THE AESTHETI CS OF PARTI CULARS:

A CASE OF I NTUI TI VE MECHANI CS

Liliana Albertazzi
Karl zu eigen
lch.., fragte.., ob sie (die Vp.) nicht.., das eine dieser Rechtecke
verm~Sge seines andern Seitenverhnltnisses gef;-illiger, befridin-
gender, harmonischer, eleganter finden k6nnte, als alas andere...
Aus den Aussagen der Vp. wfihlen wir nur folgende: Eine Dame
zog 2:1 vor, weil es so sch6hn schlank sei ([Fechner 1896], 195).
1. The aesthetics of particulars
Is t here an aesthetics of paruculars, an aest het i cs of t he f eat ur es
const i t ut i ve of obj ect s and f or ms ? An aest het i cs of this ki nd cer t ai nl y exi st s at
t he l evel of art i st i c pr act i ce: it may concer n the ar chi t ect oni cs and t ect oni cs of a
t empl e, or mor e s i mpl y t he out l i ne of a dr awi ng or t he cont r apunt al rul es of a
pi ece of musi c, and it is to be f ound in the mani pul at i on of mat er i al s by an
artist. However , f ew t ext s set out a c ompr e he ns i ve t heor y of t he morphogenesis
of the constitutive elements of an aest het i cal l y connot ed obj ect or f or m, as
direct factors, in Fe c hne r ' s and Wi t me r ' s sense, or of t he ultimate units of
dissection, to use an expr essi on f r om Vol kel t . 2
And yet, t he et ymon or t he di sci pl i nar y name i t sel f of aest het i cs r el at e to a
sensible experience whi ch is emot i onal l y connot ed and st r uct ur al l y founda-
tional with r espect to any f ur t her devel opment in t he theoretical canon of
beaut i f ul f or ms. 3
] In the contemporary literature, the term ' particular' goes under the name of ' t ropes'
with partially different meanings. Cf. [Campbell 1990]; [Williams 1986].
2 (Spatial) constitutive elements are, for example, the impression of rectlinearity, of
curvature, of parallelism, of divergence from a straight line, but even prior to these, the
impression of boundaries, of punctiform surfaces, traits, directions, and so on: cf.
[Fechner 1871], [1876]. [Volkelt 1934] refers instead to psychic moments, for example
' a particular shade of red.'
3 [Kant 1790].
Axiomathes. Nos. 1-2. 1998, pp. 169-196.
170 LIL1ANA ALBERTAZZI
For an aesthetics and a realist metaphysics, moreover, existents in the proper
sense of the term are not merely individuals or objects, nor are they solely
forms. Instead, they are every feature and every actual characteristic note, and
therefore also angles, sides, lines, curves, points, moments, and the directions
and the velocity that they convey; as well as secondary qualities like colours
and sounds, instances like crimson red or cobalt blue, a major third and a
perfect fifth, but also clarity and darkness, textures and tertiary characteristic
notes like the graspability, dangerousness, coldness and maleur of aesthetic
experiences. To elaborate the argument even further, every existent in the
strong sense is characterized by its adjectival properties and exists only as long
as these properties last. 4
This type of quality is also at the basis of an aesthetics of geometric visual
f orms - rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, quadrangular, circular, and so
forth, s To be precise, however, an aesthetics of particulars is primarily an
aesthetics of a space which does not yet possess the defining features of
Euclidean space but, as von Allesch has well shown, is a space which
comprises, for example, tactile and kinaesthetic qualities, movement, direction,
velocity, and therefore has the essentially dynamic structure of aesthetic
phenomena of vision. 6
One thinks, for example, of the foregrounding of the lateral and rear planes
(and therefore the perceptively subsequent ones) in Picasso' s paintings, or of
the simultaneous flashes of Depero's New York, of Delaunay' s simultaneously
open windows, of Marinetti' s areomechanical poetry or, even more subtly, of
the role played by stereo-kinetic effects in Duchamp' s works (like Sad Young
Man on the Train, of 1911-12), effects which were long studied in the
laboratory of experimental psychology, in particular by Benussi and Musatti. 7
In truth, a sentiment (Gef~hl) of this kind runs through most of the avant-
garde art of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century art. That the principles
of form in painting are spheres, cylinders and cones, that every side of an
object, every surface, every shape has its central point of direction, and that the
perceiver is internal to this process of the geometric vision of forms, is from
4 Examples of adjectival metaphysics are [Brentano 1928]; [Peirce 1931-35];
[Whitehead 1929]. A conception of this kind is also present in [Worringer 1918] and
[Geiger 1911]. On the adjectival primitives of perception see [Albertazzi 1997b],
[1998c]. The contemporary cognitive sciences distinguish between low level properties
(like T-, Y- and arrow-joins) and high level ones (like parallelism, symmetry) in which
the former are embedded. See for example [Rouw, Kosslyn and Hamel 1997].
5 On experimental aesthetics, with particular regard to Fechner, Lipps and Witasek,
see [Segal 1906].
6 [von Allesch 1910], [1931]; [Albertazzi 1998b].
7 [Musatti 1924], [1975].
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 171
Cezanne onwards a f eat ur e di st i nct i ve of t he ent i re cubi st movement and
charact eri zes t he bul k of t he art of t hat peri od, f ut ur i sm i ncl uded.
That the movement of gal l opi ng horses is triangular, as in Bocci oni , or t hat
t he col our yel l ow has acute angles and t ri angul ar shape, as in Kandi nski
accor di ng to a schemat i c pat t er ni ng of l i ne- sur f ace- col our rel at i onshi ps, t hat it
can be depi ct ed a poem of the right-angle, that t here is an i nt ernal rel at i on
bet ween italics and the expr essi on of sensat i ons in rapi d successi on, or bet ween
bold and the expressi on of i nt ense onomat opoei as: all t hese, t he fut uri st s
mai nt ai ned, are artistic r epr esent at i ons whi ch rest ore constitutive features of
per cept i ve experi ence.
The di st ort i ons and r econst r uct i ons of t he dynami c pr ocess of vi si on in
aest het i cs are not in fact subj ect i ve. They are i nst ead phenomenologically
objective, in t he sense that t hey rest ore the morphogenesis of the particulars of
act ual aest het i c exper i ence. They break with West er n visual pr oj ect i on and lie
at t he basis of a Gestalthaftes Sehen, to empl oy a wel l - known title, s
Mor e than symbol i st or abst ract , an aest het i cs of this t ype is exact. It
rest ores intensity, simultaneity and action to t he el ement ar y f eat ur es of
per cept i ve f or ms in the time of presentness, and it adheres to t he pri nci pl es of a
mechanics of spatial forms.
