation& "ore e9#osed are
roc6. 0lso areas that are higher can i"#art "ore gravitational #otential energy to $ater& "ore
#o$er of rushing $ater.
E.ample of 2rographic Effects:
Aig %ho"#son >iver flash flood.
2rientation ' )spect:
5rientation is i"#ortant oth $ith res#ect to #revailing stor" trac6s and $ith res#ect to north
and south facing slo#es 'as#ect).
<9a"#le4 Mern >iver drainage. South Es. ;orth :or6s.
<9a"#le4 Bha#arralK grassland or #onderosa #ine grassland ecosyste"s.
Topography:
%o#ogra#hy strongly influences run-off due to #resence de#ression storage& stee#ness of slo#es
and influences the drainage #attern.
4egetation:
Eegetation regulates the rate that #reci#itation reaches the ground y interce#ting it. Eegetation
is very effective in reducing the s#eed and force of overland flo$ and tra##ing sedi"ent.
Eegetation also re"oves $ater fro" the soil and fro" shallo$ ground$ater
Soils:
Soil ty#e. Strongly influences run-off y affecting the infiltration ca#acity and infiltration rate of
the soil.
Soil also influences vegetation and vice versa. Aoth soil ty#e and vegetation influence run-off and
run-off in turn can influence these t$o factors.
6eology:
Geology is the iggest single deter"inant of the #hysiogra#hy of a drainage asin as $ell as
strongly influencing soil ty#e& and e9istence and ehavior of a!uifers.
%he $ay drainage #atterns develo# is a res#onse to geologic factors.
0lashers vs. slow ' steady:
Strea"s in areas that have i"#er"eale roc6s such as "assive granites are li6ely to have a
?flashy@ character& strea"s in areas $ith "ore #er"eale roc6s such as volcanics or
li"estones $ill have a "uch "ore even flo$ #attern.
Response time:
>es#onse ti"e is the ti"e it ta6es for rainfall to reach a #articular "easuring #oint as
strea"flo$.
E.amples:
Mern >iver& Ba.
(erri"ac >iver& (o.
Po#o 0gie >iver& Wy
.eschuttes >iver& 5re.
)nthropogenic ?man5made@ factors:
(an can alter the local environ"ent to change its hydrogra#hy significantly.
%his is fre!uently in-advertent.
0griculture 3 forestry creates are soils and #ro"otes erosion co"#ared to natural vegetation.
%his #ro"otes flooding.
/uilding in flood plains:
Auilding in flood #lains and drainage and filling of $etlands ta6es advantage of flat& $ell $atered
and desirale areas 'e9ce#t during the floods that created such areas in the first #lace).
0rom pasture to par3ing lot:
1ran areas have a high #ro#ortion of i"#er"eale surfaces and a large nu"er of "echanis"s
for increasing the s#eed of runoff 'rain gutters& do$ns#outs& street gutters etc).
Hence the res#onse ti"e is lessened.
The hydrograph:
0 hydrogra#h is a gra#h of flo$ or =ust stage 'the height of $ater at a gauging station) on the y
a9is versus ti"e on the a9is
%he ti"e interval can e hours& days& "onths& or years.
%he stage is usually in feet
:lo$ can e in B:S or #ossily acre feet #er year for large rivers.
The ideal hydrograph:
%he ideali7ed hydrogra#h has the follo$ing for" for a u#land strea" res#onding to a single
stor" event4
See ideali7ed hydrogra#h...
It has a rising ar"& a #ea6 discharge& and a falling ar".
%he ase flo$ is the flatter #ortion and reflects the in#uts of ground$ater discharge.
4ariations:
5ver longer #eriods hydrogra#hs can have a variety of sha#es. %hose for strea"s in lo$land
te"#erate areas the hydrogra#hs are usually are gently undulating e9ce#t for s"all li#s due
to thunderstor"s. %hey $ould usually e higher in the s#ring and su""er lo$est in the
$inter.
0lash floods:
Hydrogra#hs that have the sa"e ti"e ste# $ould have very fe$ ut very shar# #oints indicating
infre!uent flash floods.
$p5stream vs. downstream
Li6e$ise the higher in a drainage a hydrogra#h is "easured& the shar#er the #ea6s in the
hydrogra#h are li6ely to e.
E.amples:
Wal6er >iver&
%i##ecanoe >iver&
Wild Water Bree6&
;elson Wash.
Relationship (etween hydrographs and precipitation:
5ver the long ter" hydrogra#hs and "easured #reci#itation should "ove u# and do$n in
tande". %here should e so"e delay ho$ever 'this is ter"ed the lag and is an indication of the
res#onse ti"e). %he farther do$n strea" the hydrogra#h is "easured the longer the delay $ill
e. 0lso& if the #reci#itation falls as sno$ the hydrogra#h $ill only egin to rise $hen the sno$
"elts.
"ec E. 0orm ' &rocess in Streams
6EFER)" &2*FTS
:lo$ variaility and the channel.
%rans#ort& erosion& and de#osition.
.ifferences flo$ characteristics and sedi"ent loads lead to variations in channel "or#hology.
SED*-EFT TR)FS&2RT
%he trans#ort of sedi"ent y $ater involves t$o funda"ental ste#s4
'1) entrain"ent of sedi"ent fro" the ed
'C) suse!uent& sustained do$n current "ove"ent of the sedi"ent
STRE)- 0"2WS
Large floods& .o they do "ost of the $or6H
%here is no clear resolution to the issue of "agnitude vs. fre!uency.
%e"#oral se!uences in flo$ events.
1. Sedi"ent trans#ort that has een inherited fro" the #ast.
C. Aetter understanding of duration and inundation of flo$s throughout their entirety.
/ig movers:
%he sedi"ent "oving ca#ailities of large rivers are #rodigious even the na"es and nic6 na"es
attest to this.
%hus the red river& the "any BoloradoFs and the na"e ?ig "uddy@ indicate that considerale
!uantifies of sedi"ents are sus#ended in the $ater of "any strea"s.
