PREPARATION OF TRANSFORMER SPECIFICATIONS

By Presented at IEEE Southern

Vallamkonda Sankar Alberta (SAS)-Power Engineering
E-mail: powertransormer!hotmail"#om So#iety (PES)-Industry Appli#ation
So#iety (IAS) seminar on
$o%ember &'( )*&)"
-)-
OBJECTIVES
+o prepare spe#ii#ations or pro#uring reliable transormers at market pri#es"
+o prepare #lear and #on#ise spe#ii#ations with no ambiguities"
+o guide users in determining the transormer parameters"

+o ensure that the transormer parameters meet system needs"
+o use e,isting standards to the ull e,tent in the spe#ii#ations"
+o amiliari-e users as to how spe#ii#ations ae#t the design and the #ost"
+o en#ourage the manua#turers to submit #ost ee#ti%e alternates with low losses(
meeting all the system needs"
+o understand the dangers when the transormers are used dierent to what is stated
in the spe#ii#ations"
+o dis#uss the ad%antages and disad%antages o in%ited tendering %erses open
tendering"
+o know and understand the #larii#ations.#onirmations to ask in the +ender /e%iew
and 0esign /e%iew meetings"
+o a%oid delays in deli%ery by ollowing up with the manua#turer at #riti#al inter%als"
+o #he#k the 1uality o the transormer by inspe#ting at #orre#t produ#tion stages"
+o ensure that the a#tory tests meet system #onditions and the standards"
+o identiy the importan#e o transportation( installation and maintenan#e when
e%aluating tenders"
+o obtain the best beneits by knowing the #hara#teristi#s and the #osts o the
materials and the #omponents used in the transormers"
+o intera#t with transormer manua#turers or mutual beneits"
+o initiate new or e%ol%ing inno%ations in transormer design and manua#ture
or the redu#tion o #ost without #ompromising the perorman#e"
-2-
FUNCTIONS OF TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
&" 34rom an 5ser perspe#ti%e: +o ormally and airly #ommuni#ate e,a#tly what the
6ontra#tor has to deli%er"7 [&]
)" 34rom a 6ontra#tor perspe#ti%e: +o be able to a##urately oer ser%i#es and
produ#ts whi#h pro%ide a satisa#tory solution (te#hni#al and #ommer#ial) to
user8 while remaining a long-term proitable business"7 [&]
2" 34or both 5ser and 6ontra#tor: +o a%oid relationship mishaps asso#iated with
#ostly %ariation work"7 [&]
9" Enable the manua#turer:s design engineers to understand the #hara#teristi#s o
the user:s system and how the transormers are operated in ser%i#e"
;" 6reate an opportunity or manua#turers to apply impro%ed design and
manua#turing methods benei#ial to users" Also an opportunity to use ad%an#ed
materials and a##essories"
<" =any users are o the opinion that they are pro#uring the lowest #ost
transormers by ordering based on the lowest e%aluated #ost bid" Ee#ti%e
spe#ii#ations will help pro#ure transormers with the lowest lie #y#le #ost"
>" +e#hni#al spe#ii#ations pro%ide the user a uture re#ord o design
parameters to whi#h a parti#ular transormer was pur#hased" +his inormation
is essential or users when a spe#ii# transormer has to be mo%ed to a
dierent lo#ation with dierent system needs or when a mature system:s
#ontingen#y plans #hange" $ew re1uirements e%ol%e o%er time" Past
spe#ii#ations may not ha%e #onsidered modern #riteria su#h as:

(i) ?I6 (?eometri#ally Indu#ed 6urrents) re1uirements"
(ii) 4ree bu#kling re1uirements on inner #oils"
(iii) Ad%an#ed on-line monitoring de%i#es"
(i%) Va#uum type on-load tap #hangers"
(%) S4/A re1uirements"
(%i) Apparent #harge (p6)"
(%ii) Impa#t o se#ondary generation( espe#ially on transormers with dual
se#ondaries"

+horough spe#ii#ations are the irst step in establishing long term reliability o
transormers" Spe#ii#ations should #o%er the present and uture system re1uirements"
+ransormers are reliable and oer trouble ree ser%i#e i they are operated as stated in
the spe#ii#ations and maintained to minimi-e aging o the insulation" Spe#ii#ations
should en#ourage new de%elopments that in#rease ei#ien#y while redu#ing the lie
#y#le #ost" 6onstru#ti%e parti#ipation o users in tender re%iew( design re%iew(
inspe#tions and resol%ing #onli#ts will enhan#e the long term reliability o the
transormers"
6EA+I (6anadian Ele#tri#al Asso#iation +e#hni#al Institute) has published a report on
@/e%iew and summary o key standards and guides or station-#lass power transormers:
[&A]" +his is a good reeren#e while preparing the spe#ii#ations"
Input rom maintenan#e engineers( operating engineers and the manua#turer:s design
engineers is essential in preparing ee#ti%e spe#ii#ations"
-9-
TOPICS

&" /atings"
)" Standards"
2" Single phase %erses three phase"
9" Binding #onne#tions"
;" Ve#tor group"
<" Insulation le%els"
>" +erminals"
A" A##essories"
'" +ypes o #ooling"
&*" Sound le%els"
&&" +aps (range( lo#ations et#")"
&)" +ypes o taps"
&2" Impedan#e"
&9" 6apitali-ation o losses"
&;" Short-#ir#uit withstand"
&<" Spe#ial re1uirements (altitude( o%er e,#itation( ?I6 et#")"
&>" C%erloads"
&A" Parallel operation"
&'" /ating plate"
)*" Alternati%es"
)&" Interesting #lauses in the spe#ii#ations"
))" ?lobali-ation"
)2" 0ata sheets"
)9" +ests"
);" +ender and design re%iew meetings"
)<" +ransportation and limiting dimensions.weights"
)>" 6on#lusions"
-;-
RATINGS
+he transormer:s =V"A rating is usually determined based on the system e,pe#ted load
growth( a%ailable generation and e,pe#ted rate o return on the in%estment" +he
business plan is based on #apital #ost re#o%ery( depre#iation rate and the proit to be
made ea#h year" +ransormer appli#ations su#h as two winding( autotransormer( step-
up or step-down et#" inluen#e the transormer rating" Cther a#tors su#h as e,pe#ted
power demand growth and load a#tor ha%e a large inluen#e in determining the
transormer rating"
6SA-6AA-='* #lause 9"& deines the rating as ollows" 3the rated load in =V"A together
with any other assigned #hara#teristi#s( su#h as %oltage( #urrent( and re1uen#y
assigned by the manua#turer" It shall be regarded as a test rating that deines an output
that #an be taken rom the apparatus under pres#ribed #onditions o test( and within the
limitations o this standard7" 4urther( @Basis o =V"A: is deined in se#tion >")"
IEEE standard 6;>"&)"A*-)*&* #lause 2"2;; states the rating as ollows:- 3+he rating o
a transormer #onsists o a %olt-ampere output together with any other #hara#teristi#s(
su#h as %oltage( #urrent( re1uen#y( power a#tor( and temperature rise( assigned to it by
the manua#turer" It is regarded as a rating asso#iated with an output that #an be taken
rom the transormer #onditions and limitations o established standards7"
IEEE standard 6;>"&)"**-)*&* #lause ;"9"& des#ribes the rating as ollows" 3+he rated
DV"A o a transormer shall be the output that #an be deli%ered or the time spe#iied at
rated se#ondary %oltage and rated re1uen#y without e,#eeding the spe#iied
temperature-rise limitations under pres#ribed #onditions o test( and within the limits o
established standards7"
IE6 <**><-&( )*** #lause 9"& states the rating as ollows:- 3+he interpretation o rated
power a##ording to this sub-#lause implies that it is a %alue o apparent power input to
the transormer" +his is dierent rom the method used on 5S tradition (A$SI.IEEE
6;>"&)"**)( where @rated DV"A: is @the output that #an be deli%ered at Erated se#ondary
%oltageE: A##ording to that method( allowan#e or %oltage drop has to be made in the
design so that the ne#essary primary %oltage #an be applied to the transormer7"
I transormers are pur#hased per IEEE standard( the ele#tri#al lo#ation o the taps (in
FV( in GV( in series winding( in #ommon winding et#")( appli#ation o the taps (or input
%oltage lu#tuations or or output %oltage regulation)( and whether the transormers are
operated as step-down or or step-up determine dierent =V"A ratings or the input and
output #ir#uits (FV and GV)" 6onsidering this( some users make the #al#ulations
themsel%es and spe#iy the #urrents or ea#h winding" +his is preerred sin#e i let to the
manua#turers( ea#h manua#turer #ould #al#ulate the #urrents dierently"
=any users ha%e standardi-ed the transormer =V"A ratings used in their systems" +his
is based on o%erall e#onomy (resulting in ewer spare transormers) and the le,ibility o
mo%ing the transormers to dierent stations in their system" Site lo#ation and
transportation limitations #an limit the =V"A rating o the transormer"
Input and output (FV and GV) %oltage ratings are determined by the e#onomi#s o power
transmission based on the total =V"A to be transported( length o transmission lines et#"
-<-
STANDARDS
=any spe#ii#ations list a number o transormer standards and make a statement in the
spe#ii#ations that the transormers must meet these standards" Some deinitions and
re1uirements o these standards( su#h as 6SA-6AA-='*( IEEE 6;>"&)"** and IE6
<**>< are dierent" +he ollowing ha%e dierent e,planations in these standards:-
$ormal or usual ser%i#e #onditions"
/ated power"
C%er %oltage #onditions"
C%erload #apa#ity at low ambient temperature"
Suggested impedan#es"
+ests and test le%els"
0imensions and insulation le%els o bushings" Also( the e,ternal #learan#es"
Cil temperature rise"
+ypes o taps"
+ap range"
+oleran#es on impedan#e( losses and magneti-ation #urrent"
+he spe#ii#ations should state whi#h #lause in the spe#ii#ation should meet whi#h
standard" +he spe#ii#ations should also reeren#e the latest %ersion o the standard"
Bhen the spe#ii#ations are not #lear( most o the manua#turers bid the transormers
with least irst #ost" Cten these assumptions may not meet system needs" Some
e,amples are: /6B$ taps when system re1uirement is 46B$ taps( in-eed rom +V is
not #onsidered when there is in-eed rom +V in the system et#"
Beore 1uoting a #lause rom a standard in the spe#ii#ations( the users must ensure the
standards satisy their needs" Some users spe#iy that #ertain parameters should be per
industry standard" +here is no ambiguity i the spe#ii#ations gi%e the reeren#e to this
industry standard" 5sers should know that there are no uni%ersal 3industry standards7
and there are only standards su#h as 6SA( IEEE and IE6"
5sers should be aware o the latest re%isions in the standards and also the #urrent
dis#ussions in the #ommittees that write the standards" A ew o su#h topi#s in IEEE
transormers #ommittee are gi%en below"
/ating o stabili-ing winding (buried tertiary)"
6orrelation o winding temperature indi#ator (B+I) time #onstant to the type o #ooling
and the winding time #onstant"
Partial dis#harge measurement in pi#o #oulombs rather than mi#ro %olts"
Sound le%el test based on sound intensity rather than sound pressure"
6SA-6AA-='* was published in &''* and was reairmed in )**' but was not updated"
$ormally IEEE and IE6 standards are updated or re%ised at least on#e in ten years" In
IEEE( the +ransormers 6ommittee Borking ?roups are assigned or #ontinuous
impro%ement o 6;>"&)"** and 6;>"&)"'* standards" Bhen spe#iying the transormers
per 6SA-6AA-='* users should make the ne#essary updates to their spe#ii#ations"
Standards do not( by themsel%es( orm spe#ii#ations" +he use o the standards #orre#tly
will enable pro#urement o e#onomi#al transormers meeting system re1uirements"
->-
SINGLE-PHASE VERSES THREE-PHASE
0imensional and weight limitations at site( transportation restri#tions( e#onomi#s o
spares and transormer reliability primarily determine whether the transormer re1uired is
single-phase or three-phase" A bank o three single-phase transormers #ost about &
times the #ost o a three-phase transormer ha%ing the same total =V"A"
Single-phase transormers may be spe#iied or hydrauli# stations be#ause o transport
restri#tions and spa#e limitations at site" At large nu#lear stations( the risk assessment
generally re1uires the use o single-phase ?S5 transormers" +o repla#e a ailed single-
phase transormer takes mu#h less time than a three-phase transormer( redu#ing down-
time to the system and sa%ing #onsiderable #ost" Very high %oltage transormers (><;DV(
&)**DV et#") are single-phase be#ause it is not pra#ti#al to a#hie%e the re1uired air
#learan#es in a three phase-transormer" 4or o%erall e#onomi# reasons( most sub-
stations up to ;**DV use three-phase transormers"
Bhen an old single-phase transormer ails( it is oten repla#ed with a new single-phase
transormer" 4or a un#tionally identi#al new transormer( losses( weight and dimensions
are oten mu#h lower than those o the old transormer" +his is due to impro%ements in
materials( a##urate design analysis with ad%an#ed mathemati#s( #omputers and better
manua#turing methods" 5sers should #onsider these a#tors( and i it is e#onomi#al and
easible (e,isting oundations( spa#e limitation( et#")( then they should repla#e the old
single-phase transormers with a new three-phase transormer rather than buying
another single-phase transormer"
Bhen the user desires an identi#al repla#ement transormer( all the parameters o the
old transormer must be gi%en to the bidders" I users do not ha%e the data on the old
transormers( a pre-tender meeting with the bidders #ould help"
+he ollowing will help in writing spe#ii#ations or a single phase transormer to repla#e
a ailed unit in a three-phase bank"
&" $eutral bushing #urrent rating is based on where the neutral #onne#tion is made
(between the units or in the station bus)"
)" +ertiary bushings #urrent rating is based on where the delta #onne#tion is made
(between the units or in the station bus)"
2" +ype o transormer #ore (three-limbs with #oils on one limb( or two limbs with
#oils on both limbs( or our-limbs with #oils on two-limbs) is preerred to be the
same as the remaining two healthy units"
9" G+6s to ha%e same run-through positions (this simpliies the #ontrol s#heme)"
;" 6he#k with breaker supplier as to whether the #apa#itan#e to ground should be
the same on all the units (limit on ault #urrent interruption duty)"
<" 6he#k whether the two healthy units ha%e subtra#ti%e or additi%e polarity" Preer
to order subtra#ti%e polarity per present standards" I re1uired( spe#iy proper
insulation le%els (ully insulated) to use or repla#ement"
>" Stabili-ing winding (buried tertiary) must be designed or the aults on the tertiary
(this is not re1uired on three phase transormers)"
A" +o a%oid undesired #ir#ulating #urrent in the tertiary delta( the %oltage or the
tertiary must be same or all the units" I the tertiary %oltage on the two healthy
units is 22"&DV( then spe#iy 22"&DV and not 22DV"
-A-
WINDING CONNECTIONS
+hree phase transormers ha%e windings #onne#ted in wye( delta or -ig--ag inside the
tank" +hese #onne#tions or single phase transormers are made outside the tanks"
Bhen a neutral is re1uired then( it is e#onomi#al to #hoose a wye or a -ig--ag" I a
neutral is re1uired on a delta side( then a grounding transormer is needed"
$eutrals usually ha%e a lower insulation le%el #ompared to the lines" Su#h windings #an
be e#onomi#ally designed with graded insulation" +o redu#e no-load loss and end
#learan#es to the #ore8 other a#tors permitting( su#h windings #an be designed as
#enter-ed windings" 6ompared to the taps in delta( taps at neutral result additional #ost
sa%ings in the tap #hangers( tank si-e( oil 1uantity et#"
Bhen both FV and GV are wye #onne#ted( a stabili-ing winding (buried tertiary) may be
needed or suppression o third harmoni#s and or neutral stabili-ation" +he determining
a#tors are based on the type o #ore (#ore type transormers with three-phase three
limbed #ores does not re1uire a stabili-ing winding( but some users spe#iy a stabili-ing
winding)( the system and the neutral #onne#tion in the system" +his oten leads to a
#hoi#e to ha%e one o the main windings delta #onne#ted" Prote#tion #osts should be
#onsidered in determining whether the FV or the GV should be delta #onne#ted"
In #ertain #ases when the G+6 is ele#tri#ally #onne#ted to the low %oltage winding
(#onsidering that the %oltage o this winding is not high)( it #an be #onsiderably #heaper
to use delta #onne#tion or the low %oltage winding" A delta #onne#ted winding has a
lower #urrent by H2 and this #ould a%oid the use o a series transormer to redu#e the
#urrent in G+6" Fowe%er( this has some disad%antages" I the insulation le%el o this
winding is high( then the #ost ad%antage #ould be lost" As well( %ery ew three-phase
G+6s or delta #onne#tions are a%ailable" Instead( three single-phase G+6s are to be
used" In su#h a #ase( shiting the G+6 on to the wye-#onne#ted FV needs to be
e,plored" Based on how the transormer is operated( this #ould make the transormer a
%ariable lu, design"
By #onne#ting the windings in wye.-ig--ag rather in wye.delta( the need or a grounding
transormer on the delta #an be eliminated" Cten in a wye.-ig--ag transormer( it is
e#onomi#al to limit the single line to ground ault #urrent to not e,#eed the three-phase
ault #urrent( by #onne#ting a neutral grounding rea#tor o suitable rea#tan#e in the -ig-
-ag neutral" Bithout the grounding rea#tor( single line to ground ault #urrents in a
wye.-ig--ag transormer will be high #ompared to that o wye.delta transormer with the
same parameters (same =V"A and positi%e se1uen#e impedan#e)" A wye.-ig--ag
transormer #osts about <I more than a wye.delta transormer" In general( a wye.-ig-
-ag transormer with a grounding rea#tor #osts less #ompared to a wye.delta transormer
with a grounding transormer" As it is dii#ult and #ostly to ha%e taps on a -ig--ag
winding8 the taps are normally on the wye winding" In a step-down transormer when the
-ig--ag winding is the output winding( users preer to ha%e taps on the -ig--ag winding"
+his is be#ause8 taps on the input winding to #ompensate or regulation will make the
transormer a %ariable lu, unit" 0isad%antages o the %ariable lu, taps are dis#ussed
under 3+ypes o +aps7"