The sci ent i fi c apparat us under pi nni ng this aest het i c vi ew of part i cul ars - be
t hey points, lines and surfaces, cones, light, shade or col our - is not sol el y
t went i et h- cent ur y rel at i vi st physi cs, nor t he Ber gsoni an f l ow, as t he cri t i cal
l i t erat ure has somet i mes argued, perhaps because it has f ai l ed t o grasp t he real
pr obl em. 9 The sci ent i fi c apparat us of an aest het i cs of this ki nd consi st s of:
. cert ai n phi l osophi cal t heori es, like Lot ze' s t heor y of l ocal sig-ns, t he
met aphysi cs of cont i nua devel oped by Br ent ano, Ehr enf el s and Sel z, t he
research conduct ed by St umpf ( Li pps' pr edecessor in Muni ch) on t he ori gi n
s Cf. [Weinhandl 1967]; [Laporte 1947], 243-56. On the connection between the
Blue Reiter movement and the exact aesthetics of the Munich group, in particular
Hildebrand, Theodor Conrad and Daubert, somewhat similar opinions have been
expressed by [Schuhmann 1997], 41-2 and [Scaramuzza 1976], 16. See also [De Rosa
1990] and [1994]. The expressive characteristics of the tertiary qualities are also
discussed by Geiger.
9 For example, Italian futurism's relationship with Bergson and James was absolutely
unequivocal, mainly because of the translations and interest of ' magical' pragmatists like
Papini and Prezzolini. Cf. [Albertazzi 1997c]. As for the area of mid-European
influence, here the connections were somewhat different. One thinks of the relationship
between some exponents of Gestalt and Brentanism, as in Hornbostel.
172 L1LIANA ALBERTAZZI
.
of spatial perception, and the writings of Husserl (Lipps' antagonist against
his will) on space and the passive synthesis of antepredicative experience. ~
in Gestalt theory and experimentation: in particular, Wertheimer for the
temporal structures of forms, Katz for colour, Allesch for non-Euclidean
space, Hombost el for intrasensory integration, Brunswik for the perception
of objects, Kardos for foundational studies on col our and shade, Benussi
for the chromatic continua and a-sensory perceptions of form, Btihler for
the aesthetic perception of straight lines, circles, curves and indices of
directionality.I t
In short, the foundations of the aesthetics of particulars lie in a series of
analyses of experimental phenomenology characterized by complementarity
bet ween the objectual description of observables (to use Kof f ka' s expression),
whi ch had its fulcrum in Muni ch aesthetics, and psycho-physical
experimentation in the laboratory.
The geometry of planes that governed the decomposition of images in
cubi sm - so that an object did not have one single absolute form but as many
forms as it had planes in the perceptive region, as exemplified by Pi casso' s
paintings 12 - the individual parts or elements of pure visual perception, the
logic and syntax of the presentations of intuitive form analysed by Hildebrand
in his book on the problem of form in sculpture, ~3 or the modes of vision like
looking from ' close up' or ' from a distance' as reconstructed in the simultaneity
and contiguity of the parts in the pictorial whole: these, in effect, are the
externalizations of a base principle of phenomenological experience, namel y
that of the dependent and non-independent parts of the whol es of perception.
Some of Pi casso' s paintings (for example his Seated Woman of 1919)
restore the various pieces of the figure, seen in close-up, and fit one to another
in their partially re-entrant and partially protruding shapes according to a
geometry of particulars whereby they flatten, curve, protrude, and recede
fol l owi ng an order of representative reconstruction that may di ffer from the
original perceptive order in their constitution. 14 This is in fact a characteristic
l0 [Brentano 1928]; [Lotze 1859]; [Ehrenfels 1985]; [Stumpf 1873]; [Husserl 1900-
1], [1966b]. On Brentano's position cf. [Albertazzi 1997a].
i1 [Wertheimer 1922-33]; [Katz 1911]; [Hornbostel 1925]; [Allesch 1931];
[Brunswik 1934], [1935]; [Kardos 1934]; [Benussi 1922-23].
t2 [Laporte 1947], 243.
13 [Hildebrand 1905]. On the relationship between Hildebrand and the Vienna
phenomenological circle, and in particular with Daubert, see [Schuhmann 1997], 40.
14 On Picasso's painting of. [Leyton 1992], ch. 8.
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 173
of t he st ruct ure of t he representation that Benussi fi rst showed in his
exper i ment s. 15 ' So I think, so I pai nt , ' ran Deper o' s f amous di ct um.
Mor eover , t he arcs of a ci rcl e share with a straight l i ne t he f eat ur e t hat all
t hei r parts may overl ap, or mor e general l y f r om a mechanical poi nt of vi ew,
t hat each part may be shifted on to the whol e. The visual gi venness of
pr oj ect i ve ci rcl es (Richtkreisen), whi ch cor r espond to st rai ght lines in our
f r ont opar al l el pl ane is also r ecogni zed by a posi t i vi st l i ke Hel mhol t z. 16 But t he
t heoret i cal pr obl em that opposes a posi t i vi st t o a phenomenol ogi cal concept i on
of mechani cs resi des in t he t ype of explanation gi ven to t hese phenomena. 17 A
shi ft or over l ap of this kind, f r om a phenomenol ogi cal poi nt of vi ew, is not
ascert ai nabl e sol el y by means of measurement and deductive conchzsions. It is
i nst ead a charact eri st i c pert i nent t o t he type of visual part i cul ar, and as such it
is immediately perceivable by the organi sm.
In fact, f or the phenomenol ogi cal poi nt of vi ew, with its st rong cognitive
connot at i ons, Is ever y part i cul ar has its own behaviour whi ch assumes part l y
di f f er ent aspect s accor di ng to t he f or ce fi el d and the conf i gnr at i ons in whi ch
the latter is manifest. For exampl e, the per cept i ve eval uat i on of t he empt y
distance bet ween t wo poi nt s di ffers f r om the eval uat i on of a straight line dr awn
bet ween t wo points, and also f r om t he eval uat i on of t he size, or bet t er the
thickness, of the t wo limit points, gi ven that when a poi nt - the internally most
concise form, as Kandi nsky cal l ed it - has t hi ckness it al so acqui res a ground.