Generally u#strea" #ortions of rivers are actively eroding their eds $hile do$n strea"
sedi"ents are eing de#osited.
The stream channel or fluvial geomorphology.
Stea" channels are oth the #ri"ary conduit for terrestrial $ater to return to the sea and for the
out#uts fro" the #rocess of "ass $asting that is res#onsile for the gradual destruction of
land "asses and is a funda"ental #art of the roc6 cycle.
#H)FFE" &)TTERFS
BL0SSIB .IEISI5; 5: BH0;;<LS
Straight Bhannels
(eandering Bhannels
Araided Bhannels
/raided #hannels
%he factors that have een #ut forth are4
1. 0undant edload
C. Aan6s co"#osed of erodile sedi"ents
/. Highly variale discharge
4. Stee# Ealley Slo#es
Dynamics of stream channels:
Strea"s that have a variety of different sedi"ents 'clay& silt sand& #eles& coles oulders& logs&
"oile ho"es& etc) li6ely to for" #ool and riffle syste"s.
%he #ools for" ehind ars for"ed fro" coarse "aterials
:ine grained "aterials settle out in #ools and #ool-riffle syste"s gradually evolve and disa##ear
and change location in a given strea".
&ool and riffle:
Pool 3 riffle syste"s are vital to the aility of strea"s to sustain life as they #rovide varied
haitats& and hel# o9ygenate the strea".
1nder $aterfalls scour holes are li6ely to for" gradually undercutting the "aterial that loc6ed
the channel to create the fall.
The floodplain:
a relatively level area ad=acent to the strea" uild u# of sedi"ents de#osited in flood events $hen
the strea" cannot e contained $ithin its an6s.
:lood #lains fre!uently contain $etlands and secondary channels. 0lso features li6e o9o$ la6es
are found in flood #lanes.
-eandering ?li3e some lectures@!
(eanders are the other co""on feature of strea"s on the inside of the "eander sedi"ent is
de#osited on a #oint ar $hile $ater on the outside of the "eander has a faster velocity and
cuts into the usually stee#er an6. %he $ater can under-cut the an6 causing erosion ut it
also #rovides great s#ot to catch a ig fish.
Wiggle5waggle:
%he continuing erosion and de#osition at "eander cause a lateral shift and an elongation of the
"eanders.
E.amples:
Mas6as6ia& Illinois.
%rinity >iver at >iverside.
#ut5off in its prime:
<ventually the added distance the $ater travels 'and the shar# turns it "ust "a6e) as the
"eander e9tends& causes the strea" to cut through at a narro$ nec6. %his eli"inates that
"eander ut another $ill for" aove or elo$.
%he cut off section "ay for" an o9 o$ la6e or "ay #rovide an alternative channel during high
flo$s or the strea" "ay revert to this channel as it aggrades.
%hus strea"s are highly dyna"ic and therefore interesting.
Hydrology "ecture < G.
Strea"s& >ivers 3 La6es& (easure"ent and Bharacteristics.
-easuring volume of water:
:or a la6e ta6e surface area ti"es average de#th 'or use to#ogra#hic data).
E N 0P.
Where E N volu"e of $ater in 0cre-feet
0 N surface area of la6e in acres
. N average de#th of la6e.
'average de#th of la6e "ay e hard to deter"ine)
What is flow8
:lo$ is a volu"e #er unit ti"e such as a cuic foot #er second 'B:S).
%hat volu"e eing "easured is the volu"e of $ater #assing through the cross section area of a
strea" channel #er unit ti"e.
0low $nits ' -agnitudes:
Gallons #er "inute 'GP()& Buic feet #er second 'B:S)& 3 (illions of gallons #er day '(G.).
GP( for $ells and do"estic su##ly4
S"all $ell 1+-6+ GP(.
Huntsville city $ell 1&C++ GP(.
Batfish far" $ell /+&+++ GP(.
)ppropriate $nits
Buic feet #er second4
B:S for strea"s and rivers4
S"all cree6 1-C+ B:S& %rinity >iver 1+&+++-1++&+++ B:S& (ississi##i D++&+++ - C "illion B:S.
(G. for $ater 3 Se$age treat"ent #lants4 Huntsville Q 4 (G.& Las Eegas 16+ (G..
What affects velocity of 0low8
Gradient 'slo#e) of strea".
>oughness of strea" ed.
0!uatic or terrestrial vegetation.
Sha#e of channel.
.e#th of $ater.
La"inar versus turulent flo$.
Where is water flowing fastest8
In "iddle of channel& C+, of $ay to the otto"G
In dee#er $ater 'then $hy do still $aters run dee#H)
Where slo#e is stee#er
Where $ater is s"ooth 'then $hy is $hite $ater $here ra#ids are).
Waterfall $ould e ulti"ate fast $ater.
-easurement of run5off.
5verland flo$ is virtually i"#ossile to "easure.
>ather it can e esti"ated y loo6ing at other #arts of the run-off cycle.
%hus #reci#itation less infiltration less eva#o-trans#iration should e!ual overland flo$.
E.ample:
<ll$ood Shores Study.
Water over the dam:
5nce overland flo$ 'along $ith interflo$ and discharge fro" ground$ater) has entered a strea"
it can e "ore accurately "easured.
0low measurement
%here are several "ethods for "easuring strea" flo$ "ost involve deter"ining a cross-sectional
area for the strea" and "easuring or esti"ating the velocity of $ater flo$ing through that
cross-section.
0low is area times velocity.
Since the cross section is an area and the velocity is a s#eed 'distanceK#er unit ti"e) the result of
"ulti#lying velocity ti"es cross section is a volu"e
.ISBH0>G< <R10%I5;
R N W.E

R N .ischarge
W N $idth
. N .e#th
E N velocity 'fKs or "Ks)
#ommon $nits:
%y#ical units to "easure cross section are s!uare feet and velocity is ty#ically "easured in feet
#er second so the usual units of flo$ are cuic feet #er second or B:S.
E.ample of flow measurement:
0 strea" has rectangular cross-section C+ feet $ide& D feet dee#. (ulti#ly $idth ti"es de#th. C+ P
D N 1++ s!uare foot area 0.