5sers should be aware that when there is no delta in the transormer (wye.wye or
wye.-ig--ag) the harmoni#s will low in to the system" A method to pre%ent the harmoni#s
lowing in to the system is dis#ussed under Ve#tor ?roup"
-'-
VECTOR GROUP
6SA-6AA-='* #lause 9"& states as ollows: 3Angular displa#ement (o a polyphase
transormer)--the time angle( e,pressed in degrees( between the line-to-neutral %oltage
o the reeren#e identiied high-%oltage terminal (F&) and the line-to-neutral %oltage o
the #orresponding identiied low-%oltage terminal (J&)" $ote: +he preerred #onne#tions
or polyphase transormers are those whi#h result in the smallest possible phase-angle
displa#ement measured in a #lo#kwise dire#tion rom the line-to-neutral %oltage o the
reeren#e identiied high-%oltage terminal (F&)" +hus( standard three-phase transormers
ha%e angular displa#ements o either -ero or 2*K 6lo#k system (o phase displa#ement)
--a method e,pressing the phase displa#ement between two windings by analogy to the
hands o a #lo#k"7
=any standards and te,t books show multiple %e#tor group #onne#tions" +he same
angle shit between FV and GV #an be a#hie%ed by %arious %e#tor groups" Cne o:#lo#k
%e#tor #an be a#hie%ed by the Ld&( 0y& or L-& groups" +wel%e o:#lo#k %e#tor #an be
a#hie%ed by the Ly*( 0d* or 0-*" Ve#tor group has to be #areully sele#ted be#ause it
has a bearing on transormer #ost and on the system operation" +his is be#ause( ea#h
%e#tor group has a dierent -ero se1uen#e impedan#e( resulting in dierent ault
#urrents"
Cnly #ertain types o #ores are re#ommended or the wye.wye #onne#tion" +he book
@+ransormer Engineering: by G"4" Blume states the ollowing on wye.wye #onne#tion [)]"
3L-L #onne#ted transormers( e,#epting three phase three legged #ore type units( are
not #apable o supplying an appre#iable single-phase load rom line to neutral( owing to
the a#t that the #orresponding primary #urrents o su#h loads( lowing through the
primaries o the unloaded phases( magneti-e them" +his statement is true or L-L
#onne#ted single-phase units and shell-type three-phase units" 6ore-type units howe%er(
may( on a##ount o the interlo#king o the magneti# lu,es in the three legs( gi%e tolerably
good results under #onditions o single-phase loads rom line to neutral or unbalan#ed
ele#trostati# #harging #urrents" L-L #onne#tion with grounded neutral in single-phase
and shell-type three-phase units is dangerous on a##ount o the possibility o resonan#e
in the third harmoni# with the line #apa#itan#e" It should ne%er be used7"
In a delta.delta #onne#ted transormer( a neutral or grounding is not a%ailable" Bhen
two GVs are re1uired( some users are spe#iying wye.-ig--ag.-ig--ag" 5sers should
#onsider spe#iying wye.delta.-ig--ag (Foeppner transormer)" In these transormers a
neutral is a%ailable" Sin#e there is a delta( the third harmoni#s will stay in the transormer
and do not low in to the system"
Bhen line %oltage is high and the #urrent is small( then #onne#ting this winding in wye is
e#onomi#al #ompared to #onne#ting in delta" +his is be#ause the phase %oltage M (line
%oltage.2)" Bhen the line %oltage is small and the #urrent is large( then to #onne#t this
winding in delta is e#onomi#al" +his is be#ause phase #urrent M (line #urrent.2)" 5sers
should #onsider system #osts( system re1uirements and dis#uss with transormer
manua#turers beore stating in the spe#ii#ations whi#h side should be delta( whi#h side
should be wye( and the %e#tor group"
-&*-
INSULATION LEVELS
6SA-6AA-='* #lause 9"& deines Gightning Impulse Ge%el as ollows: 3the pres#ribed
peak %alue o the lightning-impulse withstands %oltage (ull wa%e)" $ote: +he lightning-
impulse le%el (GIG) has been #ommonly reerred to as the @BIG:"7
Below are more deinitions rom 6SA-6AA-='* #lause 9"&"
Swit#hing impulse le%el (SIG) - the pres#ribed peak %alue o the swit#hing impulse
withstands %oltage (ull wa%e)"
5niorm insulation (o a transormer winding) - the insulation o a transormer winding
when all its ends #onne#ted to terminals ha%e the same power re1uen#y withstand
%oltage"
$onuniorm insulation (o a transormer winding) - the insulation o a transormer winding
when it has an end intended or dire#t or indire#t #onne#tion to ground and is designed
with a lower insulation le%el assigned to this ground or neutral winding end"
Insulation le%els should be based on insulation #oordination o the system" Standards
gi%e dierent insulation le%els (BIG le%els) or the same system %oltage" Cne e,ample is
or )9;DV8 6SA-6AA-='* gi%es our dierent BIG le%els <;*DV( >;*DV( A;*DV and
';*DV" 4or )2*DV IEEE 6;>"&)"**-)*&* gi%es our dierent BIG le%els <;*DV( >;*DV(
A);DV and '**DV" Some #onsultants who write spe#ii#ations or users oten spe#iy
higher BIG le%els than needed" +hese #onsultants say that by spe#iying higher BIG
le%els they are helping their #lients to pro#ure better transormers" Insulation le%els (BIG
le%els) ha%e a large impa#t on transormer #ost and the losses" As su#h( it is
re#ommended that the users to spe#iy only the needed BIG le%els( and not to o%er
spe#iy them"
Some users eel that more reliable transormers #an be pur#hased by spe#iying higher
BIG le%el or the bushings than the windings" Sin#e the bushing is the irst #omponent to
see the impulse( some users spe#iy one or two higher BIG le%el or the bushings than
what is a#tually needed" In su#h transormers( windings #ould ail beore the bushings(
be#ause the BIG le%el o the bushings is higher than the windings" +his is %ery #ostly
be#ause #ompared to the #ost o the winding8 the #ost o the bushing is small" Also( to
repla#e the windings is #ostly and time #onsuming #ompared to the bushings"
=any te#hni1ues (interlea%ed( #ounter shield turns et#") to uniormly distribute the
impulse %oltage in the windings ha%e been de%eloped and all the transormer
manua#turers are using them su##essully" Also manua#turers ha%e reliable #omputer
programs to #al#ulate the impulse %oltage distribution in the windings" As su#h( there is
no need to o%er spe#iy the BIG le%els or windings"
Sin#e re1uests or 1uotes are @ree:( some users ask or alternate 1uotes or
transormers with dierent BIG le%els" Cne e,ample is or ;**DV units where three
alternate 1uotes were re1uested" +he irst one was &9);DV BIG or windings and
&9);DV BIG or bushings" +he se#ond alternate was &9);DV BIG or windings and
&A**DV BIG or bushings" +he third alternate was &A**DV or windings and &A**DV or
bushings"
-&&-
INSULATION LEVELS (continue!
Cten not enough time is gi%en to prepare the tenders" +he designer o the transormer
manua#turer has to make two separate designs with dierent BIG le%els or windings
and three separate outline drawings to #o%er all the alternates" In su#h #ases( i not
enough time is gi%en there is a possibility that the tenders may not be e,a#tly what is
needed by the user" Preparation o tenders is a signii#ant #ost to the manua#turers"
E%en or house repairs (plumbing( heating( air #onditioning repairs( et#") the #ontra#tors
oten #harge to gi%e estimates" I the users were to pay at least or the alternati%es to
#o%er a part o the #ost in#urred by the manua#turers( then users will get e#onomi#al
tenders meeting their system re1uirements" As in house repair work( #ustomers need not
pay this #ost to the su##essul bidder"
Gightning arrestors design has impro%ed to gi%e better prote#tion8 so( many standards no
longer re1uire #hopped wa%e tests during impulse tests" 4ront o wa%e testing
re1uirements ha%e also been eliminated by almost all o the standards" 5sers should
dis#uss this with their insulation #oordination engineers and prote#tion engineers beore
spe#iying a #hopped wa%e test or a ront o wa%e test and they should be spe#iied only
i needed by the system" Some users spe#iy a /B-4B-6B-4B impulse test se1uen#e
be#ause in their e,perien#e this se1uen#e enables easier ailure dete#tion"
Some users #ompare physi#al #learan#e distan#es between windings( between windings
and ground to e%aluate dierent bids" Some users use these #learan#es or initial
#omparison o the bids8 and in the inal e%aluation( the stresses in oil and in solid
insulation are #ompared" 6omparison o the total distan#es is not an ee#ti%e pra#ti#e
sin#e this does not #orre#tly determine the %oltage stresses in oil and in solid insulation"
+he more appropriate pra#ti#e is spe#iying separately the stress limits in oil and in solid
insulation or power re1uen#y( swit#hing surge and impulse %oltages" Some
spe#ii#ations ha%e stated these limits" +here are many ways to design the insulation
system to #ontrol these stresses"
Some spe#ii#ations spe#iy more tests( higher test le%els and stri#ter toleran#es than
those stated in the standards" Gower #osts #an be attained by not de%iating rom the
standards unless it is spe#ii#ally needed by the system"
Some users spe#iy the BIG o the FV neutral to be the same as the line terminal e%en
though the neutral will be solidly grounded in operation" +his will signii#antly in#rease
#ost" +he #ost will be urther in#reased i there an G+6 in the FV neutral"
6ertain types o #ir#uit breakers (S4< and %a#uum interrupters) or when swit#hing
#ertain types o loads (solid state loads)( #an produ#e a mu#h steeper %oltage wa%e than
what is spe#iied in the standards" +ransormers #an ail (ailures had o##urred due to
part winding resonan#e( high %oltage stresses in the winding et#") i the windings are not
designed or these %oltage wa%es" I the breaker is going to produ#e a dierent wa%e
shape than what is spe#iied in the standards then the wa%e shape to whi#h the
transormer should be designed and tested must be #learly stated in the spe#ii#ations"
Based on system needs( i the user wants the impulse test #onne#tions to be dierent
rom those stated in the standards then it must be stipulated in their spe#ii#ations" Cne
e,ample is when FV line is impulse tested on an autotransormer( whether the GV line
must be solidly grounded or grounded through impedan#e"
-&)-
TERMINALS
4ollowing deinitions are rom 6SA-6AA-='* #lause 9"&:
+erminal--#ondu#ting element intended or #onne#ting a winding to e,ternal #ondu#tor"
Gine terminal--a terminal or #onne#tion to a phase #ondu#tor o a system"
$eutral terminal--(a) or polyphase transormers and polyphase banks o single-phase
transormers( terminal (s) #onne#ted to the neutral point o a star-#onne#ted or -ig-ag-
#onne#ted winding and (b) or single-phase transormers( the terminal intended or
#onne#tion to a neutral point o a system"
4ollowing deinition is rom 6;>"&)"A*-)*&* #lause 2"99':
+erminal--(A) A #ondu#ting element o e1uipment or a #ir#uit intended or #onne#tion to
an e,ternal #ondu#tor" (B) A de%i#e atta#hed to a #ondu#tor to a#ilitate #onne#tion with
another #ondu#tor"
In the spe#ii#ations users should spe#iy all the ele#tri#al #hara#teristi#s and physi#al
details o the terminals" A ew are listed below"
&" +ype o bushings (#ondenser type( bulk oil type et#")"
)" Insulation le%el o line and neutral bushings"
2" C%er%oltage"
9" C%erloads"
;" +ype o terminal (oil-to-air( oil-to-oil( oil-to-S4< et#")"
<" Cil preser%ation system (#onser%ator( nitrogen pressuri-ed et#")"
>" Gist o 6+s and #hara#teristi#s to determine ground shield length o the bushings"
A" 6o%er-mounted or hori-ontally-mounted on the side wall"
'" Go#ation (6;>"&)"&*-)*&* #lause ;"& indi#ates the segments)"
&*" +erminal arrangement and markings (/e: 6;>"&)"&*-)*&* #lause ;") 4igure 2)"
&&" Standards to whi#h to #omply (6SA.EE=A6 or IEEE.A$SI or IE6)
&)" $eutral bushing #urrent rating (same or hal o line #urrent)"
&2" Spe#ial details (Bus-du#t or any other spe#ial re1uirements)"
&9" 6onne#tion (bottom-#onne#ted or draw-lead.rod)"
&;" /e1uirement o 0oble #onne#tors and bus #onne#tors"
&<" 6reepage length"
&>" /e1uirement o #ap tap and.or potential tap"
&A" Por#elain or #omposite bushings"
&'" Bushings terminals heights rom the transormer base( spa#ing et#"
)*" =inimum e,ternal #learan#es (line to line and line to neutral) i non-standard"
)&" Inter#hangeability with e,isting spares or with bushings o another standard"
))" Crder o bushings arrangement (F&( F)( F2 or F2( F)( F& et#") i non-standard"
)2" Paper resin #ore (P/6) or paper oil #ore (PC6)"
)9" Swap-out #apability without draining main tank oil"