Or, because of assimilation phenomena, i f a square is pl aced bet ween t wo
squares equal l y l arger t han it, and i f it is t hen pl aced bet ween t wo squares
equal l y smal l er than it, t he square appears to be smal l er in t he fi rst case t han in
the second. The same is t rue of circles.
Fi nal l y, t he t wo i dent i cal sides of an angl e seem to be of di f f er ent l engt hs in
rel at i on to t he di st ance bet ween t hem and bet ween poi nt s dr awn cl ose to t hei r
ends, because t he poi nt funct i ons as a boundary of t he whole. 19
Mor e si mpl y, consi der a cyl i nder seen f r om t he i nsi de as concave or seen
f r om t he out si de as convex; a pr obl em t hat also obsessed Fechner and of whi ch
~5 On this distinction see [Benussi 1925].
16 According to the theory of the Geradheitschwelle, Bi.ihler would later define a
straight line as a circle with only one radius of magnitude.
17 [Btihler 1913].
~8 The phenomenological object, in fact, is always ~ven ' content-wise,' and is
therefore incomplete or partially 'absent.' Cf. [Husserl 1900-1], Third Logical
Investigation.
~9 Many othese aspects have been analysed inter alia by Lipps. Cf. [Laska 1890];
[MGller-Lyer 1896]; [Lipps 1897].
174 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
a cl assi c exampl e is Necker ' s cube, wher e t he key f eat ur es is t he r ol e of angles
as const i t ut i ve el ement s. 2
Thes e aspect s are cl earl y di spl ayed by t he pat t erns known as optical
illusions, a f act well known si nce ant i qui t y and whi ch in t ect oni cs led t o a
seri es of corrections - like t he ent asi s pl aced at 1/3 of t he hei ght of t he dor i c
col umn - in or der count er act t he ef f ect s of this speci f i c t ype of perceptive
regularity ari si ng f r om the conf i gur at i ons in whi ch t he particulars appear and
the f orces of t he visual field.
In ot her words, at the basis of a phenomenol ogi cal aest het i cs of part i cul ars
t her e al so l i e t he internalizations of pr i nci pl es t hat bel ong t o t he mechanics of
an intuitive physics. In the phenomenal vi sual field, in fact , t her e are place
signs and direction signs or f l i ght points cor r es pondi ng to t he place positions of
var i ous ki nds of part i cul ars, l i ke poi nt s, lines, surfaces, angl es, curves, pat t erns,
f i l l ed wi t h phenomenal cont ent s of shade, col our , darkness, bri ght ness and
t ext ur e of part i cul ars. Fr om t he vari ous conf i gur at i ons of t hese part i cul ars
ori gi nat e t he percept i ons of place, oriented f eat ure and movement that lie at t he
basis of our percept i ons. 2'
One of t he tasks of aest het i cs is t her ef or e t o br i ng t o awar eness t he primitive
f act ors or particulars that convey t he visual f orces of di r ect i on, rel at i on and
expr essi on. 22
The visual fi el d in fact t akes t he f or m of a system of positions with a
continuous ordering - that is, of a homogeneous series of positions (Orte) -
whi ch can be const r uct ed accor di ng t o st ruct ural laws as a system of places,
al so in Hus s er l ' s sense. 23
Oper at i ng in t he visual f i el d are a pr i nci pl e of cohesion wher eby a sur f ace
lies upon an obj ect i f and onl y i f t hey are connect ed, a pr i nci pl e of contact
wher eby surfaces move t oget her onl y i f t hey are connect ed, and a pr i nci pl e of
continuity wher eby an obj ect f ol l ows exact l y one spat i o- t empor al l y connect ed
t raj ect ory. 24
20 The importance of the concavity and convexity of lines, of junctures and angles is
also of great relevance for the contemporary theory of vision. Cf. [Marr 1982];
[Biedermann 1985].
2~ Place signs are the minimal elements of spatial perception relative to tactile
sensations, while direction signs originate from muscular sensation and denote the
minimal spatial element of connection among the signs of place, thereby giving rise to
the sensation of movement. Cf. [Uexktill 1920], [1956]; [Albertazzi 1998b].
22 A realist metaphysics of this kind originated in Brentano, and before him in
[Herbart 1946b].
23 Cf. [Husserl 1966a], [1966b].
24 [Eilan et al. 1993], 103. As regards painting, Balla and Russolo achieved a ' static'
reproduction of motion.
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 175
Wi t hi n t he visual fi el d t he qual i t i es that sat urat e it must extend themselves,
fi l l i ng t he f i el d in uni f or m manner wi t hout qual i t at i ve fits and starts. Thes e are
not yet qual i t i es of spatial extension, but of extensity (Extensitiit), to use a t er m
f r om Br ent ano' s met aphysi cs of cont i nua, z5
Bocconi asked how one can represent , in t he most absol ut e sense, t hef al t of
a leaf. The fact is that pai nt i ngs are of t en pi ct ori al descr i pt i ons of act i ons
real i zed t hrough the phases of a unitary stroboscopic movement, as Anahei m
acut el y observed, z6 The essent i al f eat ur e of an aest het i c mechani cs of
phenomenol ogi cal t ype t her ef or e consi st s in t he t opol ogi cal elasticity of
part i cul ars and in cert ai n diffuse (i.e. pre-gest al t ) charact eri st i cs of the qual i t i es
represent ed, whi ch are round, angl ed or unci nat e and therefore i nsi gni fi cant ,
common, el egant , nobl e, and so fort h. 27
2. Philosophy, psychology and psychologism
In 1897 Theodor Li pps wr ot e a Raumaesthetik on t he el ement ar y spat i al
i mpressi ons, in a st yl e descr i bed by Utitz as consi st i ng of "par t i cul ar i t i es and
subt l e di st i nct i ons, " in whi ch he addressed t he pr obl em of aest het i cs f r om a
foundational poi nt of vi ew and with part i cul ar r ef er ence to per cept i ve
illusions. 28 The anal yt i c and pai ns-t aki ng nat ure of Li pps' obser vat i ons
at t ract ed Bt i hl er ' s cri t i ci sm t hat his book t reat ed t he whol e of ps ychol ogy as
not hi ng mor e than a mass of subt l e i ndi vi dual obser vat i ons and di f f er ences. 29
Despi t e t he accusat i on of psychol ogi sm br ought agai nst Li pps' met hod, it
di spl ays a feat ure pert ai ni ng to t he origins of phenomenol ogi cal r esear ch and
whi ch was shared, f or exampl e, b y al most all t he member s of t he school of
Br ent ano: t he combi nat i on of semi nars on phi l osophy wi t h semi nars on
ps ychol ogy whi ch led, al most wi t hout except i on, to the openi ng of l abor at or i es
of exper i ment al psychol ogy. 3
25 [Brentano 1907], [1928].