If velocity E N .D feet #er second&
:lo$ : is .D ftKsec P 1++ s!uare feet N D+ cuic feet #er second....
;on-rectangular cross-sections re!uire careful "easure"ent.
Where to measure flow:
0t #oint in strea" $ith a solid otto"& single channel and unifor" flo$.
Preferaly $ith a rectangular cross-section.
0void s$a"#s& areas $ith turulent flo$.
Large rivers and s"all strea"s can e difficult to "easure.
5ld da" on Har"on cree6 or other #laces such as under ridges or in culverts are good
locations& ut $atch out for floods...
6auging Stations:
5nce these "easure"ents are "ade at a variety of different strea" heights 'stages) at a given
#oint& a #er"anent rating curve for the sa"#ling #oint is created relating stage '$ater height)
$ith flo$.
%hen only height of $ater need e "easured to esti"ate flo$& this can e done y either a "anual
gage& a stilling $ell $ith a float or a #ressure transducer.
Stage gauge:
(ost "easure"ents of the cross sectional area of a strea" rely on a strea" gage& a #ole $ith
graduated "ar6ings in feet and inches 'or 1K1+ of a foot). 0s $ater rises it $ets a larger
#ro#ortion of the gage.

"imitations:
If the site $here flo$ is eing "easured has a vertical an6s or $alls and a flat otto" then
"easuring flo$ is as si"#le as "ulti#lying the $idth of the channel ti"es the height of $ater
#assing the gage 'stage height). %his rectangle re#resents the cross section.
-isleadingly easy:
0 gage "ust e "anually "easured to deter"ine stage height& although it is si"#le accurate and
ine9#ensive. Ho$ever& for long ter" or continuous "easure"ents other technologies are
e"#loyed.
)utomated stage measurement:
5ne is a stilling $ell $ith a float. 0 stilling $ell is a #i#e $ith a $ater inta6e and a float li6e a
toilet tan6 float inside. >ising $ater in the cree6 enters the vertical #i#e and raises the float
$hich is recorded on a gra#h $ith a #en or saved to a >5( chi#.
&T;s:
0lternatively a ne$er and etter "ethod uses a #ressure transducer that can e uried in the
dee#est #art of the channel inside a $ell screen. %he #ressure transducer records #ressure
'$eight of $ater) and this is translated into de#th of the $ater colu"n aove the "easuring
#oint.
-other nature may not cooperate:
1nfortunately very fe$ natural situations have these characteristics. %he otto" is not flat and
the dee#est #art of the otto" "ay shift over ti"e& the an6s are not vertical and in fact at
higher flo$ $ater "ay enter other secondary channels co"#licating the esti"ate of cross
section. :inally& the ed "ay not e i"#er"eale.
/ad day on mud cree3:
%hus defining $ere the oo7e on the otto" eco"es ed and not $ater is not easy.
:or this reason hydrologists #refer to "easure flo$ at locations li6e ridges& $eirs or $here
edroc6 is e9#osed all the $ay across the channel and the an6s are stee#. %hese areas are
li6ely to have high velocity& a narro$ $idth and dee#er $ater than "any areas.
Speedy:
Eelocity can e even harder to "easure or esti"ate than the cross sectional area.
It is etter to "easure velocity of faster "oving $ater as the relative si7e of errors $ill e less&
also still $aters "ay have eddies that $ould "a6e esti"ate of velocity even harder.
How to estimate velocity of flow:
Salt dilution "ethod. >e!uires salt& conductivity "eter and $atch& can e auto"ated. Good for
s"all strea"s $ith good "i9ing& can e done y one #erson. Bross sectional area not needed.
(arsh"allo$ "ethod4 re!uires t$o #eo#le& a "arsh"allo$ or oer and a sto# $atch. Bross-
sectional area needed.
Eelocity "eter "ethod4 re!uires s#ecial flo$ velocity "eter and $ading. (easure at several
#oints. Bross-sectional area needed.
4elocity is estimated not measured directly!
.ata on roughness coefficients '.+1C for s"ooth to .+4 for torrents) for different strea"s is
availale.
Slo#e 'gradient) "easured as a $hole nu"er re!uires survey of strea".
4elocity measurement:
%here are three "ethods for "easuring velocity.
%he 'current) velocity "eter
%he float "ethod
(anning e!uation
#urrent meter:
%he current "eter is "ade u# of a #ro#eller attached to fins that orient the lades to #oint in the
direction of flo$ and $hich "easures the rotation of the lades and converts that into an
esti"ate of flo$& (odern velocity "eters "easure flo$ in feet #er second.
Eelocity "eters can e lo$ered fro" a oat& fro" cale$ays or can e attached to #oles and held
under$ater y hydrologists in hi# $aders in a shallo$ strea".
"imitations:
It is i"#ortant that the current "eter e held elo$ the river surface 'as $ind and air resistance
reduce velocity at the surface& ut aove the otto" $here friction of the $ater against the
otto" cause a sustantial reduction in velocity).
GC5%C rule:
%o account for these factors& "easure"ents at 2+, of the total de#th and C+, of the total de#th
should e "ade and averaged.
If the strea" is li6ely to have differing velocities at different locations of a traverse then
"easure"ents can e "ade an several #oints "oving across the strea" and averaged. %he
"ore "easure"ents& the "ore accurate the final esti"ate of velocity.
/eautiful 0loater:
%he float a##roach is "uch "ore crude ut "uch si"#ler.
0n o=ect li6e a fishing float is #laced in the river at a "ar6ed location and released at a set ti"e
the length of ti"e it ta6es to float #ast another "ar6ed #oint do$n strea" is "easured. %he
distance et$een the #oints is divided y the ti"e ela#sed and that gives the velocity esti"ate.
"imitations of float method:
.ue to eddies& difficulty in "a6ing the o=ect float a strait course& difficulty in "ar6ing #oints in
the "iddle of a strea"& etc this a##roach has li"ited utility ut is good for !uic6 and dirty
esti"ates.