Bushings built to IEEE.A$SI standards are less e,pensi%e and ha%e a shorter lead-time
than bushings built to 6SA.EE=A6 standards" As su#h( many users in 6anada are
spe#iying the bushings built to IEEE.A$SI standards" I a bushing built to 6SA.EE=A6
standards has to be repla#ed with a bushing built to IEEE.A$SI standards( it #an be
done by using the adapters whi#h #an be pur#hased rom bushing manua#turers"
-&2-
TERMINALS (continue!
Bushing manua#turers in 6anada are also relu#tant to supply bushings built to
6SA.EE=A6 standards" 5sers should #onsider this beore spe#iying the standard or
the bushings" 5sers should also #onsider IE6 bushings( be#ause oten pri#es o IE6
bushings are lower than 6SA.EE=A6 and IEEE.A$SI bushings"
I users want any tests other than the standard routine tests on the bushings then these
must be spe#iied in the spe#ii#ations" +his is be#ause the transormer manua#turers
are usually not e1uipped to do tests on the bushings themsel%es" +hese tests must be
done by bushing manua#turers who would also supply the test #ertii#ates"
Bhen oil-to-oil or oil-to-S4< bushings are spe#iied( the transormer manua#turer will
install a #hamber with additional oil-to-air bushings to #ondu#t a#tory tests on the
transormer" In su#h #ases( it is re#ommended that the user inali-e the test set-up and
the tests at the design re%iew stage"
+o #lean the oil sura#e o the por#elain( spe#ial pre#autions and spe#ial materials are
re1uired" 5ser should obtain these details rom the transormer manua#turer" Some
users spe#iy that gaskets must be suitable or high temperature (e," Viton gaskets)"
Suitability o these gaskets at #old temperatures should also be spe#iied sin#e some
gasket materials perorm well at high temperatures but poorly at #old temperatures"
A ew other points to #onsider are the #urrent ratings o the bushings in a bus du#t( oil
e,pansion %olume ade1uate or the entire operating temperature range in#luding
o%erloads( a need or e,ternal #orona shields et#" +he internal #orona shield should be
dedi#ated to the intended bushing model and the transormer" Internal #orona shields
should not be #hanged or used on another model bushing or in another transormer
without the appro%al rom the transormer manua#turer"
Spe#iy when the bushings are lo#ated inside isolated-phase bus du#ts( or surrounded
by the transormer:s sound en#losure along with all the re1uired details or #orre#t
sele#tion and mounting o the bushings" Some o the details to in#lude are the height o
the bushing terminal rom the transormer base( spa#ing( langes et#" I the minimum air
#learan#es o bushings needed are more that those stated in the standards( then these
must be gi%en in the spe#ii#ations" In many instan#es( these air #learan#es depend on
the model o the bushing terminal #onne#tors" I a parti#ular bushing #atalogue number
is needed then it should be spe#iied in the spe#ii#ations"
6lause 2"; o 6SA-6AA-='* spe#iies Gow-Ambient +emperature Goad 6apability" It is
suggested that users %eriy this #apability in the +ender /e%iew =eeting" 5sers should
also ensure that the turrets o the terminals are properly designed to enable any gases
e%ol%ing rom transormer oil and insulation to ind their way to the gas a##umulation
relay"
Bhile working as a maintenan#e engineer with a user( the author has e,perien#ed more
problems on terminals than on the windings" +hereore( e,tra #are is re#ommended in
spe#iying the details or the terminals and during the appro%al re%iew o the drawings"
-&9-
ACCESSORIES
6;>"&)"A*-)*&* #lause 2"9 deines a##essories as ollows( 3de%i#es that perorm a
se#ondary or minor duty as an adNun#t or reinement o the primary or maNor duty o a
unit o e1uipment7"
A #omprehensi%e list o a##essories is gi%en below:
Cil preser%ation system (#onser%ator( nitrogen pressuri-ed et#")
Breather (normal sili#a gel( maintenan#e ree sili#a gel( #ryogeni# prin#iple et#")
=o%ing a#ilities (liting( Na#king( rolling( sliding et#")
?as a##umulation relay
Cil le%el indi#ator
Cil temperature indi#ator
Binding temperature indi#ator (B+I)
4iber opti#s temperature sensors
4ans
Pumps
Val%es (drain sampling( ilter( radiator et#")
?rounding (#ore( tank( ele#trostati# shields( magneti# shunts et#()
Surge arresters and #ounters
Sudden pressure relay
0eluge
Cn-line monitoring systems
Pressure relie de%i#e
E,plosion-resistant tank
4all arrest systems
0ue to time #onstraints( a##essories are not des#ribed in detail" I user is amiliar with
the #onstru#tion o the a##essories( how they operate and how they un#tion then it will
be %ery useul in the maintenan#e o the transormers" +he ollowing will help in
preparation o the transormer spe#ii#ations"
Is an air bag re1uired in the #onser%atorO I re1uired( then must it be o any
parti#ular makeO Spe#iying the temperature limits" Is a parti#ular make o
nitrogen pressuri-ed system re1uired and i so( what should the pressure limits
beO
Is a spe#ii# make o breather re1uiredO Should it be maintenan#e reeO
0oes the time #onstant o the B+I mat#h with the time #onstant o the windingsO
+his is %ery important on Cil 0ire#ted) C0 #ooled transormers"
I a spe#ii# type or make o a##essory is needed then this should be spe#iied"
I re%enue metering 6+s are needed( spe#iy their a##ura#ies and need or
#ertii#ation"
I any pro%isions (on-line monitoring systems( arrestor bra#kets et#") are re1uired(
spe#iy the parti#ulars like si-es( types o %al%es( mounting bra#kets details et#""
By dis#ussing all the parti#ulars o the a##essories in the tender re%iew meeting( most
#onli#ts #an be a%oided" +his may also help in de#iding on whi#h bidder to pla#e the
order"
-&;-
T"PES OF COOLING
4or oil-natural #ooling systems (C$A$( C$A$.C$A4 et#") 6A$.6SA-6AA-='* and
IEEE 6;>"&)"**-)*&* spe#iies <;K6 or a%erage winding and or top oil rises abo%e the
ambient" But still many users are spe#iying ;;K6 or ;;.<;K rise" Some users eel that by
spe#iying ;;K6 or ;;.<;K6 rise they are getting better 1uality and higher rated
transormers at lesser pri#e than those o <;K6 rise" By spe#iying only <;6 per the
standards( #onusion and mistakes in reerring the parameters (impedan#e( load loss
#apitali-ation( sound le%el et#") to the wrong =V"A base #an be a%oided"
A ew #ommonly used #ooling designations are gi%en below:
C$A$ P Cil natural( air natural"
C$A4 P Cil natural( air or#ed"
C4A4 P Cil or#ed and not dire#ted into the windings( air or#ed"
C0A4 P Cil or#ed and dire#ted into the windings( air or#ed"
C0B4 P Cil or#ed and dire#ted into the windings( water or#ed"
Per 6SA-6AA-='* when a transormer is designated as C$A$.C$A4.C$A4 and the
top rating is & p"u"( then the middle rating is *"A p"u" and the base rating is *"< p"u"
Some o the points to be #onsidered in sele#ting the #ooling type are listed below:
--4or remote lo#ations( i the transormer dimensions and weight allow then C$A$
#ooling alone #an be #onsidered" +his is be#ause #hanging a dee#ti%e an or a dee#ti%e
pump #osts too mu#h time and money" +he #ost o #ooling with ans and.or pumps
%erses the #ost o C$A$ #ooling should be #onsidered"
--Bhere snowall a##umulations are small( permit the use o bottom mounted ans" +his
is be#ause( bottom mounted ans are more ei#ient than side mounted ans"
--I a parti#ular make.type o ans or pumps are needed then spe#iy them"
--In the design re%iew #he#k the mounting details o the ans to eliminate e,#essi%e
%ibrations that #ould #ause premature ailure o the ans in ser%i#e"
--Bhen pumps are used and the oil is not dire#ted in to the windings( #he#k that the
temperature rises o the windings are #al#ulated by #onsidering proper oil %elo#ity in the
windings (%elo#ity based on thermal head only)"
--Bhen pumps are used and the oil is dire#ted in to the winding( #he#k the oil %elo#ities
in dierent areas (between radial du#ts( between a,ial du#ts et#") o the winding to a%oid
stati# build-up and damage o the insulation"
--4or water #ooled units spe#iy leak dete#tor type #oolers"
--4or a triple rated transormer (espe#ially with pumps) #onsider a temperature rise test
on the middle rating on the irst transormer in the order"
4or the normal well-type B+I the time #onstant is about 9; minutes" 4or windings( the
time #onstant is about 9 to &* minutes" 4or C0 #ooled transormers( a B+I with e1ual or
lower time #onstant than the windings should be #hosen" +he IEEE +ask 4or#e on B+I
has done e,tensi%e work on this topi# and the author re#ommends reerring to their
work" +his inormation is a%ailable at www"transormers#ommittee"org
4or water #ooled transormers #hemi#al analysis o the water should be pro%ided in the
spe#ii#ations" Supply %oltage a%ailable at the station must be in#luded in the
spe#ii#ations or the #orre#t sele#tion o ans( pumps( G+6 motor and other a##essories"
-&<-
SOUND LEVELS
=any users are spe#iying lower sound le%els than the %alues in standards due to stri#ter
en%ironmental laws" Beore spe#iying the sound le%el( users should #onsider the
lo#ation o the transormer within the system and the uture settlement o residential
dwellings near the transormer station"
Sound le%el has a large ee#t on the transormer #ost" 5se o laser et#hed steel (Q0DF
et#") and step-lap #ore #onstru#tion are yielding lower sound le%els than the normal #old
rolled grain oriented steel (6/?C)( and mitred #ore #onstru#tion without step-lap
#onstru#tion" =ost o the manua#turers operate the #ore at low lu, density to obtain low
sound le%el" Some manua#turers ha%e de%eloped spe#ial #ore binding methods to
redu#e the sound le%el" In the tender re%iew meeting the user should #he#k these
spe#ial methods and how the transormers o similar design ha%e tested and are
operating in ser%i#e"
5sers should pay attention to 6A$.6SA-6AA-='* #lause &2") when taps are operated
as %ariable lu, taps: 3Cn transormers with on-load and deenergi-ed tapping swit#hes(
or both( not in the winding being regulated( the indu#tion and sound le%el will %ary with
tap position" 5nless otherwise spe#iied by the pur#haser( the sound-le%el limit shall
apply at prin#ipal rated tap positions( e,#ept as noted in #lause &2"2"7
=any transormer spe#ii#ations state the sound le%el re1uirement at rated tap" 6lause
&2"2 o 6A$.6SA-6AA-='* will help users to de#ide on whi#h tap the sound le%el
guarantee should be" 3I a bridging rea#tor is used and the bridging position is a normal
operating position but not the prin#ipal rated %oltage position( then the sound-le%el test
shall be made on that adNa#ent tap position #al#ulated to gi%e the highest sound le%el"7
IEEE standards do not dis#uss the sound le%el at the bridging position"
Some users spe#iy the sound le%el at ull load" As it is not possible to do this test in the
a#tory( user and the manua#turer should mutually agree to the method to #al#ulate the
sound le%el at load" +he ollowing #lauses in IEEE standards may be o help"
6lause A")"2 o 6;>"&)"**-)*&*: 3+he transormer shall be #onne#ted or( and energi-ed
at( rated %oltage( re1uen#y( and at no-load" $oise-#ontributing elements o the
transormer( su#h as pumps and ans( shall be operated as appropriate or the rating
being tested" Bhen it is impra#ti#al or undesirable to in#lude the appropriate #ooling
e1uipment( the sel-#ooled sound le%el may be #orre#ted or #ooling noise #ontribution( i
suitable #orre#tions are a%ailable and it is mutually agreeable to those #on#erned"7 It is
suggested also reer to #lause &2"2"9 o 6;>"&)"'*-)*&*"
6lause &2"&"& o 6;>"&)"'*-)*&* states: 3Audible sound rom transormers originates
prin#ipally in the transormer #ore and transmits through the diele#tri# luid and.or
stru#tural supports to the outer shell and.or other solid sura#e( where it radiates as
airborne sound" In some situations( the windings may be a noise sour#e under rated
load #onditions( but this noise is not in#luded in this standard"7
Bhen a uture sound le%el redu#tion en#losure is re1uired( the spe#ii#ations should
#learly state the work to be perormed by the manua#turers su#h as (langes height rom
the transormer base( details o the langes( pressure relie mounting details et#")"
-&>-
TAPS (#$n%e& 'oc$tion( etc)!
+he un#tion o the %oltage taps is to keep the output %oltage #onstant" G+6 and 0E+6
stand or Goad +ap 6hanger and 0e-energi-ed +ap 6hanger( respe#ti%ely"
0einitions below are rom IE6 <**><-&"
Voltage +aps
In a transormer ha%ing a tapped winding( a spe#ii# #onne#tion o that winding(
representing a deinite ee#ti%e number o turns in the tapped winding and(
#onse1uently( a deinite turns ratio between this winding and any other winding with i,ed
number o turns"
+ap range
+he %ariation range o the tapping a#tor( e,pressed as a per#entage( #ompared with the
%alue @&**:"
$ote: - I this a#tor ranges rom &**Ra to &**-b( the tapping range is said to be: RaI(
-bI or aI i a M b"
0einition below is rom IEEE 6;>"&)"A*-)*&*"
+ap (#lause 2"99&)
A #onne#tion brought out o a winding at some point between its e,tremities( to permit
#hanging the %oltage( #urrent( or ratio"
=ost aspe#ts o taps are #o%ered in detail in the ollowing tutorials" +he tutorials will help
users in determining the tap range( lo#ation et#" +he tutorials #an be a##essed at
www"transormers#ommittee"org or in ?oogle"
3+APS7 C#tober )<( )**9 IEEE +ransormers 6ommittee =eetings in Gas Vegas(
$e%ada( 5SA by V" Sankar"
3+APS I$ A5+C+/A$S4C/=E/S7 C#tober );( )*&* IEEE +ransormers 6ommittee
=eetings in +oronto( 6anada by 0r" +omas- Dali#ki and V" Sankar"
+he ollowing #lauses are rom 6;>"&)"&*-)*&*"
6lause 9";"& Figh-%oltage winding taps or de-energi-ed operation:
I spe#iied( de-energi-ed tap #hanger (0E+6)( the ollowing our high-%oltage rated
kilo%oltampere taps shall be pro%ided" )";I and ;I abo%e rated %oltage and )";I and
;I below rated %oltage" Bhen a load tap #hanger (G+6) is urnished per 9";")( the high-
%oltage 0E+6 may not be re1uired"
6lause 9";") +aps or G+6 transormers:
Bhen an G+6 transormer is spe#iied( G+6 e1uipment shall be urnished in the low-
%oltage winding to pro%ide appro,imately &*I automati# regulation o the low-
%oltage winding %oltage in appro,imately *"<);I steps( with &< steps abo%e and &<
steps below rated low-%oltage"
=any utilities in 6anada and in 5SA ha%e rewritten their spe#ii#ations eliminating 0E+6
taps where%er possible" +he biggest dii#ulty with 0E+6 taps is that the transormer
-&A-
TAPS (#$n%e& 'oc$tion etc) continue!
must be de-energi-ed to #hange the taps" =any users ne%er #hange the 0E+6 tap
position o%er the lie time o the transormer" Some users operate the 0E+6 tap #hanger
on#e a year to break the o,ide ilm ormed on the #onta#ts" $ow some manua#turers
guarantee that the 0E+6 tap #hanger #an be operated on#e in i%e years or more to
break the o,ide ilm" 5sers must #he#k the #oating on the #onta#ts to ensure that no
o,ide ilm will be ormed in i%e years" A ew utilities state in their spe#ii#ations that
0E+6 tap #hanger is not a##epted( only a link board inside the transormer is
a##eptable" +he spe#ii#ations should #learly spe#iy all the re1uirements" +he
ad%antage o 0E+6 tap #hanger is that the #ost is %ery mu#h lower #ompared to a Goad
+ap 6hanger (G+6)"
5sers are ad%ised to make a strong eort not to spe#iy the 0E+6 taps" =any users eel
that when old transormers ha%e the 0E+6 tap #hangers( the new repla#ement
transormers should also ha%e the 0E+6 taps" In most #ases( spe#ii#ations or the new
repla#ement transormers #an be written without the 0E+6 tap #hanger while still
obtaining the needed perorman#e"
+he e,ample below shows that the G+6 tap range should be based on ultimate system
re1uirements and not &*I as suggested in the IEEE standard 6;>"&)"&*-)*&*"

(&) Per #lause 9"&"<"& o 6;>"&)"**-)*&* the load power a#tor is A*I"
()) 6onsider a three stage #ooled (C$A$.C$A4.C$A4) transormer with G+6 and
FV BIG o >;*DV"
(2) Per +able 2 o 6;>"&)"&*-)*&* impedan#e is &*";I at C$A$ rating"
(9) 6onsidering I/M*( regulation at ma,imum =V"A M &&"9AI"
(;) +hereore &*I tap range is not enough to keep the output %oltage #onstant"
(<) Bhen I/ is #onsidered the regulation will be higher than &&"9AI"
(>) 0uring o%erload the regulation will in#rease urther"
(A) I the power a#tor o the load is lower than A*I( then this must be spe#iied in
the spe#ii#ations" +his is be#ause regulation at lower power a#tor will be higher"
(') /egulation on tap e,tremes must be #he#ked by the user" Cten( impedan#e on
one e,treme tap #ould be mu#h higher than the impedan#e on the rated tap"
Some spe#ii#ations pro%ide all loading #onditions (=V"A( power a#tor( ma,imum
impedan#e limit on any tap( et#") and ask the transormer manua#turer to determine the
tap range to keep the output %oltage #onstant" +his is preerable o%er the user spe#iying
the tap range( be#ause i the user spe#iies the tap range( then meeting the needed
regulation is the responsibility o the user" I the user wishes to spe#iy the tap range per
standards( then the user should #he#k whether the tap range meets the needed
regulation"
+he ollowing will help in de#iding the lo#ation o the taps"
(a) +o maintain the output %oltage #onstant or input %oltage lu#tuations( it is
preerable to ha%e the taps on the input winding"
-&'-
TAPS (#$n%e& 'oc$tion etc) continue!
(b) +o #ompensate or the regulation (load and power a#tor o the load are the
go%erning a#tors)( it is preerable to ha%e the taps on the output winding"
(#) $ormally( it is e#onomi#al to ha%e the taps on a wye winding rather on a delta
winding" +his is be#ause not many tap #hangers are a%ailable or delta
#onne#tion and tap leads ha%e to be insulated to ground at the line insulation
le%el" In general( the neutral insulation le%el o a wye winding is mu#h lower than
the line insulation le%el" +his makes taps in a wye winding more e#onomi#al"
(d) I the taps are on the GV( #onstant lu, taps and a series transormer is re1uired8
then #onsider lo#ating the taps in the FV e%en i the taps be#ome %ariable lu,
taps( be#ause this will eliminate the need or a series transormer" +he inal
lo#ation o the taps #an be determined based on relati%e #osts and losses"
(e) Based on operation o the transormers( it is re#ommended that users dis#uss
with transormer manua#turers the design problems( manua#turing problems
and #osts asso#iated with ha%ing the taps in the GV or in the FV winding"
() Bhen the user has no time to in%estigate all aspe#ts o the taps( then it is
suggested to gi%e all the operating #onditions in the spe#ii#ations and ask that
the bids in#lude the #al#ulations to pro%e that the 1uoted transormers meet the
system re1uirements"
(g) Voltage a#ross the tap range( step %oltage and number o steps are important
be#ause( these parameters determine the sele#tion o the tap #hanger" +o gi%e
an e,ample( on an G+6 o a parti#ular model when tap steps are redu#ed rom 22
to )2( permitted step %oltage goes up by <<I and when tap steps are redu#ed
rom 22 to )'( permitted %oltage a#ross the tap range goes up by 9;I"
(h) Step DV"A is another parameter that determines G+6 model" A redu#tion in the
step DV"A( by in#reasing the number o steps( results in a more e#onomi#al G+6"
(i) Based on tap range( i tap turns are not enough or a #ost ee#ti%e transormer
design8 then in#reasing the tap range #ould help or a #ost ee#ti%e design"
(N) 4or autotransormer spe#ii#ations #onsider the ollowing:
(&) A%oid spe#iying taps in the GV line" 5sually( this will be #ostly #ompared to
ha%ing the taps in the series winding or in the #ommon winding" Fowe%er( be
aware that this may result in a %ariable lu, design"
()) I possible do not spe#iy 0E+6 taps" 0E+6 taps in an autotransormer are
mu#h more #ompli#ated as #ompared to 0E+6 taps in a two-winding transormer"
(2) 0o not spe#iy both 0E+6 and G+6 taps" +o redu#e the #ost and in#rease the
reliability( #onsider in#reasing the G+6 tap range and eliminating the 0E+6 taps"
(9) 0o not spe#iy 0+E6 taps on the tertiary" +his will in#rease the #ost
signii#antly and will not keep tertiary %oltage #onstant in ser%i#e" I needed(
spe#iy a #ompensating transormer"
(k) Spe#ii#ations should gi%e the impedan#e limits on the e,treme tap positions8
be#ause this determines the physi#al lo#ation o the taps( whi#h in turn has
#onsiderable bearing on the autotransormer #ost"

+he ollowing will help in de#iding the tap range:
(&) Bhen the system #onditions re1uire R;I to -&;I taps do not spe#iy S&;I taps8
spe#iy only R;I to -&;I taps" Some users are o the opinion that the tap range
on the positi%e side and on the negati%e side must be the same( this is in#orre#t"
-)*-
TAPS (#$n%e& 'oc$tion etc) continue!
()) Spe#iying the taps as &*I in &< steps is not re#ommended" Bith su#h a
spe#ii#ation( manua#turers will oten 1uote re%ersing taps or the ear that a
1uote with other types o taps (linear or #oarse.ine) will be reNe#ted as they are
not per the spe#ii#ation" In many #ases( a 1uote with linear or #oarse.ine taps
#an yield lower lie #y#le #ost as #ompared to a 1uote with re%ersing taps"
(2) 4or e,ample( in a &);=VA transormer( load loss on minimum tap with
#oarse.ine taps was about );I lower than with re%ersing taps" +he tendered
#ost or both the transormer designs was the same"
(9) Instead o spe#iying )2*DV&*I taps in &< steps( #onsider spe#iying the taps
as @taps are re1uired or %oltage %ariation rom )*>DV to );2DV in 2) steps:" Bith
su#h spe#ii#ations( the manua#turers #an oer bids either with #oarse.ine taps
or with re%ersing taps"
Cther #onsiderations on the taps are gi%en below"
(a) /eliability and #ost o allowing #onne#ting non-linear elements (=CVs) a#ross
the taps %erses other design pra#ti#es without non-linear elements (=CVs)"
(b) A number o spe#ii#ations indi#ate a preeren#e or a spe#ii# G+6 manua#turer"
It is suggested lea%ing this #hoi#e to the transormer manua#turers" I needed
ask or e,tra warranty on the tap #hangers o other makes"
(#) 6ompared to tie-in resistors with tie-in #apa#itors( the ar# generated during
#hangeo%er swit#h operation is more intense" But with the tie-in #apa#itors the
losses in tie-in elements is almost -ero" 6onsider these in inali-ing the bids"
(d) As the #apitali-ation #ost o i,ed losses is oten %ery high( allow the
manua#turer the option to 1uote with a potential swit#h or with tie-in resistors"
(e) 0o not spe#iy that only tank-mounted tap #hangers are a##eptable" In some
#ases tank-mounted tap #hangers are more #ostly than in-tank tap #hangers"
() Some spe#ii#ations state that the sele#tor #onta#ts should not be in the main-
tank:s oil" +his results in a #ostly option with no useul beneit" Very ew tank
mounted tap #hangers are a%ailable and the sele#tion is limited by insulation
le%el( step %oltage( #urrent et#"
(g) Spe#ii#ations should spe#iy whether the taps are /6B$ (/edu#ed 6apa#ity
Below $ormal) or 46B$ (4ull 6apa#ity Below $ormal)"
(h) Bhen the re%ersing taps (either or 0E+6 or or G+6) are ele#tri#ally in the FV
#ir#uit and physi#ally below the FV windings( the tapping winding will e,perien#e
ree bu#kling or#e" Bhereas when the linear taps (in#ludes #oarse.ine taps) are
ele#tri#ally in the FV #ir#uit and physi#ally below the FV windings( the tapping
winding will not e,perien#e ree bu#kling or#e"
(i) /e#ommend not to spe#iy that the G+6 winding should be a separate winding(
be#ause linear taps (in#luding #oarse.ine taps) #an be ee#ti%ely situated in the
body o the main winding" Cten this will be a more e#onomi#al design as
#ompared to a design with the G+6 as a separate winding" /e#ommend allowing
the manua#turer to de#ide the lo#ation o taps based on perorman#e and #ost"
(N) Bhen a bid re1uires an G+6 with #urrent splitting( obtain G+6 manua#turer:s
#onirmation on the appli#ation" +his is be#ause in #ertain appli#ations balan#ing
transormers #ould be re1uired" Also( #he#k with the transormer manua#turer
that the windings are designed or #urrent splitting appli#ation"
-)&-
T"PES OF TAPS