26 [Arnheim 1986].
27 On the diffuse or plastic qualities of the pregestalten see [Cornelius 1900]; on
emotive connotation (Gefiihl) as the quality of a complex see [Krueger 1953].
28 [Lipps 1885]; [Utitz 1912], 215; [Bfihler 1913]. On Lipps see [Anschtitz 1915];
[Zweig 1972]. On the relationship between Brentano and Lipps see [Brentano 1907],
repr. [1979], 125-31; 133-6; 241-3, and [Lipps 1987], 269. On Lipps' bibliography cf.
[Schuhmann and Bokhove 1991].
29 [Biihler 1913], 34.
30 [Brentano 1874], 30; [Marty 1897], 79; [Stumpf 1907].
176 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
In fact, bel ongi ng to the Academi c Ci rcl e for Psychol ogy (Akademisches Ve-
rei nf i i r Psychologie) founded by Li pps, and whi ch duri ng the academi c semes-
ter met on a weekl y basis, were both Al exander Pfander and Johannes Daubert ,
whi l e more general l y Li pps' school, wi t h Theodor Conrad, Mor i t z Gei ger and
Adol f Rei nach, came to const i t ut e the nucl eus of realist phenomenol ogy. 3~
Husserl hi msel f not ed on the margi n of Li pps' Psychologischen Stttdien,
publ i shed in 1885, that: "Also hat Lipps die Hauptasache in der Hand. "'32
Husser l ' s annot at i on referred in part i cul ar to Li pps' st at ement t hat "i n the fi nal
anal ysi s that whi ch is essential in percei vi ng and present i ng is not the
present at i ons or the perceptions in t hemsel ves but what t hey ' si gni f y' for us
f r om some point of vi ew; " which, as well as i ndi cat i ng a possi bl e connect i on
wi t h expressi oni st theot' y, const i t ut ed the core of the hi ghl y cont roversi al
concept of empathy. 33
Far from Schel eri an argument s, t he original meani ng of the concept of em-
pat hy in Li pps is rat her compl ex, as also not ed by the ent ry on Li pps in the En-
cyclopedia of Philosophy. 34 Put bri efl y, it consi st s in t he observat i on t hat the
optical and aesthetic impression t hat we obt ai n in, for exampl e, the percept i on
of geomet ri c visual forms is onl y the twofold f ace of a single t hi ng root ed in
present at i ons of mechani cal act i vi t y or presentations of states of stillness or
motion. 35 This, though, is a not an eccent ri c position: Gei ger hi msel f, aft er wor-
ki ng wi t h Wundt in Lei pzi g on at t ent i ve phenomena, under Li pps' gui dance in
Muni ch devel oped a syst emat i c t heory of the Einfiihhmg based on experi ment al
dat a whi ch evi denced the various st ruct ural component s t hat lead to the singl-
i ng out Of objectual traits - a fi el d also i nvest i gat ed by Fechner and Wi t mer. 36
In short, it is the acts - or the charact er of intellectual apprehensi on
(intellective Auf-fassung) - that by gi vi ng shading and colo~tring to fi gures also
endows t hem with meani ng. 37 In ot her words, f r om this poi nt of vi ew the modes
31 CF. [Schuhmann 1977]. On the role of experimental psychology see [Lipps
1901b], 27-8.
32 Cf. [Schuhmann 1977], 105.
33 On the connection between "the analysis of the object in the mode of its
givenness," to use a phenomenological expression of Daubert's, and impressionism see
BSL, Daubertiana AI 15, "Zur Philosophie des Impressionismus," cit. in [Schuhmann
1997], 43. On the concept of empathy see [Dilthey 1974]; [Lipps 1899], [1905]; [Stein
1917]. On the ambiguity of the concept of empathy in Lipps see [Worringer 1918].
More in general on the concept of empathy see [Pinotti 1997].
34 Vol. 3-4, 485-6.
35 Cf. [Lipps 1899].
36 Cf. [Geiger 1911]. On Geiger see [Spiegelberg 1984], 200-12.
37 The mode of apprehension (Auffasungsweise) responsible for the wide subjective
variability of the aesthetic mode of conceiving has been analysed by Witmer. This
character also comprises elements of the personality or what has been called
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 177
of apprehension of the aest het i c obj ect det er mi ne its expression (Ausdruck); a
posi t i on whi ch was fi ercel y cri t i ci sed by Vol kel t . A weaker ver si on of Li pps'
t heor y, al t hough devel oped wi t hi n t he same f r ame of r ef er ence, was
pr opounded by Wi t mer, who i nvest i gat ed t he pr obl em of expression.38
In ot her words, f or Li pps visual per cept i on is t he pr oduct of acts of presen-
tation whi ch di spl ay feat ures of cognitive and emotional completion of t he ori-
gi nal mat eri al suppl i ed by sense i mpressi ons, by the act itself; a concept i on
whi ch cl osel y resembl es t he Gr az School ' s theory of production, as Li pps
wr ot e to Mei nong in 1905. 39 It is no coi nci dence, in fact, t hat a key f eat ur e of
Li pps' aest het i cs of space was its det ai l ed and al most obsessi ve anal ysi s of t he
opt i cal illusions t hat der i ve f r om the behaviour of part i cul ars in t he per cept i ve
fi el d of t he vi si on. Thes e i l l usi ons were of cent r al concer n to t he research of t he
Mei nongi ans and one of t he pri nci pal t hemes of posi t i vi st l i t erat ure. For t hat
mat t er, it was Husserl who first argued that phenomenol ogy was a f or m of
posi t i vi sm. 4
At Graz, Benussi i nvest i gat ed t he psychol ogi cal nat ure and the ont ol ogi cal
status of t he phenomena of per cept i ve illusion - or, as he pr ef er r ed to call it, t he
phenomena of t he a-sensory perception of form - and he showed t he t wof ol d
i nner st ruct ure of the act of present at i on. Al so pr esent in pr esent i ng wer e
(meaninghd) cognitive traits wher eby t he compl ex of st i mul i was gr asped
wi t hout t he di rect i nvol vement of the r ecept or s, in cont rast , f or exampl e, wi t h
t he case of phenomena of chr omat i c cont rast . Ever y per cept i on, t her ef or e, is t he
pr oduct of bot h external conditions (l i ke t he di f f er ence in cl ari t y bet ween
f i gur e and ground, the part i cul ar bri ght ness of a col our , t he i nf l uence of t he
secondar y lines in the Mi i l l er - Lyer i l l usi on, et c. ) and internal conditions,
assi mi l at i ve or connect i ve. Thi s is evi denced by pai nt i ngs in whi ch we see
ci r cul ar obj ect s even t hough in t erms of per spect i ve t hey ar e act ual l y el l i pt i cal ,
characterial timbre, as well as momentary Stimmungen and objectivities of
consciousness (Bewufltseinlage). For example, when an energetic character is
confronted by a figure which admits to more than one mode of apprehension, it
apprehends it from the point of view of energy.