-anning -ethod:
%he "anning a##roach is one that re!uires no actual field $or6. It is ased on an e!uation $hich
is designed to ca#ture the factors that effect flo$ in hydraulic syste"s li6e strea" channels.
-anningHs E:uation.

R N 'BKn) '0>
+.66*
S
+.D
)
R N .ischarge
B N constant
n N hydraulic roughness
0 N cross sectional area
> N hydraulic radius
S N slo#e or gradient of the channel
Rough and tuff!
%he >oughness coefficient is a nu"er et$een .+14 and .+*+.
%he nu"er is s"aller for s"ooth channels and larger for either oulder stre$n "ountain
strea"s '.+D+) or $eed cho6ed channels '.+*+).
Har"on cree6 near the fish hatchery should e aout .+/-.+/D.
Hydraulic radius: its all wet!
%he hydraulic radius is the $etted #eri"eter of the strea" "easured in feet .
%he slo#e is the fall is strea" elevation over so"e distance.
"ast (ut not least old salty!
%he final "ethod for esti"ating flo$ in a strea" does not use an esti"ate of either cross sectional
area or velocity.
It is ter"ed the salt dilution "ethod.
How salt dilution wor3s:
0 6no$n !uantity '"ass) of granulated Sodiu" chloride 'tale salt) is #laced in the strea" at a
6no$n ti"e. 0t a #oint far enough do$n strea" that the dissolved salt $ill have had ti"e to
"i9 co"#letely $ith the strea" $ater& a conductivity "eter is #ositioned. %he increased in
"easured conductivity is "easured on the "eter. %his is converted into an esti"ate of the
increase in concentration of dissolved solids in the cree6.
"ogistics:
(easure"ents of conductivity are "ade at constant ti"e intervals 'every "inute) and are
continued until the increase in conductivity has ended 'i.e. until ?$ave of salt $ater@ has
#assed).
If the distance et$een the in#ut #oint and the "easuring #oint is 6no$n& and the ti"e et$een
the in#ut of the salt into the $ater and the first increase in salinity is recorded the velocity can
e esti"ated.
0rom velocity to flow:
%he flo$ can also e esti"ated if the area under the curve of increase in salinity is deter"ined&
the ti"e over $hich the increase occurred is recorded and the "ass of salt is 6no$n.
/enefits of salt dilution:
%he salt dilution "ethod dose not re!uire a 6no$n cross-section or "easure"ent of esti"ation of
velocity it can e used $hen a esti"ate "ust e "ade in a hurry 'a flood) or in a strea" $ith
no very good #lace to esti"ate cross section ' a "ountain strea"). S"all turulent strea"s are
#articularly suited to this "ethod.
"imitations of salt dilution method:
%he "ethod can e li"ited y the sensitivity of the conductivity "eter.
E.ample:
(ission Bree6 Balifornia
Har"on Bree6& %e9as..
)pplications of flow measurement:
;eeded to #redict floods& esti"ate $ater su##ly and control da"s and irrigation #ro=ects4
.ata is otained y 1SGS at /&+++ locations in 1.S. on daily asis
<9a"#les4 La6e Livingston ':lood of ;ove"er 1884)& South Platte >iver '$ater a##ro#riation).
L<B. 8. Base Study :ort Hood Watershed Study.
0ort Hood Watershed Study &urpose:
.eter"ine i"#act of training activities on flooding and erosion. Study three $atersheds $ith
differing levels of disturance using real-ti"e "onitoring.
>efine e9isting "odels 'W(S& etc) of rainfallKrun-offKstageKerosion $ith detailed data fro" /
$atersheds.
Install a lo$-$ater crossing flood alert syste".
/ac3ground:
Aase has several $atersheds $ith varying levels of disturance fro" training activities.
Strea"s are #rone to flash floods.
<9isting strea" level 3 "eteorological data is inade!uate for detailed "odeling and
characteri7ation.
&ro>ect Steps:
Site selectionKGIS ased strea" "a##ing ste#.
Strea" stage "onitoring ste#.
Ground$aterKsoil "oisture "onitoring ste#.
Weather "onitoring ste#.
:lood alert syste" installation ste#.
.ata integrationK"odeling ste#.
SelectionImapping of Study Watersheds Step:
Select three $atersheds contained in Aase $ith varying levels of disturance.
Select gauging stations on a##ro#riate locations on each strea".
5tain a##ro#riate GIS data on $atersheds and delineate $atersheds in the GIS.
/ear #ree3 Watershed.
Aear Bree6 Watershed4 s"allest $atershed& flo$s to La6e Aelton.
Protected fro" disturance& due to endangered s#ecies 3 re"oteness.
(ost difficult to "onitorKtele"eter due to lac6 of access& irregular cross-section and no utilities.
Aase-line for training i"#act analysis.
2wl #ree3 Watershed.
(oderate level of disturance.
Li"ited tan6 trainingKso"e #ortions of asin in artillery i"#actKlive fire areas.
Second largest $atershed.
Inter"ediate flo$.
D& su-sheds& flo$s to La6e Aelton.
House #ree3
Greatest level of disturance& tan6 training areas in asin.
Largest flo$ and $atershed.
Su=ect to serious flooding.
Lo$-$ater crossing of #ulic road 'West >ange >oad ) is a flood ha7ard.
6*S (ased analysis:
GIS $ill e used to e9a"ine underlying soils& geology and vegetation in each drainage asin.
GIS $ill e used to deter"ine slo#e& as#ect 3 area in each drainage asin.
GIS can also create area $eighted average 'theisen #olygon) and isohytes fro" rainfall data.
Stream Stage -onitoring Step.
Installation of strea" stage "onitoring sites $ith ulerK#ressure transducers.
>eal ti"e turidity "onitoring.
.ata logging ca#aility.
.esigned to resist loss in flood events.
0ll tele"etered $ith solar #o$er.
Weather Data )nalysis and -onitoring Step:
0irfield has daily #reci#itation since 186+.
(a9i"u" C4 hour stor" can e calculated fro" this source.
C tele"etered $eather stations on Aase since 1884 #rovide hourly intensity data& s#atial variation
infor"ation.