IE6 <**><-& #lause ;") states as below"
3+he short notation o tapping range and tapping steps indi#ates the %ariation range o
the ratio o the transormer" But the assigned %alues o tapping 1uantities are not ully
deined by this alone" Additional inormation is ne#essary" +his #an be gi%en either in
tabular orm with tapping power( tapping %oltage and tapping #urrent or ea#h tapping( or
as te,t( indi#ating @#ategory o %oltage %ariation: and possible limitations o the range
within whi#h the tappings are ull-power tappings7"
Very ew users gi%e the abo%e needed inormation in the spe#ii#ations to design the
transormer" 4undamental aspe#ts are where the taps are lo#ated (in FV or in GV)( how
the transormer is operated (step-down or step-up) and how the taps are used (or
lu#tuations in input %oltage or to #ompensate or regulation with a %arying load and the
power a#tor)" =ost o the spe#ii#ations state the tap range only" +hese spe#ii#ations
#an result in transormers that don:t meet operational re1uirements"
6A$.6SA-6AA-='* #lause )9 #o%ers some details on types o taps8 but does not #o%er
all the details o the taps to be stated in the spe#ii#ations" 5sers should be aware o this
beore spe#iying the taps per 6A$.6SA-6AA-='*"
6SA and IEEE standards do not #lassiy taps #learly" +aps #an be #lassiied as below"
&" 6onstant lu, taps (IE6 #ategory is 64VV P 6onstant 4lu, Voltage
Variation)"
Voltage in any untapped winding is #onstant rom tapping to tapping" i"e"
%olts per turn remain #onstant throughout the tap range" +he magneti#
lu, in the #ore is the same or all the tapping positions" Spe#ii#ations
should in#lude the ollowing:
(a) the #ategory o %oltage %ariation (#onstant lu, taps)"
(b) whi#h winding has the taps( the tap range and the number o tap
steps"
(#) whether the taps are /6B$ (/edu#ed 6apa#ity Below $ormal)
or 46B$ (4ull 6apa#ity Below $ormal)"
)" Variable lu, taps (IE6 #ategory V4VV P Variable 4lu, Voltage Variation)"
Voltage in the tapped winding is #onstant rom tapping to tapping i"e" %olts
per turn #hanges rom tap to tap" Spe#ii#ations should in#lude the
ollowing:
(a) the #ategory o %oltage %ariation (%ariable lu, taps)"
(b) whi#h winding has the taps( the tap range and number o tap
steps"
(#) whether the taps are /6B$ or 46B$"
(d) whether the taps are to ha%e e1ual turns (%oltage o the tap step
is based on the %olts per turn on that tap) or whether they are to
ha%e appro,imately e1ual %oltages" Bhen the G+6 is o linear
type( the manua#turer #an adNust the turns per tap to obtain
appro,imately e1ual %olts per step" Bhen the G+6 is o
-))-
T"PE OF TAPS (continue!
re%ersing type or o #oarse.ine type( it is not possible to obtain
appro,imately e1ual %oltage tap steps"
(e) It should be agreed between the user and the manua#turer on
whi#h tap the no-load loss is guaranteed"
2" =i,ed regulation (IE6 #ategory 6b"V"V P 6ombined Voltage Variation)"
A portion o the taps a#t as #onstant lu, taps and the remaining portion o
the taps a#t as %ariable lu, taps"
(a) the #ategory o %oltage %ariation (6b"V"V)"
(b) whi#h winding has the taps( the tap range( and number o tap
steps"
(#) whi#h tapping is the @ma,imum %oltage tapping: with the
#orresponding tapping %oltages"
(d) whi#h tapping is the @ma,imum #urrent tapping: with the
#orresponding tapping #urrents"
(e) IE6 <**><-9 gi%es a +able showing +appings( Voltages and
6urrents" Su#h a +able should be in#luded in the spe#ii#ations"
() It should be agreed between the user and the manua#turer or
whi#h tap the no-load losses is guaranteed"
+he table below summari-es the ee#ts o the G+6 lo#ation and operation on the #ore
lu, or two winding transormers"
+aps Go#ation Cperation 6onstant Voltage Varying Voltage 6ore 4lu,

FV step-down FV GV %ariable
GV FV #onstant

step-up FV GV %ariable
GV FV #onstant
GV step-down FV GV #onstant
GV FV %ariable
step-up FV GV #onstant
GV FV %ariable
4or a similar +able or autotransormers reer the tutorial 3+aps in Autotransormers7 by
0r" +omas- Dali#ki and V" Sankar on IEEE web page www"transormers#ommittee"org
In all systems the input %oltage( the load( and the power a#tor will be #onstantly
#hanging" So( almost all transormers are being operated as mi,ed regulation taps
(6b"V"V")" Cperating engineers must #learly understand the #hanges in the transormer
parameters based on how the transormers are operated" Impedan#e( ault #urrent and
sound le%el %aries or remains #onstant rom tap to tap based on whether the taps are
operated as V4VV taps or 64VV taps"
-)2-
T"PES OF TAPS (continue!
I the user has preeren#es or spe#ial re1uirements on the ollowing then they must be
stated in the spe#ii#ations with all the re1uired details to design the transormer"
&" /esistor type G+6"
)" /ea#tor type G+6"
2" +ank mounted G+6"
9" In-tank G+6"
;" Va#uum type G+6"
<" G+6 is /e%ersing type or Ginear type or 6oarse.4ine type"
>" Pre%enti%e autos (G+6 rea#tor)"
A" Series +ransormers"
'" 6ompensating +ransormers"
&*" $on-linear de%i#es"
&&" +ie-in resistors or potential swit#h"
&)" E,tra #urrent rating on G+6 (&"; p"u"( ) p"u" et#")"
&2" Parti#ular make o the G+6"
&9" 6apability o the G+6 to meet Gow-Ambient +emperature Goad 6apability"
4or reliability( users should #he#k the type and design o the tapping winding( leads
bring-out or lead e,its et#" Bhen e##entri# winding arrangement is used to bring-out the
leads( it should be #he#ked that the #oils are radially supported with no sla#kness"
Some other #onsiderations on the taps are gi%en below"
&" Bhen the #urrent in the tap winding is high( the use o a series transormer is a
#ommon method to redu#e the #urrent in the G+6" In these #ases( re%ersing taps will
redu#e the series transormer DV"A to almost hal o that whi#h would be re1uired with
linear taps (in#ludes #oarse.ine taps)" In su#h #ases( re%ersing taps #ould be more
e#onomi#al as #ompared to linear taps or #oarse.ine taps"
)" +ap #hanger rating should be ade1uate or low-Ambient +emperature Goad 6apability"
2" In general no thermal measurements will be done on the tapping winding itsel" So(
users should #he#k at the 0esign /e%iew how the #al#ulated a%erage gradient and
hot-spot gradient o the tapping winding #ompare to the main windings" 5sers should
make sure that i the a%erage gradient or hot-spot gradient o the tap winding is higher
than the main windings then these are used or the #ooling #al#ulations"
9" =any ailures ha%e o##urred when the supports o the tap leads are inade1uate to
support their weight" 4ailures ha%e also o##urred when the #learan#es (distan#es) rom
the tap leads o one phase to the tap leads o another phase and.or the #learan#es
(distan#es) rom the tap leads to the ground were inade1uate"
-)9-
IMPEDANCE
+he ollowing deinitions in 6;>-&)"A*-)*&* are related to impedan#e"
2"&>) Impedan#e 0rop: +he phasor sum o the resistan#e %oltage drop and the rea#ti%e
%oltage drop"
$ote: - 4or transormers( the resistan#e drop( the rea#tan#e drop( and the impedan#e
drop are( respe#ti%ely( the sums o the primary and se#ondary drops redu#ed to the
same terms" +hey are determined rom the load-loss measurements and are usually
e,pressed in per unit or in per#ent"
2"2;' /ea#ti%e drop: +he #omponent o the impedan#e %oltage drop in 1uadrature with
the #urrent"
2"2>< /esistan#e drop: +he #omponent o the impedan#e %oltage drop in phase with the
#urrent"
0uring preparation o the spe#ii#ations the ollowing inormation on the impedan#e will
be o help"
&" In a #onsiderable number o spe#ii#ations while the per#ent impedan#e is always
stated( the =V"A base at whi#h the impedan#e applies is not stated"
)" In some spe#ii#ations impedan#e in ohms is stated but whether the ohms are
reerred to FV side or GV side is not stated"
2" It is not possible to make generali-ations about impedan#e magnitude %ersus #ost"
Statement like a lower (or a higher) impedan#e results in redu#ed #osts are not
ne#essarily true" +his depends on many a#tors like transormer =V"A( two-winding
transormer or an autotransormer( impedan#e %alue( #apitali-ation #ost o the losses(
short-#ir#uit or#es et#"
9" Bhen the impedan#e is low the short-#ir#uit #urrents will be high" Bhen the
impedan#e is high8 regulation( eddy losses in windings and stray losses in the tank( end
rames et#" will be high"
;" Beore adopting the impedan#e %alues suggested in the standards (+able 2B o
6A$.6SA-6AA-='* or +able 2 on 6;>"&)&*-)*&*)( users should #he#k the breaker
#apa#ity( short-#ir#uit #urrent limitations at the station and the regulation re1uirement"
<" Some spe#ii#ations do not pro%ide an impedan#e %alue and state that impedan#e
should be per industry standard" 5sers should reali-e that there is no industry standard
or transormer parameters" I dierent bidders assume dierent impedan#e %alues then
the bids #annot be e%aluated e1uitably sin#e the transormer #ost will %ary with the
impedan#e %alue"
>" In almost all the spe#ii#ations impedan#e at rated tap only is stated" I the impedan#e
on an e,treme tap is low then the short-#ir#uit #urrent #ould e,#eed the system
limitation" It is suggested that impedan#es on the tap e,tremes also be spe#iied"
A" +he physi#al lo#ation o the tap winding( whether the taps are 64VV or V4VV and the
tap range determine the impedan#e %alues on e,treme taps"
'" It will be benei#ial to users i they dis#uss the impedan#e re1uirements with
manua#turers at the time o preparation o the spe#ii#ations"
&*" Impedan#e is in%ersely proportional to the s1uare o the %olts.turn" 5sers should be
aware o the #hange in impedan#e when 64VV taps are used as V4VV taps"
&&" 6I?/E Tuly &'>2 paper [15] is a %ery good reeren#e on how the autotransormer
impedan#e #hanges based on ele#tri#al #onne#tion o the taps( on physi#al lo#ation o
the tap winding( the tap range and the ratio o FV.GV %oltages"
-);-
CAPITALI*ATION OF LOSSES
3IEEE Goss E%aluation ?uide or Power +ransormers and /ea#tors7 6;>"&)*-&''& is a
%ery good reeren#e that should be re%iewed while preparing the spe#ii#ations" +he
ollowing is rom this ?uide:-
@+he purpose o this ?uide is to pro%ide a method o establishing the dollar %alue o the
ele#tri# power needed to supply the losses o a transormer or rea#tor" 5sers #an use
this loss e%aluation to determine the relati%e e#onomi# beneit o a high-irst-#ost( low
losses unit %erses one with lower irst-#ost and higher losses" =anua#turers #an use the
e%aluation to optimi-e the design and pro%ide the most e#onomi#al unit to bid and
manua#ture" +he e%aluated #ost o losses also enables a user to #ompare the oering
o two or more manua#turers to aid in making the best pur#hase #hoi#e among
#ompeting transormers and rea#tors" Goss e%aluation also pro%ides inormation to a
user or establishing the optimum time to retire or repla#e e,isting units with modern low-
loss transormers or rea#tors:"

5sers will get the lowest lietime #ost by pro%iding the ollowing loss e%aluation %alues in
the spe#ii#ations"
&" $o-load loss in U.DB"
)" Goad loss in U.DB at a spe#iied =V"A (Base =V"A or ma,imum =V"A)"
2" Au,iliary loss in U.DB (losses o pumps( ans et#")"
IEEE ?uide 6;>"&)*-&''&gi%es the detailed des#ription and a worked out e,ample o
e%aluation o the bids" +he ?uide des#ribes 0emand Portion (#ost o installing system
#apa#ity in dollars per Dilowatt) and Energy Portion (Present Value o the energy that will
be used by one Dilowatt o loss during the book-lie o the transormer( #on%erted to
dollars per Dilowatt)"
+he ollowing will be helpul to users in preparing the spe#ii#ations"
&" In many spe#ii#ations U.DB or load loss is stated but the =V"A reeren#e is not
stated" In a bid or a >).'<.&)*=V"A transormer( the author made a 1uote design taking
the load loss e%aluation at the base =V"A (>)=V"A)" +hough the irst #ost o the
transormer was U&**(*** #heaper than the other bidders( the order was lost be#ause
the user e%aluated the bids with the load loss e%aluation at top rating (&)*=V"A)" +he
e%aluated #ost was U&);(*** more than the nearest #ompetitor"
)" Some spe#ii#ations state that the losses are not e%aluated" +his may be due to
restri#tions on #apital spending" In su#h #ases the users will lose out on the lie #y#le
#ost" 0ue to the #ustomer re1uirements o ree bu#kling #riteria( sound le%el et#( oten it
is not possible to redu#e the irst #ost e%en when losses are not e%aluated"
2" Some users buy spare transormers with no loss e%aluation" Based on how long the
spare unit will operate in the system( the user #ould lose or make money"
9" Some spe#ii#ations gi%e a DBF rate and a ew other details but not U.DB" 4rom the
data in the spe#ii#ations there is no guarantee that all the bidders will #ome-up with the
-)<-
CAPITALI*ATION OF LOSSES (continue!
same no-load and load loss e%aluations" In the best interest o the users( the
spe#ii#ations should gi%e loss #apitali-ation %alues in U.DB"
;" 4or <;6 rise transormers( 6SA and IEEE standards state the reeren#e temperature
or no-load loss at )*6 and or load loss at A;6" Some spe#ii#ations spe#iy the
reeren#e temperature or both no-load and load losses at A;K" $o-load loss is usually
measured at room temperature i"e" around )*K6" +he temperature #orre#tion a#tor or
no-load loss is not that a##urate" I the user wants the no-load loss at A;6 then suggest
in#luding the temperature #orre#tion a#tor in the spe#ii#ations" 5sers do not beneit by
reeren#ing both the no-load and load losses at A;6 or at >;6" +he spe#ii#ations
should ollow the standards unless there is a spe#ial reason that the user #an proit by
de%iating rom the standards"
<" Almost all spe#ii#ations state that i the tested losses are abo%e the guaranteed
%alues then the penalty is appli#able (In many spe#ii#ations this penalty is mu#h higher
than the #apitali-ation %alues o losses) and i the tested losses are lower than the
guaranteed %alues then no #ompensation will be gi%en" +his is not air as it is one-sided
#ontra#t" Also( in the long run users will loose out with su#h #lauses"
>" 0uring the design stage or during the manua#turing stage( the manua#turer #ould
#ome-up with an idea to redu#e the losses" Cten to implement su#h an idea needs e,tra
materials or e,tra labor or both" 5nless this e,tra #ost is shared by the user( the
manua#turer has no in#enti%e to #ome up with ideas that will sa%e money or the user or
to implement them" A manua#turer #ame up with a solution on regulators to redu#e load
loss on hal o the taps up to <*I ater the bid was #losed" +he user did not #ash-in with
the reason that the solution is ater the bid was #losed"
A" 5sers spend a lot o money on #onser%ation( su#h as rebate in#enti%es to repla#e old
applian#es with new applian#es that #onsume less power et#" /edu#tion o losses is
#onser%ation8 users should work with manua#turers to de%elop green transormers
(inno%ati%e ideas to redu#e the losses)" A utility engineer #ame up with a new idea o
#ore #oniguration to redu#e the no-load loss" But this was not allowed to be pursued as
it was belie%ed that the e1uipment de%elopment is manua#turers: arena and not that o
utilities" =anagement o users should #hange this belie"
'" Some users ha%e not #hanged loss e%aluation %alues in their spe#ii#ations or a long
time" 6ost o power generation and transmission are in#reasing e%ery year" +o obtain the
beneits users should up-date the loss #apitali-ation %alues ea#h time the bids are
in%ited" Cten with the bulk orders or i%e years or so( the users will be the losers as they
miss out in taking ad%antage o new ideas( better e%aluated designs based on relati%e
#osts o materials et#"
&*" Some spe#ii#ations spe#iy the no-load and the load losses or the tendered
transormers and say that no beneit will be gi%en to bids with lower losses" Pro%iding
loss e%aluation %alues is a better method be#ause the bidders #an adNust the materials
and losses to oer transormers with the lowest e%aluated #ost"
-)>-
SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND
6SA-6AA-='* and 6;>"&)"**-)*&* pro%ide many details on short-#ir#uit #hara#teristi#s"
A ew are gi%en below"
&" +ransormers shall be designed and manua#tured to withstand( without inNury( the
me#hani#al and thermal stresses by e,ternal aults"
)" Short-#ir#uit withstand #apability #an be ad%ersely ae#ted by the #umulati%e ee#ts
o repeated short #ir#uits whi#h #ause me#hani#al and thermal o%erstressing"
2" 6;>"&)"'*-)*&* deines a pro#edure by whi#h the me#hani#al #apability o a
transormer to withstand short-#ir#uit stress may be demonstrated" +he pres#ribed tests
are not designed to %eriy thermal perorman#e" 6onorman#e to short-#ir#uit thermal
re1uirement shall be #al#ulated per 6;>"&)"**-)*&*"
9" Short-#ir#uit duration is ) se#onds unless otherwise spe#iied by the user"
;" Bindings shall be designed to withstand the ele#tromagneti# or#es #orresponding to
the irst #y#le asymmetri#al peak #urrent" 6al#ulation o asymmetri#al peak #urrent is per
6;>"&)"**-)*&*"
<" +erminal #onditions and system impedan#es under whi#h the transormer has been
designed or short #ir#uit should be #ontained in the Instru#tion =anual"
+he ollowing should be spe#iied in transormer spe#ii#ations"
&" 5ltimate uture #hara#teristi#s o the system"
)" Sub-transient rea#tan#e o rotating ma#hinery #onne#ted to the transormer"
2" System and transormer grounding #onditions"
9" Impedan#es o dire#tly #onne#ted apparatus that may limit short-#ir#uit #urrent
magnitudes"
;" Pre-ault operating %oltage at unaulted terminal(s)"
<" Station au,iliary transormers or main generator step-up transormers dire#tly
#onne#ted to a generator that may be subNe#ted to prolonged duration terminal aults as
a result o the inability to remo%e the %oltage sour#e 1ui#kly"
>" =ethod o #onne#tions e"g" isolated phase bus et#"
A" +he #hara#teristi#s o ea#h system short-#ir#uit apparent power le%el and the ratio
between the -ero se1uen#e impedan#e and the positi%e-se1uen#e impedan#e"
+he ollowing will help in pro#uring reliable and e#onomi#al transormers"
&" In many spe#ii#ations it is stated that ault #urrent #al#ulations should be based on
ininite bus on all terminals" Alternati%ely( some spe#iy system impedan#es per a
spe#ii# standard (6SA-6AA-='*( 6;>"&)"** et#")" Sin#e system impedan#e %alues
stated in the standards are low( it is ad%isable or the user to spe#iy the system
impedan#es at the transormer station" System impedan#es will help to redu#e the
short-#ir#uit #urrents (espe#ially on transormers with low impedan#es)"
-)A-
SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND (continue!
Bhen inter#hangeability with other stations is needed( it is re#ommended spe#iying the
system impedan#e whi#h is lowest o all the stations( rather than ininite bus"
)" A short-#ir#uit test is not #ommon( be#ause it is %ery e,pensi%e" 4or users to ha%e
#oniden#e that the transormers will withstand all types o aults( the users ha%e to
depend on manua#turer:s design #al#ulations (e1ui%alent #ir#uits to #al#ulate ault
#urrents( o-set %alues( amp-turn balan#e et#") and manua#turing pra#ti#es (#lamping
stru#ture( drying pro#ess( si-ing o the #oils( e,posure time during the tanking o #ore V
#oils et#")" In most #ases by the time the transormer e,perien#es a ault with ull
asymmetry and ma,imum pre-ault %oltage( the warranty would ha%e e,pired" So( it is
%ery important or the user to know the philosophies ea#h manua#turer adopts in
#al#ulating the short #ir#uit #urrents( or#es and stresses in the windings and the
withstand strengths o the windings"