3s In Witmer, mechanical aesthetics is less dominant; that is, it remains such in lines
but less so in triangles and zig-zag lines. Empathy becomes a fusion (Verschmelzung) of
figural qualities, an expression of the figure more than a free expanding or an inner
doing.
39 Cf. Lipps' letter to Meinong of 30.3.1905, no. 3839 in the Graz Archive. In this
letter Lipps declares that Benussi has once again "completely misunderstood" although
"he confirms what he seeks to deny." See also [Benussi 1914] and Benussi' s
handwritten notes on Lipps' 1897 text.
40 Cfr. [Husserl 1950].
] 7 8 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
or b y t he a-modal phenomen:~ , , f pe r c e pt i on a n a l y s e d b y Ka ni z s a . 4j B e n u s s i ' s
p e r s o n a l c o p y o f Li p p s ' book ,m t},,~ aes t het i cs o f s p a c e a nd p e r c e p t i v e i l l us i ons
b e a r s s o me a nnot a t i ons in i t : , m~,r~.ins wh i c h t e s t i f y t o hi s d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g
a e s t he t i c me c h a n i c s and t he IJ,~:,,r7 of pr oduc t i on. Be n u s s i di d not ha ve a hi gh
o p i n i o n o f Li p p s ' wor k, in I';J,~) :m0 a c c u s e d hi m o f r e s o r t i n g t o u n c o n s c i o u s
p e r c e p t i o n s a nd as s oci at i oni s ! ij,,,;itions in hi s t he or y o f p e r c e p t i o n Y
L i p p s ' t he or y a l s o reflect.~ fI~,. t heor y o f t he f ormal qualities d e v e l o p e d b y
Me i n o n g ' s f r i end, Ha ns Cor~,-li,,~. a not he r a ut hor s u s p e c t e d o f p s y c h o l o g i s m
a nd wh o s e l e c t ur e s we r e allc.t,ql,;j by al l t he Mu n i c h p h e n o me n o l o g i s t s . 43
C o me l i u s ' s t he or y pr ovi de d ih,: t , : ~i s f or a mo r p h o g e n e t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t he
expressive qua l i t i e s in whi ch ~mf. di s c e r ns a t he or y o f e mp a t h y b a s e d on
e x p e r i me n t a l anal ys i s o f a ct'~l;lirlly t y p e s o f pl a s t i c a n d d i f f u s e d qua l i t i e s
(gestalthafler) o f t he whol e . 'l'hi,~ !heory, wh i c h wa s t a ke n u p b y Me t z g e r , a l s o
a ppe a r s i n Pf~i nder' s wor k. 44
Fi na l l y, Li p p s ' t he or y bcm',; l ~i nt s o f r e s e mb l a n c e wi t h t he Ganzheits-
psychologie o f Kr u e g e r ( wh~ r~t~,lied u n d e r Li p p s i n Mu n i c h ) , Sa n d e r a nd
Vol ke l t . 45 Ganzheitspsycholog/,, l ~i d par t i cul ar l y c l o s e a t t e nt i on t o t he r ol e a nd
p r o p e r t i e s o f t he non-i ndepc~0~, ~l part s a nd l i nka ge s (Gefiige) o f Ge s t a l t
p e r c e p t i v e whol e s , and wa s ,l~l !~,~lely c o n c e r n e d wi t h t he d o mi n a n c e o f t he
Ge s t a l t wh o l e s on whi c h t he cl ; , ~i c~l t h e o r y c o n c e n t r a t e d . I nde e d, a l a r ge pa r t
o f L i p p s ' b o o k is d e v o t e d t o tn~,~*~.~ ~l~gical t he or y. 46
Th e s e t hr e e c a s e s j u s t disc~l;~,~:d r el at e t o wha t we ma y c a l l t he cognitive
s i de o f Gestaltpsychologie. Thi.~ w~s t he v i e w t aken b y Er ns t Bl o c h , ye t a n o t h e r
o f L i p p s ' pupi l s , wh e r e a s Gei/4,~l' w~ts a l wa y s o f t he o p i n i o n t hat i f a e s t he t i c s is
41 For example in La scuola di At,'m, di Raffaello. Cf. [Kanizsa 1991].
42 Benussi ' s criticisms centred ,m the fact that presentations of movement are
attached to the configurations givt'u iu perception which, in mnestic presentation, woul d
alter the initial configurations. 'l'h~. t'h:mge of shape in the Miiller-Lyer illusion, for
example, would be due to the pl'est'lllllli~n of a movement which "comes out of i t sel f or
expands, " "which advances to the t~xl~,l'i~r from the centre." Cf. [Benussi 1905], [1914],
445-7. Moreover. in his copy ~1' I.il~ps, book, Benussi marks ' !!' alongside Li pps'
observat i ons on sympathy as an IIt,,~lll~qic sentiment (p. 7) and ' ?! ' alongside his claim
that the erecting of a column is .~t,~,n not with the eyes by with thought and the
imagination (p. 7).
43 Cf. [Rollinger 1991].
44 Cf. [Metzger 1941], where hL~ t' rlllcises Li pps' theory of proj ect i on (propounded in
1907), chap. 2, 9; [Pf'~nder 1931)1.
45 Cf. [Sander 1926a], [1926b1, I I~f~21 and [Sander, Vol kel t 1962]. Cf. atso Vol kel t
[1930].