Soil -oistureIgroundwater -onitoring Step:
Soil "oistureKground$ater "onitored at each gauging station in u#land& "id-slo#e 3 ri#arian
7ones using4
Shallo$ "onitoring $ells $ith P%-s.
%ensio"eters& dielectric constant 3 resistively soil "oisture "easure"ent.
Balirated y neutron #roe and la. soils analysis.
"E#. DC.F)T$R)" #2FST*T$EFTS 20 W)TER
What is water :uality:
Aesides "easuring !uantity of $ater the other $ater related #ara"eters "easured in the field
usually involve !uality "easure"ents.
Ruality "easure"ents can e of the $ater ody itself or of a source of #ollution such as a factory
discharge& the run-off fro" a far" or se$er line.
What is in it:
Water naturally contains various constituents esides hydrogen and o9ygen this includes
dissolved solids and gasses& sus#ended sedi"ents and various organis"s.
In addition $ater "ay e conta"inated $ith various "an "ade sustances.
Fatural or not:
Water !uality can involve natural constituents or anthro#ogenic conta"inants...
;atural constituents can e of three ty#es4
1) Inorganic "inerals& C)5rganic sustances and /) organis"s 'such as "icroorganis"s) .
Fatural #onstituents:
Water contains various dissolved solids $hich are derived fro" roc6s and soils #resent in the
drainage asin andKor a!uifer fro" $hich the $ater originated.
(ost dissolved sustances are ions. Bations are negatively charged and include4
0nions are #ositively charged and include
Silicon is a non-ionic s#ecies that "ay e #resent in $ater.
-inerals :
Include salts 'ionic co"#ounds) and silica...
(a=or salts are calciu"& "agnesiu"& sodiu"& chloride& iron.G
0ll natural $ater has so"e dissolved "inerals.
<9a"#le4 .esani
Total Dissolved Solids
(easure of "inerals and organic "atter in solution.
.ifferent than sus#ended #articles
1sually "easured as dissolved ions that change conductivity of $ater.
Water "ore than 1&+++ #arts #er "illion is rac6ish& "ore than 1+&+++ ##" is saline.
Total dissolved solids vs. Suspended solids:
%.S 0ll sustances dissolved in $ater. Will not settle out.
Sus#ended solids are floating in $ater $ill settle-out gradually.
Ban e filtered out& or let settle ut fine grained clay $ill not settle so $ater is oiled and residue
is $eighed.
Hardness:
is a "easure of the tendency of $ater to for" scale de#osits on #i#es and #lu"ing fi9tures.
It is the concentration of calciu" and "agnesiu" ions in the $ater.
Ban cause serious #role"s at #o$er #lants
Water softeners:
1se an ion e9change resin and a saturated solution of ;aBl the ;a is re#laced $ith Ba and (g
and the syste" is #eriodically ac6 flushed.
Prole"atic dissolved solids4
Sodiu"4 Bauses da"age to fertility of soils& can "a6e high lood #ressure $orse.
2ther undesira(le constituents:
Bhloride4 .a"ages #lants& i"#arts a nasty riny taste to $ater.
Iron4 Stains #lu"ing fi9tures& #ro"otes for"ation of ?lac6 scu"@ 'iron o9idi7ing acteria)
(anganese4 Stains #lu"ing "ay cause health #role"s.
Sulfur4 Aad odor and taste
E.amples:
Sulfur Bree6...
Heavy -etals:
Heavy "etals li6e lead and arsenic are less co""on ut "ore of a #role" since they can e
to9ic to #eo#le.
In so"e areas '$estern Bolorado) radioactivity is naturally in $ater as radon gas 'fro" rea6-
do$n of uraniu")
Greatest danger is in the sho$er.
Dissolved gasses:
%he i"#ortant dissolved gas is o9ygen...;eeded y fish and to io-degrade $astes.
.issolved o9ygen is introduced due to turulence of $ater and fro" contact of $ater $ith
at"os#here 3 fro" a!uatic #lants.
Dissolved o.ygen:
'.5) is needed to su##ort fish and rea6-do$n $astes& lo$ .5 is co""on in su""er in
stagnant $aterG
(easured y Win6ler titration or no$ $ith electronic #roes.
Lo$ .5 "eans dead fish...
D.2. characteristics of water:
Lo$ in ground$ater& high in "ountain strea"s.
Aacteria use u# .5.
(ore o9ygen can e dissolved in cold $ater than $ar" $ater.
Radon.
;aturally occurring rea6-do$n #roduct of uraniu".
:ound in ground$ater in areas $ith uraniu" earing roc6s.
>eleased $hen ground$ater is aerated& say in a sho$er head.
Bauses lung cancer.
2ther &arameters:
#H&
%e"#erature.
%uridity can e esti"ated y sight.
Tur(idity
cloudiness of $ater& can e "easured $ith a sechi dis6 'a the "etal dis6 tried to a ro#e and
lo$ered until the "ar6ing can no longer e read). %his gives an indication of clarity.
Why is tur(idity important.
%uridity is an indication of #resence of "icrosco#ic scu" 3 clay in sus#ension.
%his #rovides a nice hiding #lace for nasty "icroes& so turid $ater is difficult to chlorinate and
disinfect.
%hus $hen it rains& Huntsville-s $ater treat"ent #lant "ust shut do$n.
(easured y light trans"ission.
Temperature:
%e"#. that is too high &say due to discharges fro" a #o$er #lant is a #role" '<9a"#le4 %a"#a&
:lorida)& ut $ar" $ater is en=oyed y so"e s#ecies li6e losters '<9a"#le ;e$ Ha"#shire).
Higher te"#eratures #ro"ote solution of "ore "inerals& so"e can e to9ic.
Heat: thermal pollution.
1sually related to #o$er #lant discharges.
Ban e ad or eneficial to a!uatic environ"ent.
<9a"#les4 %a"#a Aay& vs.. Blear$ater >iver in :lorida 3 Searoo6 in ;e$ Ha"#shire.
pH:
#H is a "easure of acidKase alance.