2" 4or three-#ir#uit transormers( in many spe#ii#ations whether the in-eed is rom one
system or rom two systems is not stated" Per 6;>"&)"**-)*&* or three-#ir#uit
transormers the in-eed is by more than two sets o unaulted terminals rated greater
than 2;I o the terminal DV"A o the highest #apa#ity winding" 4or the three-#ir#uit
transormers( i user re1uirement is dierent rom 6;>"&)"**-)*&* then spe#ii#ations
should spe#iy whether the in-eed is rom one system or rom two systems"
9" In many spe#ii#ations or the autotransormers( it is spe#iied that the tertiary has to
be brought-out to supply station loads (usually a ew DV"A)" Bhen the tertiary is brought-
out then it has to be designed to withstand a three-phase ault on its own terminals" +his
will in#rease the tertiary winding si-e #onsiderably or a 6urrent Gimiting /ea#tor will
ha%e to be used" In many #ases it will be e#onomi#al to the users to supply the station
loads rom another sour#e su#h as SSV+ (Station Ser%i#e Voltage +ransormer)"
;" Almost all spe#ii#ations state that inner windings should withstand ree bu#kling"
Bhen the G+6 is ele#tri#ally in the FV winding or in the series winding and the G+6
winding is physi#ally lo#ated inside o the FV winding or o the series winding( it may
e,perien#e ree bu#kling or#e( depending on the type o taps" I the taps are o linear or
#oarse.ine type( then the tap winding will not e,perien#e any ree bu#kling" I the taps
are o re%ersing type( then the tap winding will e,perien#e ree bu#kling"
<" =any te,t books gi%e inormation on e1ui%alent #ir#uits and how to #al#ulate the short-
#ir#uit #urrents and the or#es" IE6<**><-A 3Power transormers - Appli#ation guide7 also
gi%es inormation on e1ui%alent #ir#uits to #al#ulate the short-#ir#uit #urrents"
=anua#turers ha%e de%eloped their own methods to #al#ulate short-#ir#uit or#es based
on the tests they ha%e #ondu#ted on the materials" IE6<**><-; @Ability to withstand
short-#ir#uit: gi%es guidelines on allowable or#es and stresses" As there are dieren#es
in the abo%e( it is re#ommended that the spe#ii#ations to state the basis or the short-
#ir#uit #al#ulations and withstand %alues"
>" =ost users are satisied when the manua#turers use #omputer programs to #al#ulate
the short-#ir#uit or#es" 5sers should #he#k the ormulae in these programs"
-)'-
SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND (continue!
+he ollowing are appli#able to #ore-orm transormers (or shell-orm transormers
suggest reerring to appli#able literature)"
+he ollowing or#es are normally #al#ulated:
&" /adially-inward or#es on inner #oils"
)" /adially-outward or#es on outer #oils"
2" A,ial #ompression or#es on all #oils"
9" +otal end thrust (a,ial #ompression) o the entire #oils assembly"
;" 4ree bu#kling or#es on inner #oils"
<" Short-#ir#uit or#es on leads"
4rom the abo%e or#es( the ollowing stresses are normally #al#ulated:
&" =ean hoop tensile stress on outer windings"
)" =ean #ompressi%e stress on inner windings"
2" /adial bending stress on inner windings
9" A,ial bending stress on all #oils"
;" 6ompressi%e stress on radial spa#ers (du#t sti#ks)"
<" 6ompressi%e stress on a,ial spa#ers (keyed spa#ers) and on the paper insulation o
the winding #ondu#tors"
>" 6ompressi%e stress on #lamping ring (pressure ring)"
A" +ensile stress on #lamping stru#ture"
'" 6ompressi%e stresses or tilting"
&*" 4ree bu#kling stresses on inner windings"
&&" Short-#ir#uit stresses on lead stru#tures"
It is a good idea or users to #he#k the ollowing"
&" Bhether the 6+6 is epo,y bonded (when bonding is used in stress #al#ulations)"
)" Lield strength o the winding #ondu#tor"
2" ?rade and strength o the pressboard"
9" 6onstru#tion and withstand strength o the edge strip on heli#al #oils (or press-board(
the withstand strength %aries #onsiderably depending on whether the or#es are on the
sura#e or on the thi#kness)"
;" ?rade and strength o material used or #lamping rings" I openings are made in the
#lamping ring or leads bring-out( this should be #onsidered in withstand strength"
<" 0istan#es rom the leads to the ground and between phases (espe#ially when the
short-#ir#uit #urrents %alues are high)"
>" Support o the #oils to the #ore"
A" Bithstand strength o the tank (espe#ially or e,plosion-resistant tank)"
'" 0e%i#es to relie%e the tank pressure during short #ir#uit (to relie%e the pressure ast to
a%oid the bursting o the tank)"
&*" 0esign o #urrent limiting rea#tors in the tertiary"
&)" 0esign and %alue o neutral grounding rea#tor.resistor"
&2" 0esign o #lamping stru#ture (e,ternal tie rods( lit#h plates( internal tie rods et#") and
its ade1ua#y to withstand short #ir#uit or#es and also or liting the #ore V #oils
assembly"
&9" Cn transormers with 0E+6 and G+6 taps( #al#ulations o the or#es on all 0E+6 tap
positions( #ombined with G+6 rated tap position and both G+6 e,treme tap positions"
-2*-
SPECIAL RE+UIREMENTS
Along with the regular transormer parameters (=V"A( %oltages( insulation le%els(
impedan#e( loss e%aluation %alues( taps details et#") the spe#ii#ations should in#lude
details o many other spe#ial re1uirements"
&" Ambient temperatures( i dierent rom the standards (6SA-6AA-='*( 6;>"&)"**-
)*&* et#")"
)" Spe#ii#ations that 1uote IEEE standards rom the southern 5nited States #an obtain
e#onomi#al transormers by spe#iying that an in#rease in =V"A rating at #old
temperatures (up to -2*K6 per 6;>"'&-&'';) is not re1uired" +his is be#ause the ambient
temperatures in southern states will ne%er rea#h su#h negati%e temperatures"
2" 6SA and IEEE standards generi#ally spe#iy the #ontinuous o%er-%oltage re1uirement
as &&*I at no-load and as &*;I under load" Some spe#ii#ations state &2*I
#ontinuous o%er-%oltage (not #lear at no-load or under load)" 5sers should understand
that this o%er-%oltage re1uirement will in#rease the transormer #ost #onsiderably" Some
users spe#iy su#h high o%er-%oltage re1uirement thinking that they #an obtain better
1uality transormers" Some users spe#iy high o%er-%oltage re1uirement with the opinion
that when the G+6 is on the input side and i the G+6 #ontrol #ir#uits malun#tion then the
G+6 motor #ould runaway to the minimum tap position" Pro%en #ontrol #ir#uits are
a%ailable to a%oid su#h malun#tions at a mu#h lower #ost" Spe#iying the o%er %oltage
re1uirement or the transormers dire#tly #onne#ted to the generators is %ery important(
be#ause during the load reNe#tion( the transormers will see mu#h higher o%er-%oltage
than spe#iied in 6SA-6AA-='* or 6;>"&)"**-)*&*"

9" 6SA-6AA-='* spe#iies a pre-ault %oltage o &"& p"u" 5nless there is a system need(
users should not o%er-spe#iy this re1uirement"

;" =ost on-load tap-#hangers operate down to -);K6 ambient temperature with high-
%is#osity oils like Voltesso 2;" Bith low-%is#osity oils like Petro 6anada Guminal( G+6
operation below -);K6 is permissible without heaters" +ype o oil( ambient temperature(
and low temperature #ut-out setting are to be #orre#tly #oordinated"
<" Some spe#ii#ations #all or tap-#hangers with higher #urrent rating than the ma,imum
nameplate rating (&"; p"u"( ) p"u" et#")" 5nderstand that this higher #urrent rating is to
ha%e a saety margin" IEEE standard or Goad +ap 6hangers 6;>"&2& #ontains #lauses
(#lause <"&"& =a,imum rated through #urrent and #lause <")"&"& Ser%i#e duty test at
rated step %oltage) that pro%ide ade1uate saety margins" In some situations the
manua#turers #ould be or#ed to use a series transormer to meet the higher #urrent
re1uirement (&"; p"u"( ) p"u" et#")" +his will in#rease the o%erall #ost and the losses"

>" I the transormers are to be operated at altitudes higher than &***m abo%e the sea
le%el( then spe#iy the altitude" =anua#turers need this inormation to apply #orre#tion
a#tors or air #learan#es and or #ooling #al#ulations" +his inormation is also re1uired in
sele#tion o the bushings with #reepage length suitable to the altitude"
A" I the transormers are to operate in polluted en%ironments( then spe#iy the #reepage
lengths needed on the bushings" Cther re1uirements like spe#ial skirt e,tensions on GV
-2&-
SPECIAL RE+UIREMENTS (continue!
bushings( e,tra air #learan#es( spe#ial painting re1uirements( gal%ani-ed radiators et#"
should also be stated in the spe#ii#ations"
'" =ost spe#ii#ations gi%e transport limitations o the height and the weight" I no proile
limitations (#ertain width at #ertain height) are gi%en( then the user #ould ha%e surprises
at a later date in mo%ing the transormer to a dierent lo#ation" It is a good idea or user
to know the shipping limitations or transport by rail or by tru#k or by sea8 this will be
helpul i the transormer has to be sent to a manua#turer dierent to the original
manua#turer or repairs"
&*" Spe#iying dimensional and weight limitations( spill #ontainment %olume limitation
et#" is suggested when a dire#t-repla#ement transormer is re1uired"
&&" Gately many spe#ii#ations are #alling ?eomagneti#ally Indu#ed 6urrent (?I6)
re1uirements" ?I6 re1uirements in most spe#ii#ations are not possible to a#hie%e"
5sers should #onsult with ?I6 spe#ialists on what to in#lude in the spe#ii#ations" 5sers
should also #onsider installing blo#king de%i#es" IEEE web page
www"transormers#ommittee"org has a %ery good tutorial on ?I6 gi%en in the spring o
)*&) in $ash%ille( +ennessee"

&)" Spe#ii#ations should #learly state the oil preser%ation system needed8 ree breathing
#onser%ator( #onser%ator with air bag( nitrogen pressuri-ed system et#" Some
spe#ii#ations say gas insulated system" +o a%oid ambiguity suggest spe#iying nitrogen
pressuri-ed system instead o gas insulated system" 4or nitrogen pressuri-ed
transormers spe#ii#ations should #lariy as to whether the tank stieners #an be used
or the nitrogen e,pansion spa#e" Some spe#ii#ations state nitrogen pressuri-ed system
e%en or transormers with high insulation le%els" 4or reliable operation many users and
manua#turers limit nitrogen pressuri-ed system up to >;*DV BIG" 4or transormers with
high insulation le%els (say abo%e >;*DV BIG) suggest spe#iying the #onser%ator unless
only nitrogen pressuri-ed system is re1uired or other reasons"
&2" Bhen the users ha%e spe#ial re1uirements su#h as bottom mounted ans are not
allowed( pump bearings to ha%e monitoring systems( on-line monitoring de%i#es( opti#
sensors( neutral grounding de%i#es( bushing potential de%i#es et#" then they should be
stated in the spe#ii#ations with all needed parti#ulars"
&9" Bhen transormers with spe#ial oils like 4/2 are re1uired then the spe#ii#ations
should state whether this oil is re1uired in a##essories like tap-#hangers( bushings et#"
&;" In an autotransormer with %ariable lu, taps( the tertiary %oltage will be #hanging
rom tap to tap" +his is not desirable when the tertiary is supplying station loads or or
VAr #ontrol" I the user wishes to maintain the tertiary %oltage airly #onstant throughout
the tap range( then the spe#ii#ations should ask that the autotransormer in#lude a
#ompensating transormer"
&<" I mo%ing the ully assembled transormer (with oil illed) within the substation is
re1uired( then this must be stated in the spe#ii#ations"
-2)-
OVERLOADS
6;>"&)"A*-)*&* #lause 2"2*) deines o%erload as below:
C%erload (general): Cutput o #urrent( power or tor1ue( by a de%i#e( in e,#ess o the
rated output o the de%i#e on a spe#iied rating basis"
5sers should be aware o the risks gi%en in 6;>"'&-&''; when spe#iying the o%erloads
(Goading beyond nameplate rating)" Some o the risks are listed below"
--E%olution o ree gas rom insulation o windings( leads and adNa#ent to the metalli#
parts"
--Goss o transormer lie"
--/edu#ed me#hani#al strength o insulation"
--Permanent deormation o materials"
--Geaking gaskets"
--+ap-#hanger thermal runaway #ondition"
--/isk o damage to internal parts like 6+s( +V #urrent limiting rea#tors( tap #hanger
rea#tors( et#"
--E,#essi%e pressure build-up in bushings due to e,pansion o oil in the bushings"
--Cperation o pressure relie de%i#e due to pressure build-up in the tank"
--In#rease in regulation (%oltage drop)"
+he ollowing will be helpul in spe#iying the o%erloads"
&" =any spe#ii#ations state that the o%erloads are per 6;>"'&" 6;>"'& is a guide and
not a standard" 6;>"'& does not spe#iy o%erload proiles" 6;>"'& #ategori-es o%erloads
as Planned o%erloads( Gong-time o%erloads and Short-time o%erloads" 4or ea#h type o
these o%erloads it suggests limits on hotspot temperature and oil temperature" 5sers
must detail the o%erload proile in the spe#ii#ations"