46 In particular see chaps. 5-6.
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 179
a sci ence oriented towards the object, t he access route to aest het i cs is t hr ough
ps ychol ogy, 47 an opi ni on also shared by Mei nong. 48
Li pps" t heory, in fact , suffered t he same fat e as t he Gr az School . Fi er cel y
cri t i ci sed by Bi i hl er in 1913, and t hen di scr edi t ed by Met zger , amongst ot hers,
his ideas wer e attacked on the basis of t wo of t he f undament al pri nci pl es of t he
Mei nongi ans on the grounds that:
1. t he percept i on of f or m is of a- sensor y (auflersinlich) pr ovenance, so t hat
t he t heor y essent i al l y i nvol ved psychophysical mosaic depiction;
2. it was based on the hypot hesi s t hat st i mul i are const ant . 49
3. The mechanical foundation of aesthetics
The t heoret i cal cor e of Li pps' aest het i cs is suffi ci ent l y intuitive: t he bearers
of t he mode of aesthetic behaviour are t he spatial configurations represented in
artistic forms like the col umns of Gr eek t empl es or t he ogi val ar ches and
cr uci f or m l eaf-shapes of cl assi cal Got hi c.
In ot her words, Li pps mai nt ai ned that t he visual perception of f or ms is
woven t oget her by direct presentations of natural type (mechanische
Vorbilder) of per cei ved form, and t he modalities of per cei ved obj ect s are
r oot ed in our exper i ence of physical forces of movement . 5
Repr esent at i on can t her ef or e be concei ved as a continuum of f or ms that can
be exper i enced at rest or in mot i on, in change or in stasis, in rel at i on to t he
vari ous modes of present at i on of obj ect s in actual exper i ence. Thus t he natural
space of Li pps' aest het i cs is i dent i f i ed with t he homogeneous series of
positions al ready ment i oned. The mechani cs under l yi ng this space are mai nl y
anal ysed in t he fi el d of perceptive illusions, in part i cul ar t he opt i cal i l l usi ons to
whi ch, as said, his book of 1897 was l argel y devot ed.
Ther e was wi de debat e on opt i cal i l l usi ons at the t urn of t he cent ur y, in bot h
ps ychol ogy and phi l osophy. The i mpor t ance of the t opi c rest ed on t he f act t hat
it i nvol ved quest i ons not onl y of visual perception but also of ontology: What
t ype of object is a per cept i ve i l l usi on? What sort of existence does it have? Is it
a founding obj ect or a dependent obj ect ? What is its rel at i onshi p with sensory
47 Cf. [Geiger 1928], viii.
4s Cf. [Meinong 1904]. On this see [Albertazzi 1995], [1996b].
49 El. [Biihler 1913], 28-9.
50 Cf. [Ehlen 1914]. For a similar point of view cf. [Lewin 1926]. Biihler further
criticised Lipps for failing to prove that our corporeal mechanics are involved in optical
illusions. Cf. [Btihler 1913], 37.
180 L1LIANA ALBERTAZZI
cont ent (Gehal t ) 5~ and aest het i c sent i ment (Gefiihl)? Thes e wer e quest i ons
much di scussed by the Brent ani st s, and especi al l y in the school of Mei nong,
but t hey wer e also addr essed by Muni ch aest het i cs, above all in t he wor k of
At oys Fi scher . 52 Mor e in general , t hey are quest i ons whi ch concer n t he t heory
o f represent at i on and t he cogni t i ve cont ent in t he f or ms of compl et i on of
sensor y per cept i on. 53 Wi t hi n the Gr az school , Wi t asek, who devel oped a t heor y
si mi l ar to Li pps' on the concept of j udge me nt o f compari son, endor s ed his
anal ysi s of comedy and t r agedy but di sput ed his not i on of cons ens us as a
necessar y condi t i on f or t he aest het i c j udgment . Li pps, f or his part , cr i t i ci sed
Wi t as ek' s cont ent i on that aest het i c sat i sf act i on "at t aches" i t sel f, as i f it wer e a
Tachenspi el erei , to j udgement s and to ' obj ect i ves. '54
The fi nal wor d on t he ori gi n of opt i cal - geomet r i c i l l usi ons, of whi ch t her e
exi st a wi de vari et y, has not yet been said, si nce the debat e still cont i nues in t he
cogni t i ve sci ences. Br oadl y speaki ng, t he t wo prevai l i ng hypot heses t oday are
t hose t hat once count er posed Hel mhol t z and Kof f ka, and whi ch have been
devel oped by Gr egor y and Gi bson, t he pr oponent s r espect i vel y of a t heor y of
percept i on as hypot hesi s and of ecol ogi cal percept i on. Today, Li pps' t heor y
woul d pr obabl y be r egar ded as a t heor y of t he f or mer type. 55
Li pps' t hesi s on the nat ure of opt i cal i l l usi ons mi rrors the f oundat i ons of his
ar chi t ect oni cs, gi ven that ever y t endency act i ng in t he per cept i ve f i el d o f t he
f or ms can onl y be t hought t oget her with a count er-t endency, and bot h act
si mul t aneousl y and in the same spat i al pl ace. 56 Thes e t wo t endenci es are never
si mul t aneousl y f i l l ed, so that ever y f or m or el ement of f or m t hat comes about as
a r e s u l t o f this opposi t i on is t he obj ect of opposi ng act i vi t i es whi ch pr oduce
5t By 'aesthetic content' (Gehalt) is meant not mental content (Inhalt) but the f act or
the objective situation, as opposed to the form with which they (facts, situations) are
invested. In metaphysics, from Herbart to Fechner, they correspond to the spatial,
temporal primitives, and to primitives like colours, lines and sounds.
52 Cf. [Fischer 1907], 122.
53 Benussi, for example, distinguished between perceptive and mental presentation,
and their possible mixed forms, in order to stress two different aspects both constitutive
of the final presentative content of the perceptive act. Cf. [Benussi 1925].
[Lipps 1898], [1901a], [1905]; [Witasek 1904]. Lipps instead speaks of the
sentiment o f value (Wertgefiihl) possessed by something objectual which "has itself
encounter" (entgegentrin) the character of aesthetic reality. On the concept of
' objective' cf. infra note 58.
55 Lipps in fact accepted Helrnoltz' s hypothesis of unconscious perceptions. Witmer
sought to define the nature of these "obscure elements of consciousness" as reproductive
factors or contents which produce the apprehension o f the aesthetic object as
expression, placing them in relation to the figural qualities.