<ither lo$ or high #H can e ad.
>anges fro" +-14& * is neutral.S
+-* is acidic& high acidity can leach to9ic heavy "etals.
*-14 is al6aline high al6alinity can hurt #lants& "a6e $ater hard to chlorinate.
2rganisms:
Earious organis"s live in $ater.
:ish& "ollus6s and a"#hiians are an indicator of $ater !uality ut do not affect !uality "uch.
(icroorganis"s such as algae& aeroic and anaeroic acteria and "icrosco#ic ani"als li6e
a"oeas #lay an i"#ortant role in "aintaining $ater !uality y rea6ing do$n $astes.
Too much of a good thing:
In e9cess& so"e "icro-organis"s such as the colifor" acteria or a"oeas "ay e har"ful to
hu"an health <9a"#les4 Hotel Lord and the White >oc6 S#rings a"oea.
-icroorganisms:
Include viruses& acteria& ani"als 'a"oeas).
So"e of these can e seen in the field $ith a hand lens& usually are vie$ed 3 cultured in la.
So"e "icro-organis"s that cause #role"s in 1.S. are giardia& cry#to-s#iridiu" '<9a"#le4 Aeer
Bity).
In third $orld countries '(e9ico& 0r6ansas& etc) a"oeas and colifor" acteria are co""on4
don-t drin6 that ru" and co6e on the roc6sGWatch out for the Hotel Lord in (erida.
-onitoring:
(onitoring $ater !uality involves oth "onitoring sources and "onitoring $ater odies. (ost
standards are related to sources not actual !uality of the receiving ody 'la6e or river).
Typical water :uality measurements include:
%.S
%uridity
#H
.issolved o9ygen
0lso concentration of s#ecific conta"inants
#anary in a coal mine:
0lternatively a!uatic to9icity can e "easured $ith fish or che"o-lu"inescent acteria.
Difficulties:
Prole"s occur if there are "any sources4
<9a"#le4 (ississi##i et$een Aaton >ouge and ;e$ 5rleans.
Futrients:
;itrate& 0""onia& 3 Phos#horus.
%hese are li"iting nutrients if introduced can cause algal loo"s 'eutro#hication).
(ostly fro" se$age and fertili7ers.
1se of #hos#hates in detergents anned in 18*+-s.
24ER5EFR*#H-EFT
5nce in a $ater ody& the nutrients can sti"ulate gro$th of a!uatic #lants that cause $ater
!uality #role"s 'a #rocess called eutro#hication).
0ni"al $astes are less concentrated than fertili7ers ut large scale confined far"ing '#ig herds&
chic6en sheds& cattle feed lots& e"u far"s 'in their drea"s)) generate huge volu"es of $aste.
Eutrophication:
%he technical ter" for the over-enrich"ent of an a!uatic environ"ent. .ue to nutrients li6e P54
and ;5/ that are in short su##ly naturally eing su##lied fro" hu"an and ani"al $aste&
fertili7er and detergent.
Scum and more scum:
%his causes a ?loo"@ of algae and acteria that eat the algae. When these organis"s die& the
o9ygen dissolved in the $ater is used u# and fish and other ani"als die. Water is "ur6y& stin6s
and is covered y dying #ond scu" and floating dead fish.
"E# DD. Water :uality: )nthropogenic contamination
To.ic Su(stances in Water:
Synthetic organic che"icals li6e PBA-s and ..%.
Hydrocarons li6e gasoline or crude oil.
Solvents li6e %B<& PB<.
Heavy "etals li6e lead& chro"iu"& "ercury and arsenic.
>adioactivity4 usually >adon gas.
0ate of pollutants:
.is#ersion4 ?.ilution is the solution to #ollution@...
Aioche"ical decay4 (icroes convert to B5C use u# 5C.
Sedi"entation4 #ersistent #ollutants li6e ..%& PBAs and heavy "etals stay in sedi"ents.
<9a"#le4 (ini"ata Aay& Ja#an.
*s your drin3ing water safe8
Proaly yes& #ossily no& ut ho$ safe is safeH
(any rural $ater syste"s are out of co"#liance $ith Safe .rin6ing Water 0ct standards&
0lso "any #rivate $ells.
E.amples of Drin3ing Water Ris3s:
4++&+++ #eo#le sic6 in (il$au6ee& 16 #eo#le die in Las Eegas fro" cry#tos#iridiu".
<P0 esti"ates 6&+++ additional cancer cases #er year due to chlorination of organic laden $ater
for"ing %H(-s.
Bhlorine alternatives li"ited& standards for turidity are eing "ade tougher.
Water &ollution #ontrol -ethods:
Waste-$ater treat"ent4 aeroic #lants andKor anaeroic #rocess.
Industrial #rocess controls.
Pro#er storage& 3 dis#osal of to9ic $astes.
Pu"# 3 treat ground$ater #ollution.
0naeroic se#tic syste"s #hased out& re#laced y aeroic syste"s '#ossile air !uality and health
ha7ard if i"#ro#erly "aintained).
Water Juality "aws: #lean Water )ct:
Sets discharge li"its and receiving $ater standards for #oint 3 non-#oint sources
>egulates dredge 3 fill of $etlands.
funds construction of $aste$ater treat"ent #lants.
(ost e9#ensive 'to :eds) and successful environ"ental la$.
Safe Drin3ing Water )ct:
Sets "a9i"u" conta"inant li"its for #riority #ollutants in "unici#al $ater syste"s.
>e!uires testing and notification.
(any syste"s not in co"#liance $ith standards for heavy "etals and turidity and chlorine
levels.
<9a"#le4 Huntsville.
Status of Water Juality in $S):
(ost dra"atic #rogress in $ater !uality in 1S0 in last CD years.
(ost to$ns have secondary se$age treat"ent.
(ost discharges y industry have een reduced or eli"inated.
;on-#oint source #ollution "a=or re"aining #role".
Status of Water Juality in 2ther countries:
Water !uality is i"#roving in Banada& Ja#an and Western <uro#e
Going do$n-hill in develo#ing countries $ith ne$ industries4 (e9ico& India& Bhina& ;igeria&
Indonesia.