)" Some spe#ii#ations pro%ide o%erload magnitude and duration su#h as8 &">; p"u" or
W hour( &"< p"u" or ) hours( &"&; p"u" or A hours et#" +hese spe#ii#ations do not say
whether these o%erloads o##ur one ater the other or at dierent times" Also( the
spe#ii#ations do not say how many times in a year these o%erloads o##ur" 0+E6 and
G+6 manua#turers need this inormation in si-ing the tap #hanger"
2" Almost all the spe#ii#ations ha%e the ollowing senten#e based on #lause '")") o
6;>"'& irrespe#ti%e o whether the o%erload proile and all the rele%ant data is in#luded
in the spe#ii#ations: @An#illary e1uipment should not restri#t loading to le%els below
those permitted by the insulated #ondu#tor and other metalli# part hot spots:" Bhen
o%erload inormation is not stated in the spe#ii#ations( ha%ing this #lause in the
spe#ii#ations is irrele%ant"
9" +he spe#ii#ations must in#lude #omplete inormation per #lause '"> o 6;>"'&"
(a) Goad"
(&) +wo step load #y#le approa#h"
Prior steady-state load( per#ent o ma,imum nameplate rating"
=a,imum load( per#ent o ma,imum nameplate"
0uration"
-22-
OVARLOADS (continue!
()) Goad #y#le o%er a )9 hour period"
(b) Ambient temperature( K6
(&) 6onstant per load #y#le approa#h"
()) Variable o%er the load #y#le or load #y#le approa#h"
(#) +ype o loading( planned or emergen#y( long-time or short-time"
(d) Gimiting oil temperature"
(e) Gimiting hottest-spot temperature"
() Statement that an#illary #omponents shall not limit the loading #apability"
In almost all the spe#ii#ations with /6B$ taps it is not stated how /6B$ taps are to be
#onsidered or o%erloads"
Goading #apability at low temperatures
&" 6lause 2"; o 6SA-6AA-='* states that the transormers (e,#ept ?S5 units) shall be
#apable o an in#rease in loading or ea#h degree that the daily a%erage ambient
temperature is lower than that o );K6 down to a minimum a%erage ambient temperature
o *K6"
)" 6lause <"9 o 6;>"'& states in#rease in loading or ea#h degree 6elsius that the daily
a%erage ambient temperature is lower that o 2*K6 or air #ooled units and );K6 or
water #ooled units down to a minimum a%erage ambient temperature o -2*K6"
--Sel #ooled (C$A$) and water-#ooled units shall ha%e an in#rease o &I or ea#h
degree 6elsius"
--4or#ed air.or#ed li1uid #ooled units shall ha%e an in#rease o *">;I or ea#h degree
6elsius"
It is ad%isable that the users should in#lude in the spe#ii#ations that written #onirmation
rom 0E+6( G+6 and bushing manua#turers that they meet the abo%e low temperature
#apability re1uirement" Cn-load tap #hanger rating is mainly dependent on swit#hing
DV"A and bushing rating at low temperatures is dierent to that o the transormer"
Some spe#ii#ations or autotransormers are not #lear whether the o%erload re1uirement
applies to the tertiary or not" Some spe#ii#ations are not #lear whether the o%erloads are
appli#able or step-down #ondition( step-up #ondition( arithmeti# loading o tertiary load
and output load( %e#torial loading o tertiary load and output load or simultaneous
loading o tertiary load and output load( et#" Cn high %oltage autotransormers many
users #onne#t rea#tors to the tertiary" +hese spe#ii#ations should be #lear whether the
rea#tors are #onne#ted or dis#onne#ted during the o%erloads" 0uring o%erloads( some
spe#ii#ations also limit top oil temperature and hottest-spot temperature the same as
that o normal load &*;K6 and &)*K6 respe#ti%ely" 5sers should reali-e that they are Nust
buying a larger =V"A rated transormer"
=any spe#ii#ations state one ambient temperature or summer o%erloads and one
ambient temperature or winter o%erloads" +he ambient temperature is mu#h less during
the e%ening and the night #ompared to that during the aternoon" Cnly a ew
spe#ii#ations state the hourly ambient temperature in )9 hour period" /e#ommend
-29-
OVERLOADS (continue!
spe#iying hourly ambient temperature8 be#ause transormers to this spe#ii#ation will
#ost less than the transormers with the same temperature or )9 hour period"
+o obtain a lower operational #ost some spe#ii#ations state that additional ans.pumps
are to be pro%ided or use during o%erloads" In#lusion o this senten#e in the
spe#ii#ations is re#ommended be#ause oten the pumps are pro%ided to meet the
o%erloads"
6;>"'&-&''; does not re#ommend any %alue or loss o lie" I the user wishes to restri#t
the loss o lie per o%erload #y#le then it should be stated in the spe#ii#ations"
Spe#ii#ations should deine whether the o%erload is Planned loading beyond nameplate
rating or Gong-time emergen#y loading or Short-time emergen#y loading and gi%e
limiting %alues or insulated #ondu#tor hottest-spot temperature( other metalli# hot-spot
temperature (in #onta#t and not in #onta#t with insulation) and top-oil temperature i they
are dierent rom the %alues in +able A o 6;>"'&-&'';
I the user wishes to perorm the o%erload test then it must be stated in the
spe#ii#ations" Sometimes manua#turers test e1uipment #an be a limitation to perorm
the o%erload test" It is re#ommended that the user and the manua#turer agree on how to
perorm the o%erload test in the 0esign /e%iew meeting" ?as-in-oil le%els during
o%erload test will be higher than those during the heat-run test" In the 0esign /e%iew
meeting user and the manua#turer should agree on a##eptable gas-in-oil le%els during
the o%erload test"
In the 0esign /e%iew meeting it should be #he#ked that magneti# shields are not
saturated during the o%erloads" Also the need or splitting the last #ore step or other
methods o a%oiding generation o undesirable hot spots in the #ore during the o%erloads
is to be #he#ked"
Some spe#ii#ations state the normal loads and o%erloads or step-up and step-down
operations" Based on ele#tri#al lo#ation o the G+6 (in FV winding( in series winding( in
GV winding( in #ommon winding( et#")( the tap position( %oltages on ea#h winding and the
regulation8 #urrents in FV and GV %ary or step-up and step-down operations" +his is
be#ause o the ollowing: when the G+6 is in FV( during step-down operation the G+6 is
in input winding and during the step-up operation( the G+6 is in output winding" +his is
e,tremely important in autotransormers with loads on tertiary( be#ause the #urrent in
#ommon winding %ary %ery mu#h based on the abo%e #onditions"
-2;-
PARALLEL OPERATION
Paralleled transormers are those #onne#ted in su#h a manner that they share a sour#e
and a load"
=any te,t books and standards gi%e the details on parallel operation" =any papers ha%e
been published on this subNe#t" A ew reeren#es are gi%en below"
&" IEEE standard 6;>"&;2 P +ransormer Paralleling ?uide"
)" 6SA-6AA-='*"
2" IEEE standard 6;>"&)"&*-)*&*"
9" +utorial 3+ransormer Paralleling7 by Tim ?raham( +om Tau#h and Tin Sim presented
in IEEE +ransormers 6ommittee =eetings in April )**'" +his paper #an be a##essed at
www"transormers#ommittee"org
I parallel operation with the e,isting transormers is re1uired then this should be stated
in the spe#ii#ations and the ollowing inormation on the e,isting transormers should be
gi%en to the bidders"
(a) rated =VA"
(b) e,a#t turns ratio o windings at rated %oltage"
(#) e,a#t turns ratio #orresponding to the taps( i any( on the high-%oltage winding"
(d) e,a#t turns ratio #orresponding to the taps( i any( on the low-%oltage winding"
(e) impedan#e and its =V"A base on the prin#ipal tap and on the tap e,tremes"
() diagram o #onne#tion and phasor relationship between windings"
(g) #ompatibility o #ontrols to maintain the #orre#t tap positions on all transormers while
minimi-ing #ir#ulating #urrent"
(h) type o paralleling method preerred"
Some general paralleling operational basi#s stated in 6;>"&)"&*-)*&* are gi%en below"
&" +ransormers o the same =V"A rating and e1ual impedan#e share the load e1ually"
)" +ransormers o dierent ratings share loads based on their ratings as long as the
per#ent impedan#es at their respe#ti%e ma,imum =V"As are e1ui%alent"
2" I transormers with per#ent impedan#es at their respe#ti%e base =V"As are e1ui%alent
but with dierent #ooling ratings are paralleled( the total #apa#ity o the transormers
#onne#ted in parallel #ould be limited to less than the sum o their #apa#ities"
E,ample: Bhen a <*.A*=V"A( C$A$.C$A4 transormer with AI impedan#e at its base
rating (AI at <*=V"A) is paralleled with a <*.A*.&**=V"A( C$A$.C$A4.C$A4
transormer with AI impedan#e at its base rating (AI at <*=VA) the total #apa#ity will
be less than &A*=VA"
-2<-
PARALLEL OPERATION (continue!
Some paralleling methods are gi%en below"
&" =aster.ollower"
)" Power a#tor"
2" $egati%e rea#tan#e"
9" 6ir#ulating #urrent"
;" 6ir#ulating rea#ti%e #urrent"
Bhile preparing the spe#ii#ations the users should also #onsider the ollowing"
&" =any spe#ii#ations state that paralleling operation with the e,isting units is re1uired
and gi%e the impedan#e o the e,isting units at the rated tap only" +his inormation is not
enough" +he spe#ii#ations should gi%e the #omplete data or paralleling (impedan#es at
e,treme tap positions et#")"
)" Some spe#ii#ations state that paralleling inormation will be gi%en to su##essul
bidders only" 5sers should reali-e that without #omplete paralleling inormation in the
spe#ii#ations( bid submission is almost impossible"
2" Some spe#ii#ations state that inormation on the e,isting units is proprietary
inormation and will not be gi%en to the bidders" +his inormation is re1uired or bid
preparation and is not proprietary"
9" In spe#ii#ations with <;K6 rise transormers to parallel operate with the e,isting
;;K6.<;K6 rise transormers or a three stage #ooled (or rated) transormer to parallel
operate with the e,isting two stage #ooled (or rated) transormers( impedan#e based on
ma,imum =V"A rating only should be gi%en and not based on the base =V"A rating"
;" Spe#ii#ations should state whether the tertiary o the tendered unit to be parallel
operated with the tertiary on the e,isting unit or not"
<" I lesser toleran#es (espe#ially on impedan#es) than those spe#iied in 6SA-6AA-='*
or 6;>"&)"**-)*&* are needed by the user then the needed toleran#es should be gi%en
in the spe#ii#ations"
>" 5sers should reali-e that parallel operation is the users: responsibility and the
transormers will be designed per the spe#ii#ations only"

-2>-
RATING PLATE
+he rating plate is the most important and readily a##essible re#ord o the transormer to
the user" 6;>"&)"&*-)*&* #alls it a $ameplate" Cten ater a ew years in ser%i#e the
inormation on the rating plate ades away and it is dii#ult to read" Per 6SA-6AA-='*
the data should be ins#ribed by et#hing( engra%ing( stamping or other e1ually durable
method" Per 6;>" &)"**-)*&* a durable metal nameplate shall be ai,ed to ea#h
transormer by the manua#turer" 5nless otherwise spe#iied( it shall be made o
#orrosion-resistant material" Si-e o the rating plate and si-e o the letter et#" are also
important or easy reading"
=inimum data to be in#luded on the rating plate is gi%en in the standards" Inormation
gi%en by other standards and not gi%en in 6SA-6AA-='* is listed below"
&" In a##ordan#e with the re1uirements o 6;>"&2& load tap #hanger (G+6) transormer
shall also #ontain a tap #hanger nameplate( permanently atta#hed to the G+6
#ompartment"
)" Phasor diagram or polyphase transormers in#luding hour #lo#k designation (0yn&&(
0yn& et#")"
2" Step-up operation suitability"
9" Si-e o the letters and numeri#al (6;>"&)"**-)*&* spe#iies 9mm minimum)"
;" +ertiary =V"A rating (when the transormer has a tertiary)"
<" Pro%ision o uture or#ed-#ooling e1uipment (where appli#able)"
>" Suitability or re%ersal o power low"
A" Voltage transormers( potential de%i#es( #urrent transormers( winding temperature
de%i#es when used shall be shown"
'" $onlinear de%i#es( #apa#itors( resistors et#" installed on the winding assembly or on
any tap #hanger shall be indi#ated on the nameplate"
&*" All internal leads and terminals not permanently #onne#ted shall be identiied with
numbers or letters in a manner that permits #on%enient reeren#e to pre%ent #onusion
with terminal and polarity markings"
&&" 6ontains no dete#table le%el o P6B (less than ) ppm) at the time o manua#ture"
&)" Standard number in#luding the year o the standard to whi#h the transormer in
manua#tured"
&2" Impedan#es on e,treme tap positions"
&9" Va#uum withstand #apability o #onser%ator and all oil #ir#ulating parts"
&;" In addition to the main rating plate( plates with identii#ation and #hara#teristi#s o
au,iliary e1uipment (bushings( tap #hangers( spe#ial #ooling e1uipment et#")"

5sers should #onsider in#luding the ollowing under what is to be in#luded on the rating
plate"
&" 0iagram showing the lo#ation o emergen#y man-holes"
)" 0iagram showing the lo#ation o maNor %al%es (drain( ilter et#")"
2" Bhere appli#able to show the ollowing"
(a) +ie-in resistors in#luding their rating and the manua#turer:s name"
(b) +ype( make and serial number o G+6 rea#tors"
(#) 6urrent limiting rea#tors in#luding their impedan#e %alues and the manua#turer:s
name"
-2A-
RATING PLATE (continue!
9" 0iagram showing the type and lo#ation o all arrest system"
;" Cn nitrogen pressuri-ed transormers minimum and ma,imum pressure settings o the
regulator"
<" 5ser spe#ii#ation number to whi#h the transormer is manua#tured"
>" Go#ation o stati# #ylinders when used (on the #ore( under G+6 winding et#")"
A" A statement that the %oltages and #urrents marked are based on no-load and are not
during the load"
'" Qero se1uen#e impedan#e"
&*" Serial number( make and #omplete type designation o G+6 and 0E+6 tap #hangers"
&&" =ake( serial number( %oltage ratio and rating o series transormer and.or
#ompensating transormer when used"
&)" 6onstru#tion designation P #ore type or shell type"
&2" 6ore details P single( two( three( our( i%e or se%en legged"
&9" Pro%ision or uture sound en#losure in#luding the type o en#losure"
&;" =a,imum #urrent in #ommon winding on autotransormers with loaded tertiary and
during the step-up operation"
&<" Sound le%els at all ratings (sound pressure or intensity)"
&>" +ype o oil (Voltesso 2;( Guminal et#")
&A" P6B #ontent in oil (less than )ppm) at the time o irst illing"
-2'-
ALTERNATIVES
En#ouragement by users is the key or the birth o inno%ati%e ideas" I the users had said
in the spe#ii#ations that step-lapped #ores( shielded windings et#" are not a##eptable(
these te#hnologies would not ha%e e%ol%ed" A ew de#ades ba#k some spe#ii#ations
used to state that the #ore must be built with the top yoke"
It is unortunate that some spe#ii#ations state that 3$o alternati%e will be #onsidered7"
Some spe#ii#ations ha%e stated that 3no prototype eatures will be a##epted7" Some
spe#ii#ations ha%e stated 3Bidders are en#ouraged to 1uote alternati%es to the
spe#ii#ations detailing the beneits and meeting all the re1uirements o the user(
pro%ided the main bid is per the spe#ii#ations7"
Some users ha%e pur#hased these alternati%es with lower losses on all the tap positions
below the normal tap (linear taps instead o re%ersing taps)( with better %oltage #ontrol(
lower short-#ir#uit or#es et#" Some users ha%e not pur#hased these benei#ial
alternati%es be#ause they are not e,a#tly identi#al to the transormers they had pro#ured
in the past" 4or the health o this industry the users should gi%e in#enti%es and work with
the manua#turers or impro%ements in design and manua#turing"
=any users are o the opinion that transormer de%elopment works (redu#tion o losses(
impro%ed reliability et#") is the sole responsibility o the manua#turers" =any engineers
working or users ha%e %ery good ideas and these should be nourished" +he best
de%elopments o##ur when users and manua#turers work as a team rather keeping their
distan#e as the buyers and the suppliers"
5sers should #onsider the alternati%e without the main bid when the alternati%e meets
the system re1uirements stated in the spe#ii#ations" Cten there is no time to design
and #ost the main bid and the alternati%e" Preparation o two bids (one or the main bid
and the other or the alternati%e) is #ostly and time #onsuming or the manua#turers"
Some o the hurdles the te#hni#al department (or spe#ii#ations writing ?roup) o the
user a#es to #onsider the alternati%es without the main bid are: #on%in#ing the
pur#hasing department( #on%in#ing the maintenan#e department( te#hni#al e%aluation o
alternati%es et#" Some o the users ha%e #on1uered these hurdles" 5nderstand rom
these users that it is not dii#ult and hope that all the other users will also #on1uer the
hurdles"
Some spe#ii#ations ask or too many alternati%es" +his is be#ause the user does not
need to pay money or any number o alternati%es" +he author has seen spe#ii#ations
asking or ); alternati%es with dierent impedan#es( dierent insulation le%els( dierent
=V"As et#" +his is not air" +he users should #onsider the dii#ulties o the
manua#turers"
-9*-
ALTERNATIVES (continue!
+o redu#e the number o alternati%es( users should intera#t with the manua#turers while
writing the spe#ii#ations to determine the e,a#t parameters o the transormers" Almost
all the spe#ii#ations ha%e a #lause stating that the pur#haser has a right to reNe#t all the
bids without gi%ing any reason" Some users e%en ater asking or 1uotes with
alternati%es will not pla#e an order" 5sers should reali-e that preparation o the bids
re1uire #onsiderable te#hni#al resour#es to the manua#turers" Preparation o the bids
also adds #onsiderable #ost to the manua#turers" As an e,ample( the #ost or
preparation o a bid or the phase-shiting transormers was about U&**(*** dollars or
ea#h bidder" Bhen all the bids are too e,pensi%e or the budget allo#ated to the proNe#t(
then it is understandable that user not pla#ing the order" In su#h a situation the user
should inorm the reason or not ordering to all the bidders"
In an en1uiry the user re1uirement was 2I impedan#e at a gi%en =V"A" An alternate
with <I impedan#e at the same =V"A is also asked" 5nderstand that the user thought
that it is not possible to design a transormer with 2I impedan#e at that =V"A" I the user
had dis#ussed with the manua#turers prior to issuing the spe#ii#ations( the
manua#turers would ha%e sa%ed time and money in preparing a main bid and an
alternati%e"
In another en1uiry the main bid with FV wye . GV delta and the alternati%e with
FV delta . GV wye were asked" +he taps are on GV or GV %ariation" Bhen GV is wye( the
#urrent in GV is high and a series transormer has to be used" Bhen GV is delta the
series transormer is not needed" +his made GV wye option %ery e,pensi%e as series
transormer #ost and losses are to be in#luded" 5sers should do some home-work while
writing the spe#ii#ations and ask or the alternati%es that are benei#ial"
Some users ask or bids on &* to )* dierent transormers (all the ratings in their
system) but pla#e the order only on a ew ratings" +his a%oids users going or bids when
a need arises or a dierent rating transormer( thus sa%ing them money" Also
understand that this is or bulk orders to #o%er ;-years re1uirements" Suggest that at
least on#e a year( users and manua#turers should dis#uss ea#h other:s dii#ulties"
I the users are not sure about getting &**I o the budgeted unds and may ha%e to
redu#e the #apital #ost( then the spe#ii#ations #an ask or a bid with loss e%aluation and
an alternati%e with no loss e%aluation"


-9&-
INTERESTING CLAUSES
It is suggested not to use the ollowing #lauses in the spe#ii#ations as either they are
ambiguous or will add #onsiderable #ost( with almost no beneit to the user"
&" I any te#hni#al inormation is missing rom the spe#ii#ations then it should be per
industry standard (Bhat is the industry standardO Bhere it is deinedO)"

)" +he windings o ea#h transormer shall be made o su#h materials and assembled in a
manner best suited or the parti#ular appli#ation (Bhat is meant by best suited and how
to measure itO)"
2" Best materials should be used (Are windings to be o sil%er instead o #opperO)"

9" Ade1uate barriers shall be pro%ided between the #ore and the low %oltage winding(
between the low %oltage winding and the medium %oltage winding and the medium
%oltage winding and the high %oltage winding (Ade1uate or whatO Fow to determine
what is ade1uateO)"
;" In-tank type G+6 is a##eptable but the sele#tor #onta#ts must not be in transormer
main oil (+his is %ery #ostly" $ot ha%ing the di%erters in transormer main oil is logi#al")"
<" +aps #an be either on the FV or on the GV as long as they are S&*I in &< steps( (It
is ne#essary that the spe#ii#ation state whether the taps are used to #ompensate or
output %oltage regulation or or input %oltage lu#tuations" +he use o taps and their
lo#ation ha%e #onsiderable bearing on transormer #ost)"
>" +he bid must be as per the spe#ii#ations8 no e,#eptions( no de%iations and no
alternati%es will be a##epted"
A" Buried tertiary =V"A and %oltage are per manua#turer:s standard (+here is no
manua#turer:s standard and how is the manua#turer supposed to know the amount o
imbalan#e between phases in the user:s system)"
'" +ransormers must be designed to withstand the short-#ir#uits as des#ribed in
6;>"&)"**-)*&* with a system J*.J& ratio o )( but with ininite bus (I it is ininite bus(
the system:s J*.J& ratio doesn:t enter into the ault #urrent #al#ulations)"
&*" +he lie o the transormer supplied to this spe#ii#ation must be 9* years minimum
(Fow will the manua#turer know i the transormer is ade1uately maintained( what loads
and o%erloads are put on et#O)"
&&" +ank should ha%e ade1uate stieners (Bhat is ade1uateO)"