56 Cf. [Benussi 1913], [1925]. On this see [Albertazzi 1998b].
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 18l
perceptive illusions. The lack of perceptive illusions by cont rast indicates that
t he state produced by the t wo t endenci es is in equi l i br i um: 7
Li pps' t heory of the j udgement of compari son resembl es the ' cl assi cal '
t heor y devel oped b y the Graz school, namel y that optical i l l usi ons do not arise
in the pri mary processes of apprehensi on but in successi ve percept i ve
di spl acement s founded in presentations. By means of successi ve compari sons
t he present at i ve i mage of the first st i mul us is t ransport ed into t he percept i on of
the second, so that the material of the sensation is al ways in some way
structured or ordered.
In this sense Li pps' t heory also cl osel y resembles - and di ffers from - that
devel oped by Benussi , al t hough he also anal yses the ont ol ogi cal t ype of the
objectivities produced, 58 the obj ect of the t wo present at i ons and, unl i ke Li pps,
consi ders the illusions of j udgement to be not event ual i t i es or events of com-
pari son but inadequate perceptions of form, and t herefore due to an event of
presentation: 9 In ot her words, the quest i on is whet her percept i ve illusions are
i mmedi at el y given in perception or whet her t hey are the out come of subsequent
compari son. Li pps' position is that the mechani cal i nt erpret at i on of aest het i cs is
based on successive apperceptions, a posi t i on also shared by the Italian
Bonavent ura, who investigated the same questions. 6 Benussi ' s position is more
compl ex, in that he mai nt ai ns that i f it is true that, as a matter of fact, all our
percept i ve j udgement s in the duration are based on j udgement s, as a matter of
principle one cannot excl ude the possibility of event ual i t i es of present at i on.
Indeed, the topic as a whol e and the argument s of its i ndi vi dual points as so
compl ex that it is still di ffi cul t to const rue in its details. It is t herefore comes as
no surprise t o fi nd t hat Lipps and Benussi somet i mes compl ai n about the same
things. However, it is indubitable that Li pps' aesthetics of space can be read as
one stage in the debat e on the percept i ve illusions whi ch i nvol ved positivist
psychol ogy and the t wo principal schools of Gestalt, t hose of Berl i n and Graz,
or in relation the Mei nongi ans' theory of production, the mai n exponent of
whi ch was Wi t asek.
Li pps' interpretation of the illusions of j udgement also comes extra-
ordi nari l y close to the concept i ons devel oped by the cont empor ar y cogni t i ve
sciences, in part i cul ar in the debate on imagery devel oped among the others by
Shepard, Cooper and Kossl yn. Li pps' j udgement s of compari son are materially
57 The role of perceptive illusions in experimental aesthetics is also stressed by
Witmer.
58 By 'objectivities' the Meinongians meant the objectual correlates of 'objectives,'
which may be the contents of statements such as: "that this sound is higher than the
ottier."
59 Cf. [Albertazzi 1999a].
60 Cf. [Bonaventura 1929].
182 LILIANA ALBERTA7.71
acts of movement f rom one f orm to another, or bet t er of its modified presen-
tative image, in or der t o see t hei r part i al or t ot al coi nci dences.
However , devel opment of this thesis r equi r es t he el abor at i on of a
psychological mechanics - that is, analysis of the states of rest and motion of
percepts and of the characteristics of perceived mov e me nt - and cons equent l y
det ai l ed anal ysi s of t he spatial presentational primitives, of t hei r i ndexes of
di rect i on, of t hei r boundari es, and of t hei r per cept i ve regul ari t i es. As said, t hese
mechani cs al so compr i se empat hi c el ement s, in t he sense that bel ongi ng among
t he conditions of t he f or mat i on of per cept i ve Gestalten are di rect i onal possi -
bi l i t i es or si mpl y directions of the psychophysical whole, as inner determinants,
whi ch f unct i on as member-structures i ncor por at ed i nt o t he over al l st ruct ure of
t he per sonal i t y. 6~ Put mor e si mpl y, t hey transfer i nt o per cei ved ext er nal f or ms
t he act i vi t y, ef f or t and suf f er i ng that we exper i ence in our sel ves, a f eat ur e
whi ch is al so pr esent in Hi l debr and' s anal ysi s. In moder n t erms one woul d say
t hat this is a quest i on of i magi nat i ve schemat a or Gest al t pat t erns i nt ri nsi c in
cor por eal movement s whi ch are t hen t r ansf er r ed f r om per cept i on to cogni t i on
even in abst ract domai ns like mat hemat i cs.
3. Architectonics: the principles
Accor di ng t o Li pps, to stylize is to mechanize or to render the spatial f orms
of reality aesthetically comprehensible, i ndependent l y of t hei r concr et eness.
The sci ence of aest het i c mechani cs rot at es ar ound t wo fundamental facts:
1. boundary-making
2. t he transporting of one f orm on to another.
Mor eover , as we shall see, t he sci ence of aest het i c mechani cs rest s on a
number of basi c principles.
Nat ur al space, whi ch const i t ut es t he gener al mat eri al of t he aest het i c
conf i gur at i ons, is in i t sel f devoi d of f or m and is pot ent i al l y in a st at e of total
plerosis, t o use an expr essi on f r om Br ent ano' s t heor y of cont i nua. Put mor e
si mpl y, it is open in all directions. 62
61 This feature was analysed by Ganzheitpsychologie. For a historical-conceptual
application of the concept see [Riegl 1966]. On the Herbartian roots (apperception) of
the notion of aesthetic behaviour see [Segal 1906], 70 ff. On Lipps' theory of judgement
see [Anschiitz 1913]. Benussi also distinguished analytic types from synthetic types,
which determined a specific attitude to perception.
62 Cf. [Brentano 1933].
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF I~qTUITIVE MECHANICS 183
Ther ef or e, accor di ng to Li pps, f o r m is t he resul t of an act i vi t y o f boundary-
maki ng due to an i n t e r p l a y of f or c e s whi ch gi ves rise to the uni t ar y
appr ehensi on of a part i cul ar st at e of conf i gur at i on wi t hout cont radi ct i ons. 63
Consequent l y, starting f r om t he per cept i ve cont i nuum, t he boundary t hat
i dent i fi es a f or m is t he onl y t rul y act i ve t hi ng (das Tiitige) and as such it is al so
t he f undame nt al f a c t o f aest het i cs. 64 To si mpl i f y Li pps' mechani cs t o t he
maxi mum, one can r educe the ent i r e syst em to t he fact that a line ext ends and is
conf i ned (zuriickgehalten) by its boundari es. 6s
For exampl e, the vert i cal movement pr oduced by the r ect i l i near t aperi ng of a
col umn i ncreases as a consequence of t he pr ogr essi ve rest ri ct i on t hus real i zed.