0long $ith shortage '$hich "a6es !uality #oorer) is iggest resource #role" facing develo#ing
countries $ith the the "ost #eo#le.
)nthropogenic #ontamination:
Water conta"ination due to "an-s activities 'anthro#ogenic) is a serious #role" throughout the
$orld& #erha#s "ore so in the develo#ing counties and the for"er socialist countries 'and
Bhina) than in Western Industriali7ed ones.
-ain Types:
%he "a=or sources of "an-"ade conta"ination of surface $ater are4
Se$age
Industrial $astes
0gricultural che"icals& fertili7ers and $astes
5ther sources4 uran run-off & L1S%
Sewage:
Hu"an $aste is a "inor #role" $hen #o#ulations are dis#ersed& although if the outhouse on
the fa"ily far" $as near the cree6 or $ell #athogenic organis"s li6e sal"onella and colifor"
acteria could e a #role".
#ontrol measures:
Indoor #lu"ing only #artially alleviated the #role" since $astes $ere accu"ulated in a "ore
concentrated for" and in larger volu"es.
Se#tic tan6s and outfalls at rivers are a first #ass at using ?dilution as the solution to #ollution@.
2verload:
Ho$ever& for large volu"es of $astes generated y uran areas this does not $or6 $ell.
E.amples:
London in the 18th century.
Waste Water Treatment:
%he a##roach today is a "ultistage se$age treat"ent #rocess at a central #lant using the
activated sludge #rocess '#ri"ary treat"ent) and aeration 'secondary treat"ent) #ossily also
further ste#s '%ertiary treat"ent) to re"ove nutrients li6e nitrate and #hos#horus fro" $ater.
*ndustrial wastes:
these $astes co"e in all ty#es and all volu"es.
%y#ical ty#es include #etroleu" industry $astes& che"ical industry $astes and "etal #rocessing
industry $astes.
Hydrocar(ons:
Petroleu" $astes include crude hydrocarons& oil field rines& refined #roducts and acidic sludges.
(any of these $astes lea6 fro" underground storage tan6s.
#hemical industry:
%hese $astes include the "ost to9ic ty#es of $astes 'these are "ostly no longer discharged into
surface $aters). 0l"ost every 6no$n che"ical currently used or in use the #ast has gotten into
surface $aters fro" che"ical "anufacturing.
E.amples of To.ic chemicals :
..% 'Santa (onica Aay)&
Me#one 'Ja"es >iver)&
.io9in '%i"es Aeach)&
PBAs' Hudson >iver)&
(ercury' (ine"ata Aay).
-etal finishing industries:
Generate heavy "etal containing $astes
0cidic and Aasic $astes.
Sulfates.
Solvents
Butting oils.
Large sources li6e steel "ills have een controlled 'or the #role" has een e9#orted) ut
"achine sho#s& #lating co"#anies& etc still generate so"e #role"s.
2ther industries:
have uni!ue $aste $ater #role"s4 Pa#er Industry4 Bhlorine&
%anning4 heavy "etals 3 acids&
<lectronics4 Heavy "etals and chlorinated solvents.
High Tech To.ics:
High tech does not necessarily i"#ly clean...
<9a"#les4 Silicon Ealley& Loc6heed s6un6 $or6s.
6et the pointK
Point source industrial #ollution can e controlled and in the 1.S. is largely controlled although
i"#rove"ents can e "ade.
Fon5point source:
0gricultural che"icals& fertili7ers and ani"al $astes tend to e non-#oint source4
With "unici#al and industrial sources of #ollution "ore or less ca#ale of eing controlled $ith
treat"ent technology non-#oint sources of #ollution are the "ost challenging ones today.
0arming Dirty
Since agriculture is the hu"an activity that occu#ies the "ost land it should not e sur#rising
that it is a leading source of conta"ination.
0gricultural #ollution is usually non-#oint source 'unless a syste" of drains e9ist).
Types of )gricultural pollution:
Pesticides4
Hericides
Hericides and #esticides are a "a=or ecological and fre!uently a hu"an health #role".
&ersistent pesticides:
li6e ..%& chlordane& eldrin& 3 Hericides li6e C4D% 'agent orange) that are ased on
chlorinating aro"atic "olecules have een re#laced 'in 1S0) y4
Still to.ic:
less #ersistent ut "ore acutely to9ic co"#ounds li6e cara"ate 3 organo-#hos#horus
co"#ounds.
(any #esticides are $ater solule and those than are not end u# in sedi"ents.
(any a!uatic s#ecies are sensitive.
/io5accumulation:
%he #rocess of uild u# of co"#ounds in the odies of #lants and ani"als. So"e #ollutants
including ..%& PBA& .io9in and heavy "etals io-accu"ulate. %he to# of the food chain gets
the highest concentration 'Hu"ans& eagles& "arlin are at the to#).
<9a"#les4
(ercury in %una&
..% in ald eagles.
0ertili1ers and animal wastes.
:ertili7ers contain "inerals and #lant nutrients li6e M& P54 and ;5/. %hese are $ater solule in
order to $or6. 1nfortunately& "uch a##lied fertili7er gets into ground$ater or runs-off& either
as a $ater solution or attached to soil #articles that are eroded.
/ig trou(le down on the farm:
%his is a severe rural $ater !uality #role"& #roaly the single iggest $ater related #role" in
"any states including ;orth Barolina& 0r6ansas and other "ostly rural states
2ther sources:
1ran run-off &
L1S%&
s"all usiness&
ho"e 3 garden.
$r(an run5off:
Bontains a $ide variety of conta"inants that get $ashed off streets and la$ns. %hese include4
garden che"icals 'dia7inon is ig in %e9as due to fire ants)& and auto"otive #roducts li6e
"otor oil& antifree7e& ra6e fluid etc. %he total volu"e is huge.