&)" Cnly bids rom manua#turers with a skilled work or#e will be #onsidered (Bhat is
meant by a skilled work or#e and how are the skills measuredO)"
&2" 6ore should be built with high grade laminations (Bhat is high gradeO)"
-9)-
INTERESTING CLAUSES (continue!
&9" Cil should be o good 1uality (Bhere is good deinedO)"
&;" C%erload in summer months is &"< p"u" o ma,imum rating (e"g"&"<,&**M &<*=V"A)
or &* hours #ontinuous ea#h day with a top oil temperature limit o &*;K6 and a hottest
spot temperature limit o &)*K6 (+hese limits are or the #ontinuous load per 6SA-6AA-
='* and 6;>"&)"**-)*&*" Bhy not Nust spe#iy that the #ontinuous ma,imum
transormer rating is &<*=V"A)"
&<" 4or reliability reasons the transormers must be tested at );I higher test %oltages
than the le%els spe#iied in 6;>"&)"**-)*&* (+his in#reases the #ost #onsiderably( with
no ade1uate beneit)"
&>" Impulse withstand and short-#ir#uit or#es withstand strength #al#ulations must be by
#omputer programs only (Is the #omputer program enough without %eriying the ormulae
in the programO)"
&A" Autotransormer must be designed or step-down and step-up #onditions( and or
%e#tor( arithmeti# and simultaneous loads o the +V and the main output winding (All
these #onditions will in#rease the #ost" Spe#iy only the true operating #onditions)"
&'" +ransormers must be designed with the whole tap range as #onstant lu, taps and
also as %ariable lu, taps" (+his in#reases the #ost o the transormer #onsiderably"
6onsider spe#iying mi,ed regulation taps" IE6 <**><-& gi%es an e,ample o this" Some
users are spe#iying mi,ed regulation taps per IE6 <**><-&" +he author has designed
transormers with mi,ed regulation taps nearly 9* years ago)"
)*" All #omponents in#luding the tap #hangers shall pro%ide utmost reliability (0o not
state that is not measurable" Spe#iy a test)"
)&" 0uring the ser%i#e there should be no abnormal deterioration o insulation (It would
be meaningul i normal and abnormal are deined)"
))" +he transormers shall #onorm in all respe#ts to high standards o engineering(
design and workmanship (Bhere are the high standards deinedO)"
)2" E1uipment meeting with the re1uirements o other authoritati%e international
standards whi#h ensure e1ual or better perorman#e than the standards mentioned
abo%e shall also be #onsidered (It will be interesting to know i the user was the bidder(
what the user wound ha%e done when su#h #lauses are in the spe#ii#ations)"
)9" +he impedan#e %oltage at prin#ipal tap and rated =V"A shall be stated in the order
($o impedan#e %alue is stated in the spe#ii#ations issued to get the bids" 5ser should
reali-e that to prepare a bid the impedan#e is re1uired")"
);" $on-magneti# materials used shall be o established 1uality (Bhere this established
1uality is and who established itO)"
-92-
GLOBALI*ATION
$owadays( users and manua#turers are re1uently lo#ated in dierent #ountries and
oten on dierent #ontinents" 0ierent languages #ould be#ome barriers in
#ommuni#ations between the engineers on both sides" /epair #ost and time to repair are
important in sele#ting the bidder or the new transormers" 0ue to the abo%e #on#erns(
the reliability o transormers is gaining more awarenessX&<Y"
6omputers and modern #ommuni#ation a#ilities ha%e helped global business( but ha%e
also bought problems" =ostly the in%itation to the bids is posted on web sites and states
that @the manua#turers are dire#ted to post the #larii#ations to the spe#ii#ations on the
web site only8 #ommuni#ation dire#tly with the users by phone or by e-mail is not
permitted:" Bhen a bidder posts a 1uestion on the web site it will be known to all the
other bidders" Also when the user posts the answer on the web site it will be known to all
the bidders" In this pro#ess the bidder who raised the #larii#ation does not beneit" =any
bidders are eeling that they will ha%e an edge by not posting the #larii#ations on the
web site and by 1uoting the least #ost transormer with the e,#eptions.#omments stated
in the bid" 0ue to this the intera#tion between users and the manua#tures is lost and the
ultimate looser is the user" +his ampliies the importan#e o preparing the spe#ii#ations
to rele#t all the system re1uirements in#luding how the transormers are operated"
+o sa%e Nobs( some #ountries ha%e adopted the poli#y o pur#hasing the transormers
made in their own #ountry or gi%ing a pri#e preeren#e or the bidders in their #ountry"
=any other #ountries are #onsidering ollowing in the same dire#tion" 0ue to the sti
#ompetition( almost all o the manua#turers are working with smaller saety margins
between stresses and the strengths than those o a ew de#ades ba#k" Cten we hear
that the lie o newer transormers is mu#h shorter than the older transormers"
Spe#ii#ations are the irst and the most important tool the users ha%e in pro#uring
reliable transormers at e#onomi#al pri#es" Beore globali-ation( lo#al manua#turers
were supplying transormers to the lo#al users" 0ue to many years o a#1uaintan#e
between the lo#al users and the lo#al manua#turers( the manua#turers ully understood
the user re1uirements" $ow the spe#ii#ations must rele#t all o the system needs" As
many bidders in the global market are not luent in English( the spe#ii#ations should be
in simple English( with globally known terminology( #lear to understand and with no
ambiguities" Some users in lo#ations where the main business language is not English(
issue the spe#ii#ations in their lo#al language" +o obtain #ost ee#ti%e bids( it is
suggested that these users issue the spe#ii#ations in English also"
A #onsiderable number o users ha%e not #hanged their spe#ii#ations or many years"
E%en when the users are aware that slight modii#ations to the spe#ii#ations gi%e
#onsiderable beneits( they are relu#tant to #hange" +his trend should #hange or the
beneit o all" Bhen a #lause in a standard restri#ts the e#onomi# beneits( then the user
should make a suitable #hange to the #lause in the standard beore 1uoting the #lause in
the standard in the spe#ii#ation"
-99-
GLOBALI*ATION (continue!
=anua#turers in the #ountries who adopt IE6 standards ha%e many years o e,perien#e
in designing transormers with linear taps and #oarse.ine taps" 5sers in these #ountries
ha%e good e,perien#e in operating these transormers" 6on%ersely( users that adopt
IEEE standards mostly #all or the transormers with the re%ersing taps" By modiying the
spe#ii#ations su#h that the bids #an be o any type o taps will bring great e#onomi#
beneits to the users" +he tap #hanger or #oarse.ine and or re%ersing taps is the same(
e,#ept or a #onne#tion" Be#ause o this( tap #hanger manua#turers do not #all the
me#hanism in these tap #hangers re%ering swit#h or #oarse.ine swit#h" In both these
types o tap #hangers( they #all it #hangeo%er swit#h" Present %a#uum type tap #hangers
no longer re1uire a minimum leakage indu#tan#e between the #oarse and the ine tap
windings"
Another e,ample is based on the work done by IE6" 5sers and the manua#turers in
many #ountries ha%e established that internal non-linear de%i#es (=CV de%i#es) are
reliable" Based on some unortunate in#iden#es( some spe#ii#ations restri#t the use o
these de%i#es" +he author has e,perien#e with these de%i#es as a user and as a
designer" It is re#ommended remo%ing su#h restri#tions to obtain more reliable
transormers and also to get the e#onomi# beneits" /egular updating o the
spe#ii#ations based on the work done in other #ountries will bring #ost sa%ings and
more reliable transormers"
In the present globali-ation market( along with all the system re1uirements it is ad%isable
that the spe#ii#ations in#lude user maintenan#e pra#ti#es and the saety re1uirements"
Spe#ii#ations should also #o%er the problems related to the transport" Along with the
transport restri#tions to the spe#iied station( restri#tions to mo%e the transormer in
uture rom one station to another station within the utility network should also be
in#luded" Stresses e,perien#ed by a transormer during the sea transportation are 1uite
dierent rom those e,perien#ed during the rail or the road transportation" 0uring the
initial years ater the transormer is pla#ed in ser%i#e( only a ew problems are seen
be#ause the materials are new and the loads are light" Problems related to the leakage
lu, do not o##ur at light loads" Spe#ii#ations should state that all details su#h as
stresses during transportation( route o the shipment et#" should be supplied along with
the transormer" +his inormation will be handy i the user has to return the transormer to
the original manua#turer:s plant or repairs ater the warranty period or to ship to
another manua#turer:s plant"
Although there are some undamental dieren#es( suggest that the +ransormer
6ommittees o IE6 and IEEE are to be merged" Bhen there is one global organi-ation
then global standards #an be produ#ed" Bith su#h global standards( the global users
and the global manua#turers will ha%e better intera#tions and all will beneit"
-9;-
DATA SHEETS
0ata sheets or the bids should ask or the inormation needed in e%aluating the bids"
=any users ask or the inormation as i the inal design will be done by the bidders at
the tender stage itsel" In some bids there were &; to )* pages o the data sheets to be
illed-in" In preparing these bids illing-in the data sheets takes more time than doing the
a#tual design"
Some bids are brie and the data sheets ask only the ollowing details in line with the
standards"
&" $o-load loss at )*K6"
)" Goad loss at A;K6 at a spe#iied =V"A and on the rated tap"
2" Gosses o #ooling e1uipment"
9" =ake and type o 0E+6 and G+6 tap #hangers"
;" =ake and type o bushings"
<" Impedan#es at rated and e,treme tap positions"
>" 6ore or shell type and number o legs"
Some data sheets ask or inormation not rele%ant to the e%aluation o the bids" A ew are
gi%en below"
&" Ei#ien#y and regulation at Z( W( [ and & p"u" =V"A at unity power a#tor and at *"A
power a#tor"
)" $umber o strands in 6+6 #ondu#tors"
2" 6al#ulated gradients o windings and the oil rise"
9" Impulse( applied and indu#ed test le%els"
;" +ime rom initiation to #ompletion o one tap o the G+6"
<" Voltages o all 0E+6 taps"
>" G+6 is in whi#h windingO (+o be asked when the #hoi#e o winding is let to the bidder
and not when the spe#ii#ation spe#iies G+6 is in whi#h winding)"
A" Both no-load and load losses at )*K6 and also both the losses at A;K"
'" Goad loss at base =V"A and at ma,imum =V"A"
0ata sheets should not ask or inormation the user has in the spe#ii#ation" Also( the
inormation asked in the data sheets must be understandable" +here are in#iden#es
where the data sheets ask the inormation on whi#h the users themsel%es are not #lear"
0ata Sheets in some spe#ii#ations are in ele#troni#s orm only and these spe#ii#ations
state that 0ata Sheets must be submitted in ele#troni#s orm only" Cten these 0ata
Sheets ha%e dropdown menu and %ery little spa#e to ill-in the data" +hese 0ata Sheets
will not allow the bidders to ill the inormation #orre#tly and ully" 5sers should take e,tra
#are in preparation o Ele#troni# 0ata Sheets"
Ater initial e%aluation o the bids( i re1uired( more inormation #ould be asked rom one
or two inalists beore the +ender /e%iew =eeting"
0ata sheets #annot substitute the +ender /e%iew =eeting" Purpose o the data sheets is
or initial e%aluation o the bids" +ender /e%iew =eeting is strongly re#ommended"
-9<-
TESTS
Cten spe#ii#ations list the tests or the ully assembled and oil illed transormers"
Separate tests on parts used in high %oltage stress areas are %ery important" +here ha%e
been maNor ailures on transormers when insulated bolts used or lead #lamp stru#ture
and shats used in 0E+6 tap-#hanger were not #orona ree" +here ha%e also been
ailures due to the dee#ti%e bonding material (glue) used in keyed-spa#ers et#" It is
ad%isable that the users #he#k the pur#hasing spe#ii#ations o all su#h #riti#al
#omponents.materials and to get #opies o test #ertii#ates rom suppliers o these
materials" It is also ad%isable that the users obtain #opies o test #ertii#ates o key
#omponents like tap #hangers( bushings et#"
A #onsiderable number o spe#ii#ations repeat the des#ription o the tests in the
standards" It is preerable to say the tests per the parti#ular standard should be done"
Cnly the tests not in the standard and i the user wishes to perorm these tests then they
should be stated in the spe#ii#ations" A ew su#h tests are listed below"
&" Per 6SA-6AA-='* partial dis#harge measurements and limits are in \V" Suggest
spe#iying the measurements and limits in p6 per 6;>"&)"'*-)*&*"
)(a) Per 6SA-6AA-='* swit#hing surge test is a routine test or transormers 2<)DV and
abo%e" 4or %oltages below 2<)DV i re1uired( the swit#hing surge test should be #alled"
(b) Per 6;>"&)"**-)*&* swit#hing surge test is a routine test or transormers 29;DV and
abo%e"
2" 6SA-6AA-='* #alls or one hour e,#itation run at &&*I rated %oltage ater #ompletion
o the diele#tri# tests8 6;>"&)"**-)*&* does not #all this test"
9" 6;>"&)"**-)*&* spe#iies the ollowing tests and 6SA-6AA-='* does not"
(a) 0iele#tri# test or low %oltage #ontrol wiring asso#iated au,iliary #ontrol e1uipment(
and #urrent transormer se#ondary #ir#uits"
(b) Cn transormers with both 0E+6 and G+6:
(i) /atio tests at all #onne#tion positions o the tap #hanger or de-energi-ed operation
with the G+6 on the rated %oltage position"
(ii) /atio tests at all G+6 positions with the tap #hanger or de-energi-ed operation on the
rated-%oltage position"
(iii) Impedan#e and load loss measurements at si, #ombinations o 0E+6 V G+6 tap
positions per +able &' on page ;*"
;" In 6SA-6AA-='* and in 6;>"&)"**-)*&* ollowing tests are not spe#iied"
(a) /atio test between the windings that will be permanently paralleled"
(b) S4/A"
(#) C%erload test"
=any spe#ii#ations ask or the sound le%el at load with ull e,#itation %oltage applied" In
the a#tory it is not possible to do su#h a test" 0uring load loss measurement sound le%el
produ#ed by shields and windings is measured" 0uring these tests( the lu, density in
the #ore will be %ery low and does not gi%e the sound le%el produ#ed by the #ore at ull
e,#itation %oltage" Sound le%el produ#ed by the #ore is measured at no-load( during this
measurement sound le%el produ#ed by the shields and the windings is %ery small" 4rom
the sound le%els measured rom the abo%e two tests( there is no uni%ersally agreed
method to #ompute to obtain sound le%el at load with ull e,#itation %oltage applied"
-9>-
TESTS (continue!
As su#h( the user and the manua#turer should agree to the method( preerably in the
0esign /e%iew( to #ompute these tested %alues to obtain the sound le%el at load with ull
e,#itation %oltage applied"
+o determine whether sound en#losures are to be installed or not( some users spe#iy
sound le%el tests with the transormer de-energi-ed with all the ans and the pumps
running" $either 6SA-6AA-='* nor 6;>"&)"**-)*&* spe#iies these tests" I re1uired(
the spe#ii#ations should #learly state these tests with a des#ription o how they should
be perormed"
Cn three-phase transormers( the standards #all or a three-phase indu#ed test" I
single-phase indu#ed test is also re1uired( then this should be stated in the
spe#ii#ations"
In autotransormers when the FV is impulsed( whether the GV line terminals are to be
grounded through surge impedan#es or solidly grounded is not #lear in the standards
and had disagreements between users and manua#turers" In the 0esign /e%iew
meeting all o the tests #onne#tions should be dis#ussed and agreed upon"
6SA-6AA-='* and 6;>"&)"**-)*&* list the routine and design tests" I the user wishes
to perorm some design tests as routine tests( then these tests should be stated in the
spe#ii#ations" Also( i the user wants tests on a##essories then they should be listed in
the spe#ii#ations"
6;>"&)"'*-)*&* des#ribes how the tests are to be perormed" 6;>"&)"'*-)*&* also
gi%es partial dis#harge limits" I the user re1uirements are dierent to those in
6;>"&)"'*-)*&* then the spe#ii#ations should #learly state what is needed"
+ests beore shipping( tests ater re#ei%ing and tests beore energi-ation are dierent to
dierent users" As su#h( suggest stating these tests in the spe#ii#ations"
In the 0esign /e%iew meeting( the user and the manua#turer should dis#uss all the
tests to be perormed( test e1uipment limitations( e,tra tests the user want to perorm
that are not spe#iied in the spe#ii#ation( test #onne#tions et#"( and #ome to an
agreement" +his sa%es time and aggra%ations during the testing"
Some spe#ii#ations ha%e stated the a#tions to be perormed by the manua#turer when
the transormer ails during the a#tory tests (in%estigation( #orre#ti%e a#tion( retesting(
et#")" +his is a good pra#ti#e and suggests ha%ing this in all the spe#ii#ations"
-9A-
TENDER AND DESIGN REVIEWS
+he purpose o the tender and design re%iews should be to enable the user and the
manua#turer to work together to produ#e a transormer that meets all o the system
re1uirements( to maintain transormer reliability throughout its operational lie and supply
the transormers per the #ommitted deli%ery dates"
+ender and design re%iews #ost money and time or both users and manua#turers"
Based on the =V"A rating o the transormer( #ompli#ation o the transormer( bidders list
et#" the user should de#ide whether to in#lude the re1uirement or +ender and 0esign
/e%iew meetings in the spe#ii#ations"
Spe#ii#ations should #learly state the re1uirements o the +ender re%iew and the 0esign
/e%iews" +his is important be#ause the bidder #an in#lude them in their #osting" =any
spe#ii#ations are stating the re1uirement o the 0esign /e%iews and also what will be
dis#ussed in the 0esign /e%iew" Very ew spe#ii#ations are stating the re1uirement o
the +ender /e%iew" A +ender /e%iew is mu#h more important and essential than a
0esign /e%iew" +his is be#ause the manua#turer:s designers were gi%en %ery little time
to do a tender design" =any users are o the opinion that with #omputers designs are
done in a ew minutes" +hey are allowing %ery little time to submit a bid" Cten there is no
time or the bidders to obtain #larii#ations to the spe#ii#ations" $ormally( the same
analysis and #he#ks as in a produ#tion design( are not done or a tender design" =any
times the interpretation o the spe#ii#ations by the user and the bidder is dierent"
5sually the +ender /e%iew meeting is done in the user:s oi#e" +his gi%es an opportunity
or the manua#turer to meet user:s system( operation( prote#tion and stations design
engineers and to know how the transormers are being operated" +his also gi%es the
#han#e to know why #ertain re1uirements are spe#iied in the spe#ii#ations and to
dis#uss the e#onomi# alternati%es" In the +ender /e%iew meeting( suggest dis#ussing
the ollowing:
&" 6ore details:
(a) 6al#ulated and measured losses and e,#itation #urrent on re#ently manua#tured
units with the same grade o #ore steel o the units o the bid"
(b) 4lu, density at ma,imum system %oltage( #al#ulated ma,imum sura#e temperature
and ma,imum temperature in any part o the #ore (inside the #ore et#")"
(#) 0ieren#e in losses and the e,#itation #urrent beore and ater the diele#tri# tests on
re#ently manua#tured units with the same grade steel o the units o the bid"
(d) ?eneral design philosophy in #ore #lamps design"
)" Proposed winding types or trouble-ree operation throughout the lie o the
transormer"
2" +hermal and short-#ir#uit withstand #hara#teristi#s o the materials proposed"
9" Go#ation o taps and the ee#ts on transormer parameters based on how the taps are
used in the operation"
;" Variation o impedan#e o%er the tap range"
<" Suitability o redu#ed or minimi-ed risk in transportation"
>" =anua#turing and testing #apabilities and limitations"
A" Assembly and pro#essing pra#ti#es o #ore and #oils" Also pro#essing pra#ti#es o oil"
'" /e#ent (past i%e years) shop ailures( in%estigations( and how #orre#ted"
&*" Past deli%ery delays and re#ent tra#k re#ord"
-9'-
TENDER AND DESIGN REVIEWS (continue!
&&" Philosophy o design and manua#ture to withstand short-#ir#uits or#es"
&)" +hermal and o%erload #al#ulations"
&2" ]uality and inspe#tions"
&9" Dnowledge and e,perien#e o ere#tion #onsultant"
&;" /e#ent ield problems and how they are re#tiied in#luding ser%i#e ater the warranty"
Cn#e the order is pla#ed it is dii#ult or the user to inluen#e any #hanges to te#hni#al
and non-te#hni#al issues" 5sers ha%e e,perien#ed that to in#lude a eature or to modiy
a parameter ater the order is pla#ed is oten #ostly and #auses delay in deli%ery" I a
thorough +ender /e%iew has been done( then only a ew dis#repan#ies may ha%e to be
resol%ed at the 0esign /e%iew"
$ormally a 0esign /e%iew is done Nust beore ordering the materials" As su#h( users
should insist on only the meaningul #hanges when essential" +he user should not allow
the manua#turer any 1ui#k i, to maintain the deli%ery" +his oten ae#ts the reliability"
Bhen an e,ternal #onsultant is employed by the user to #ondu#t the 0esign /e%iew( the
#onsultant should not be biased and insist on #hanges based on the #onsultant:s
pre%ious e,perien#e" $ew design pra#ti#es and new produ#tion methods will be e%ol%ing
#ontinuously" I the user wants to employ a #onsultant or the 0esign /e%iew then it is
%ery strongly re#ommended that the same #onsultant must be present at the +ender
/e%iew also" +hen the #onsultant #an ask all the te#hni#al #larii#ations in the +ender
/e%iew and re#ommend the best bidder to pla#e the order" Bith this %ery ew
disagreements will o##ur at the 0esign /e%iew" It is important that the user should not
insist on #hanges based upon the pra#ti#es o another manua#turer that had supplied
the transormers"
In the 0esign /e%iew meeting it is suggested to dis#uss the ollowing" +he ollowing may
not be needed at the time o preparation o the spe#ii#ations( but are in#luded as they
will be useul to the users at later stages"
&" =agneti# #ir#uit
--4lu, density in legs( yokes( outer legs et#" at ma,imum system %oltage"
--6ore #onstru#tion (type o step.lap)" 6ore #onstru#tion in split #ore and lu, density at
dierent se#tions"
--6al#ulations o leakage lu, entering the #ore and the method that will be adopted to
eliminate o##urren#e o undesired hot-spots"
--?rade o #ore steel( the supplier and laminations sura#e insulation details"
--6ore #lamping stru#ture design( espe#ially to minimi-e the #ir#ulating #urrents in these
parts"
--6ore temperature (on the sura#e and inside #ore) at ma,imum lu, density in ser%i#e"
--$umber and method o #onstru#tion o #ooling du#ts" Cil low in the du#ts to pro%ide
#ooling to a%oid ormation o hot-spots"
--?rounding details o the #ore and other parts"
--6ore liting method ater #ompleting the sta#king o the #ore (hydrauli# tables or other
methods)"
--=ethod o #ore and yokes binding (resiglass tape( dowels et#")"
-;*-
TENDER AND DESIGN REVIEWS (continue!
)" Bindings( leads e,its( arrangements o leads and their #onne#tions
--+ype o #oils (disk( heli#al et#") and their suitability or the appli#ation"
--Physi#al lo#ations o taps and its impa#t on impedan#e swing a#ross the tap range
short-#ir#uit or#es and impulse %oltage distribution"
--+ype o winding #ondu#tors (6+6 with or without paper #o%ering( magnet wire single(
twin triple et#")"
--Bhen epo,y bonding is used (or 6+6( twin #ondu#tors et#")( then the temperature
rating o the epo,y is to be #he#ked (not below the winding hot-spot temperature)"
--6urrent densities( #ooling( a%erage and hot-spot gradients"
--6ondu#tor (or strand or 6+6) dimensions and eddy losses"
--=ethod to #ontrol the impulse %oltage distribution (shielded( interlea%ed et#")( ormulae
in the impulse %oltage distribution program( os#illations( stresses and strengths(
--Stress in oil and stress in solid insulation o the radial gap between the windings"
--Stati# shields( stati# #ylinders( stress rings et#: #onstru#tion( lo#ation and intended use"
--6ooling (no pumps( with pumps oil dire#ted into the windings( oil %elo#ities to a%oid
stati# buildup( hot spot #al#ulations et#")"
--4or C0 #ooled units( #oordination o time #onstant o windings and the time #onstant o
winding temperature indi#ator"
--Geads e,its (#urrents indu#ed in other parts( gradients and insulation withstand)"
--Sele#tion #riteria on number o non-linear de%i#es and the method o their assembly"
--Toints (Noints in the winding and the Noints in e,ternal #onne#tions)"
--6al#ulation o short-#ir#uit or#es (o-sets( modeling( asymmetry a#tor et#")"
--6oils supports (number o supports radial and a,ial( details o the supports et#") and
the #lamping pressures or liting and or short-#ir#uits"
--0etails o the #ounter shield( interlea%ed et#"
--$umber and type o transposition and their lo#ations in the windings"
--Binding #ondu#tor supplier and insulation details (to go through the pur#hasing
spe#ii#ation details o the winding #ondu#tors and the insulation)"
2" E,ternal to the #oils
--0esign o #urrent limiting rea#tors"
--0esign o series transormer"
--0esign o tap #hanger rea#tor (pre%enti%e auto)"
--0esign o #ompensating transormer"
--0esign and mounting details o #ore shunts( #lamp shunts and tank shields"
--Geads layout to a%oid lasho%er to other parts( me#hani#al stability and pre%ention o
indu#ed #urrents in to other parts"
--0ele#tors to #hannel the gasses in to the gas relay"
9" A##essories
--+ap #hanger type( make( sele#tion to meet the spe#ii#ations (o%erloads( step #apa#ity(
BIG withstand %alues et#")( tie-in resistors or potential swit#h( suitability o the in#rease in
the rating at low temperature( ee#ts o physi#al lo#ation o the taps et#"
--Bushings type( make( sele#tion to meet the spe#ii#ations (o%erloads( #reepage
distan#e( suitability o in#rease in rating at low temperatures et#")"
--B+I (winding temperature instrument) type( make et#" to meet the spe#ii#ations" 4or
C0 (oil dire#ted in to the windings) #ooled units to #he#k the #orrelation o its time
-;&-
TENDER AND DESIGN REVIEWS (continue!
#onstant with the time #onstant o the windings" IEEE B+I +ask 4or#e has done %ery
good work on this and is a%ailable at www"transormers#ommittee"org
--Cn-line monitoring de%i#es"
--6+s (#urrent transormers) design( #ooling( meeting the o%erloads et#"
--Pressure relie de%i#es and other saely de%i#es"
--Go#ations o bushings( #oolers( ans( #ontrol bo,( #onser%ator( tap #hanger et#"
--Go#ation o all arrest systems"
--0esign o gaskets( langes et#"
;" =anua#turing and pro#essing
--6ore: type o #ore #oniguration( ma#hinery or #utting the laminations and or the
assembly( burrs( shorting o the laminations( air gaps during the assembly( liting ater
the assembly( rela#ing the top yoke( rigidity o the #ooling du#ts( splitting o outermost
#ore pa#kets( #ore tightness( grounding et#"
--Bindings: tightness during the winding( maintaining the tightness ater remo%ing rom
the lathe( making the Noints( installation o shields.interlea%ed workmanship( #rosso%ers(
si-ing o the #oils( storing o the #oils till the assembly et#"
--+ype o %apour phase pro#ess( pre-tanking works( tanking time et#"
--Cil pro#essing and illing methods"
--Paint system and painting spe#ii#ations"
<" Inspe#tion and testing
--]uality standards and pro#edures"
--Inspe#tion points at %arious stages o produ#tion"
--Inspe#tion and tests on raw materials and a##essories"
--Pre %apour phase tests (ratio( %e#tor group et#")
--Cil tests beore illing"
--+ests ater oil illing and pro#essing (measurement o losses V impedan#e( thermal(
diele#tri# et#")"
>" Shipment and installation
--0isassembly( marking( pa#king and shipment o the parts"
--Preparation o the main unit or shipment (oil illed( dry air illed( nitrogen illed et#")"
--+ransportation method (rail or tru#k) and the route o the shipment"
--+ype and lo#ation o impa#t re#orders"
--Pre-shipment tests (S4/A( #ore megger et#")"
--+ests and inspe#tions at site beore unloading the main unit rom the rail #ar.tru#k"
--Ere#tion steps and pro#essing pro#edure at site"
--Pre-#ommissioning tests"
--Pre#autions during energi-ing"
4or su##essul +ender and 0esign /e%iews mutual trust and respe#t between the users
and the manua#turers are o the utmost importan#e"
-;)-
TRANSPORTATION AND LIMITING
DIMENSIONS,WEIGHTS
Spe#ii#ations should #learly gi%e the 4CB point and all the details re1uired to transport
the transormer to the destination saely and in the minimum possible time" +he
spe#ii#ations should also gi%e nearest rail siding address( dimensional and weight
restri#tions or the transport and in the transormer station" Bhile spe#iying these
limitations users should #onsider transport o the transormer to dierent stations within
the user system" A detailed s#hedule when dierent drawings (#i%il drawings( #ontrol
drawings( rating plate( outline et#") are re1uired should be gi%en in the spe#ii#ations" +o
get the drawings per s#hedule( some users in#lude in#enti%es in the spe#ii#ations"
Bhen the new transormer has to repla#e an old unit( users oten in#rease the
transormer =V"A rating and say that the dimensions and weights should not e,#eed that
o the old unit" Bith the new re1uirements like ree bu#kling et#" oten it is not possible to
in#rease the #urrent density in the windings e%en when the spe#ii#ation states that the
loss e%aluation is -ero" 6onsidering the total beneits the users should make #hanges to
oundations et#" when re1uired" Suggest in#luding oundation( outline and other #riti#al
drawings o the old transormer in the spe#ii#ations"
=anua#turers should reali-e that ater re#ei%ing the transormer outline drawings (or
#i%il drawings) the user has to go or tenders or oundations( oil spill #ontainments et#"
and ha%e them all ready beore the transormer arri%es" +here were many in#iden#es
where the dimensions and weights on the inal drawings were mu#h higher than those
on the drawings irst submitted" +he users ha%e to make modii#ations to the
oundations( #onstru#t au,iliary spill #ontainments to a##ommodate e,#ess 1uantity o oil
et#" +here were many in#iden#es that the manua#turers submitted the drawings per
s#hedule but with many mistakes" =anua#turers oten ask users to mark the
dis#repan#ies and return the drawings" =anua#turers also say that i the drawings are
not appro%ed 1ui#kly then the deli%ery will be delayed" =anua#turers should reali-e the
problems o the users8 submit the drawings with minimal mistakes and a%oid using the
users as #he#kers or the drawings"
Ater re#ei%ing the #ontrol drawings( 6+ details et#" the prote#tion department o the user
has to design the prote#tion s#heme( tender and install by the time the transormer is
deli%ered"
+he spe#ii#ations should also gi%e details like method o preparations o the parts or
transport( dimensions and weight limitations on the parts" Preeren#e whether the
transormer should be illed with dry air or dry nitrogen should be spe#iied" Based on
user e,perien#e( the number and type o impa#t re#order( (ele#troni#( three dimensional
et#") and where they should be mounted should be spe#iied"
Bhen a transormer needs to be mo%ed in a #onined spa#e or to be installed at a pla#e
whi#h is not a##essible by normal transport( then to ha%e a pre-tender site meeting with
the bidders is a good idea" Bhen the transormer parameters are #ompli#ated (spe#ii#
impedan#e re1uirement( %ery low sound le%el( re#onne#tions or dierent %oltages( et#")
then also a pre-tender meeting with bidders is re#ommended"
-;2-
CONCLUSIONS