"$ST:
L1S% stands for Lea6ing 1nderground Storage %an6s 'also L1:%) $ith over 4 "illion tan6s
"ostly holding fuel oil or gasoline "any tan6s or associated #i#ing have lea6ed'esti"ated at
1K/). 1sually L1S% is first a ground$ater conta"ination #role" ut due to discharge of
a!uifers this can get in surface $ater.
To.ics around town:
S"all local usinesses li6e dry cleaners and auto-re#air sho#s are an on-going #role".
Household che"icals includes "any to9ic co"#ounds that get $ashed do$n the sin6 'drain-o&
oven cleaner& detergents) and #est control #roducts.
*mpacts of water pollution:
Pathogenic organis"s4 (ostly fro" se$age& cause 4+&+++ deaths every day $orld$ide. 1sually
a"oeas& colifor" acteria and #arasites are the cul#rits. ?.on-t drin6 the $ater@ doesn-t
$or6 if you are a resident and not =ust a tourist. >arer in 1S0 ut giardia and crytos#iridiu"
can sic6en "any '4++&+++ in (il$au6ee) and 6ill aies& the old and the sic6.
)cute To.icity:
Pesticides and high concentrations of oil and other che"icals can 6ill $ildlife i""ediately& this
#role" is usually a##arent and corrected !uic6ly& ut in the third $orld it ha##ens
fre!uently.
#hronic to.icity:
0 long ter" #oisoning over "any years& heavy "etals do this also chlorinated #esticides are
sus#ected to #roduce this. <ffects can e rain da"age& irth defects or one decay.
#arcinogenesis.
%he #rocess of induction of cancer. Earious co"#ounds are sus#ected. Bhlorinated solvents and
so"e #esticides 'chlordane& .ABP) and che"icals 'PBA) are #roven in ani"als and sus#ected
in hu"ans of causing cancer.
"a3e &onchartrain:
%he "ost #olluted large la6e in 1S. See#age of se$age fro" old and ro6en se$er syste" of the
ig easy is cause along $ith shallo$ de#th and $ar" cli"ate.
#uyahoga River:
%his 5hio river Baught on fire in 1862. (any industries du"#ed in this 5hio river $hich flo$s
into La6e <rie. Scandal hel#ed in #assage of the clean $ater act of 18*C. ;o$ largely cleaned
u#. :lushing action of rivers s#eeds clean-u# once source is re"oved.
"a3e Erie:
%his s"allest of the great la6es is still is heavily #olluted fro" #ast du"#ing& sedi"ents contain
"ercury& lead& arsenic& PBAs& ..% and "any other co"#ounds. Aotto" fish and #redators
are still conta"inated.
Hudson River:
%his i"#ortant ;e$ Lor6 >iver $as #olluted y Westinghouse PBA "anufacturing facility
du"#ed tons of PBAs into the river "ost is still in sedi"ents.
/ig -iami River:
%his river in 5hio4 1raniu" du"#ed fro" :ernald #lant still on otto" of river.
Sacramento River:
0 train derail"ent in head$aters s#illed #esticide in 188+ that 6illed all fish for "any "iles
do$n strea".
2hio River:
%he 5hio >iver south of Pittsurgh4 Bolla#se of "illion gallon fuel oil tan6 caused death of
"any fish and shut do$n of $ater treat"ent #lants do$nstrea" for several $ee6s.
Trinity River
%he "ost #olluted large river4 Alac6 sludge e#isodes in #ast& no$ "uch etter.
Rio 6rande:
%he >io Grande is also #olluted fro" se$age and agricultural and industrial che"icals 'outflo$
fro" Juare7 and ;uevo Laredo is the $orst #role" des#ite ;0:%0 #ro"ises).
#addo "a3e:
Lonestar steel in (arshal are other e9a"#les of surface $ater #ollution #role"s.
#ases of Surface Water &ollution )round the World:
"a3e /ai3al:
In >ussia 'largest ody li!uid of fresh $ater on earth) has so"e ad #ollution fro" #a#er "ills
and other industry. %riutary caught fire in 6+Fs.
El Salvador:
.ense #o#ulation& unrestricted use of anned #esticides& causes fish in la6es and coastal areas to
die and eco"e conta"inated& #eo#le have high rates of cancer and irth defects.
#airo Egypt:
2 "illion #eo#le& ;o "odern se$age treat"ent for "ost& ;ile river is increasingly #olluted.
&ollution &revention:
Prevention involves identifying sources and #utting treat"ent #rogra"s in #lace.
1sually secondary treat"ent of "unici#al se$age
Segregation of industrial $aste $ater $ith s#eciali7ed treat"ent as a##ro#riate.
In so"e cases $astes cannot e treated and are dis#osed of y incineration& solidification and
dis#osal in a ha7ardous $aste landfill or dee#-$ell in=ection.
Remediation:
Blean-u# of conta"ination involves treating #oint sources.
So"eti"es total re"oval is necessary.
<9a"#le4 :rench Li"ited site& Brosy& %e9as.
(ore fre!uently treat"ent 3 "onitoring is sufficient.
Fon5structural methods:

;on-#oint sources "ay re!uire eli"ination of so"e sustances& collection of stor" $ater or
"ethods for reducing erosion and run-off thus allo$ing $ater to #ercolate into a!uifers and e
naturally attenuated y acteria and y filtration as it "oves through soil and a!uifer
"aterials.
Ris3s versus (enefits:
If "oney $as unli"ited... all $ater #ollution could e eli"inated. 0s "oney is li"ited decisions
need to e "ade as to $hich issues to address first and it is necessary to decide ho$ clean is
clean.
%his involves #ulic #olicy& la$ and econo"ics. It also involves ris6 assess"ent.
>is6 assess"ent uses statistics& environ"ental and iological science and econo"ics to hel# decide
issues.
E.amples:

.eal $ith se$age first& then che"ical #lant discharges. %hen oil refineries and #a#er #lants& then
agriculture and finally uran run-off.
Bontinue to use chlorine for $ater #urification.
Worst 2ffenders:
Bancer causing co"#ounds and chronic #oisons li6e heavy "etals and #articularly radio-active
co"#ounds have received strongest regulation.
Naturally occurring toxins have gotten less attention.