&" In general( user:s Pur#hasing 0epartment is satisied to pla#e the order on the lowest
bidder" +he user:s management should pro%ide ade1uate resour#es and time to their
+e#hni#al 0epartment to prepare spe#ii#ations by whi#h #ost ee#ti%e transormers
meeting the system needs #an be pro#ured"
)" +here are many ways to meet the system needs" At the time o preparation o
spe#ii#ations( users will beneit by intera#ting with manua#turers and by #hoosing the
most #ost ee#ti%e and te#hni#ally a##eptable parameters to in#lude in the
spe#ii#ations"
2" Standards are to #omplement the spe#ii#ations and are not a substitute" System
engineers and operating engineers should be a part in de#iding whi#h #lause o the
standard to be reeren#ed in the spe#ii#ations"
9" Spe#ii#ations should be tailor made to the spe#ii# need" Cnly a ew general
re1uirements #an be standardi-ed"
;" Gike IEEE( 6SA should also ha%e Borking ?roups or #ontinuous impro%ement o
6SA-6AA"
<" 6larity in spe#ii#ations will help to get the least #ostly and most te#hni#ally a##eptable
bids"
>" Beore #alling or the bids( the spe#ii#ations must be updated based on the work
done on the standards and the de%elopments in other #ountries"
A" By knowing the new de%elopments in the design( manua#turing( materials and
a##essories the spe#ii#ations #an be updated to take ad%antage o these de%elopments"
'" Spe#ii#ations should gi%e reedom to the bidders to oer the best alternati%es without
a main bid as e,a#tly stated in the spe#ii#ations"
&*" 5sers should pro%ide in#enti%es to the manua#turers to #ome up with new
inno%ations" Bhen users work with the manua#turers( the most #ost ee#ti%e
inno%ations will e%ol%e"
&&" =anua#turers should reali-e that in most o the situations there is a spe#ii# reason
or a spe#ii# #lause in the spe#ii#ations" It is important that the manua#turers not to
make any assumptions in interpreting the spe#ii#ations( but rather #he#k with the user i
a #larii#ation.e,planation is needed"
&)" +e#hni#al 0epartments o the users and manua#turers must ha%e dire#t( ast and
reliable #ommuni#ation paths"
&2" 5sers and manua#turers to ha%e mutual trust and respe#t"
-;9-
AC-NOWLEDGEMENTS
&" =r" 4rank 0a%id o 40 6onsulting Ser%i#es( Binnipeg( =anitoba( 6anada with his
depth o knowledge as transormer design engineer and as transormer #onsultant or
bringing out the design dii#ulties when the spe#ii#ations are not #lear and when the
key data is missing in the spe#ii#ations" Also or his support and #onstru#ti%e
suggestions in preparing this tutorial"
)" =r" Peter 4ran-en Apparatus Engineer( =anitoba Fydro( Binnipeg( =anitoba( 6anada
with his immense wealth o knowledge as transormer design engineer and as utility
engineer or steering the tutorial to be a good guide or the users in preparation o
transormer spe#ii#ations"
2" =r" I-y Polis#huk +ransormer Spe#ialist( Fydro Cne( +oronto( Cntario( 6anada with
his thorough knowledge as transormer design engineer and as utility engineer or
%aluable suggestions and or #orre#ting the drat su#h that users #an pur#hase reliable
transormers meeting system needs at e#onomi#al pri#es"
9" =r" /onnie (/ashed) =inha- Substation Gead Engineer( =#?regor 6onstru#tion(
6algary( Alberta( 6anada whose enthusiasti# initiati%e made this tutorial to take birth"
Bith his %aluable knowledge as transormer design engineer and as utility engineer or
#orre#ting and or editing the tutorial to be useul to the transormer industry"
-;;-
REFERENCES
&" ?uide to Power +ransormer Spe#ii#ation Issues Ele#tri# Power Engineering 6entre(
$ew Qealand"
)" +e,t book 3+ransormer Engineering7 by G"4" Blume( A"BoyaNian( ?"6amilli( +"6"
Genno,( S" =inne#i and V"=" =ontsinger"
2" 6A$.6SA-6AA-='*" $ational Standard o 6anada" Power +ransormers and
/ea#tors"
9" 6;>"&)"**-)*&*" IEEE Standard or ?eneral /e1uirements or Gi1uid-Immersed
0istribution( Power( and /egulating transormers"
;" 6;>"&)"&*-)*&*" IEEE Standard /e1uirements or Gi1uid-Immersed Power
+ransormers"
<" 6;>"A*-)*&*" IEEE Standard +erminology or Power and 0istribution +ransormers"
>" 6;>"&)"'*-)*&*" IEEE Standard +est 6ode or Gi1uid-Immersed 0istribution( Power(
and /egulating +ransormers"
A" 6;>"'&-&'';" IEEE ?uide or Goading =ineral-oil-Immersed +ransormers"
'" 6;>"&)*-&''&" IEEE Goss E%aluation ?uide or Power +ransormers and /ea#tors"
&*" IE6 <**><-&" International Standard or Power +ransormers - Part &: ?eneral"
&&" IE6 <**><-2" International Standard or Power +ransormers - Part 2: Insulation
le%els and diele#tri# tests"
&)" IE6 <**><-9" International Standard or Power +ransormers - Part 9: +appings and
#onne#tions"
&2" IE6 <**><-;" International Standard or Power +ransormers - Part ;: Ability to
withstand short #ir#uit"
&9" IE6 <**><-A" International Standard or Power +ransormers P Appli#ation ?uide"
&;" 6I?/E paper 3=ethods and =eans o Voltage /egulation o Garge Autotransormers
in International 6oneren#e on Garge Figh Voltage Ele#tri# Systems in Tuly &'>2"
&<" Paper 3/eliability o +ransormers P 6ontribution by 5sers7 by V" Sankar presented in
+/A4C+E6F( =umbai( India in Tanuary )**<"
&>" ?uide on E#onomi#s o +ransormer =anagement by 6I?/E B?&)-)*"
&A" 6EA+I /eport $o" +*>2>**-2*92 3/e%iew and summary o key standards and
guides or station-#lass power transormers7"
-;<-
Fo# co..ent(,c'$#i/ic$tion( on t0i( tuto#i$' cont$ct
V$''$.1on$ S$n1$#
E-.$i'2 3o4e#t#$n(/o#.e#50ot.$i')co.
Te'2 678-9:;-86<9