Thi s is due to t he r ound sect i on in t he axi s of a vert i cal conf i gur at i on, whi ch
t hus appears as a t i ed movement . The aest het i c char act er of t he stays or t he
r ound- sect i on support s is such because t hey seemi ngl y cause gr eat er vert i cal
act i vi t y. In fact , i f t hi nner or wi der dr ums are exchanged in t he col umn, a
change takes pl ace in t he nar r owi ng and br oadeni ng of t he col umn' s f or m and
its height, and di f f er ent assessment s are consequent l y made of its height. 66 That
obj ect s may be descr i bed in t erms of a cross-sect i onal f i gur e al ong an axi s -
t he i dea under l yi ng Li pps' t heor y - is wi del y acknowl edged t oday in comput er
vi si on. 67
A ver y si mpl e exampl e of boundar y- maki ng is pr ovi ded by poi nt s and l i nes,
whi ch conf i ne a surface space; and l i kewi se uni t ary lines, whi ch del i mi t
surfaces as units. A cl ear er i dea can be gai ned by consi der i ng t he or nament al
mot i fs of Cel t i c culture.
A si gni fi cant exampl e of t he st rengt h of boundar y- maki ng appears in t he
l i nes of vert i cal segment s when cert ai n gr oups of segment s are shi f t ed
ri ght wards or l eft wards wi t h r espect to t he ot hers to pr oduce a zi g-zag order.
One of t he probl ems that ari se f r om this concept i on is t he fact t hat
i dent i fi cat i on of boundari es, even i f it is not due to t ot al l y t op- down
phenomena, is nevert hel ess still t he resul t of cogni t i ve act i vi t i es, and this has
i mpl i cat i ons f or the t heor y of knowl edge.
In fact , accor di ng to Li pps, essent i al f or det er mi ni ng the boundar i es of a
f or m is the t ransport i ng o f one f o r m on to anot her so t hat t hey can be
compar ed. Thi s compar i son is t her ef or e t he second f undament al f act of
mechani cal aest het i cs.
63 On this concept see [D' Arcy Thompson 1917].
64 This is a view shared by Lipps and Brentano.
65 This was also BtihIer's view ([1913], 45). Conversely, a metaphysical theory of
contents & Ia Brentano offers an explanation.
66 [Lipps 1897], chap. 53.
67 It is in fact the idea underling Biedermann' s [1985] theory of ' geons.'
184 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
3.1. The basic principles of aesthetic mechanics are instead the following:
A. the principle of mechanical-aesthetic unity;
B. the principle of equilibrium.
These two basic principles have further internal articulations. Here, ho-
wever, I shall merely provide a definition of the principles with some examples,
omitting discussion of experimental analysis of their individual occurrences.
A) The principle of aesthetic mechanical unity states that geometric forms
must be posited according to specific directions which depend on the
determinateness of the form. For this reason, the principle of mechanical-
aesthetic unity covers several types of unity, namely:
a. successive unity;
b. simultaneous unity;
c. antagonistic unity.
Let us take the simple case of a straight line AB (in its tension, Kandinsky
declared, a straight line is the most concise form of the infinite possibility of
movement) .68
A line originates from a simple unitary impulse of movement and it extends
or runs from A to B starting f rom a median point between A and B. The
aesthetic commitment of the straight line consists of this unity in becoming, as
an event ( Geschehen). 69
The impulse that generates the line is a particular spatial impulse which
would be impossible to represent if the act of presentation did not permit
apprehension of its unfolding. To give an intuitive example taken from Volkelt,
the character of angle possessed by a star-shaped figure, and which is of the
same quality as the whole, is a unitary trait (the same particular) in our
apprehension of star. 7 Angles, moreover, play a structurally primary role in the
aesthetics of particulars, given that acute angles are regularly overestimated and
obtuse angles underestimated, giving rise to so-called angular distortions. 7~
6s Cf. [Kandinsky 1926], 58.
69 For arguments against Lipps' theory of movement see [BiJhler 1913], part II, chap.
2, 7. By contrast, it is interesting to see that Lipps' idea is exemplified by the Path-
schema of topological algebra, which today is one of the base schemata of cognitive
semantics.
7o Cf. [Volkelt 1934].
7~ Cf. [Iastrow 1892]; [Lipps 1897].
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 185
The mechani cal -aest het i c uni t y t hat deri ves f r om t hese general pr i nci pl es is
t her ef or e a uni t y of relatively independent parts, and it may assume di f f er ent
forms. Indeed, on di f f er ent occasi ons a successi ve, si mul t aneous or ant agoni st i c
mechani cal -aest het i c uni t y may arise.
a. Successive
Mechani cal - aest het i c uni t y is successi ve in t he case o f spatial f or ms whi ch
move in a certain direction or whi ch f ol l ow each ot her in the same di rect i on,
like zi g-zag lines or t ree patterns f or med by roots, trunk, branches, l eaves, etc.
The original i mage of successi ve uni t y is singular; t hat is, it is gi ven by a
movement of departure and arrival.
b. Simultaneous
Mechani cal - aest het i c uni t y is si mul t aneous when t he f or m ori gi nat es
si mul t aneousl y f r om t he same space. Thi s is the case, f or exampl e, of a f orest
or a colonnade, or mor e si mpl y of l i nes whi ch run f reel y across a surface and
i mpri nt the char act er of a cor r espondi ng movement on it.
The ampl i fi cat i on ef f ect pr oduced by this t ype of aest het i c- mechani cal uni t y
is cl earl y vi si bl e in t he walls of a bui l di ng t raversed by lines, and it wel l
expr esses Kandi nsky' s i dea of f ree lines. 72
In this case the ori gi nal i mage of t he si mul t aneous uni t y is one of unity-in-
multiplicity.
c. Antagonistic
Mechani cal - aest het i c unity is ant agoni st i c when it acts as t he bor der
bet ween the f or mer t wo t ypes and gi ves origin to movement s in opposite
directions, an i mpul se whi ch gener at es ant agoni st i c act i vi t i es l i ke bowing,
opening the arms, grasping objects, etc.
Thi s is a uni t y that medi at es bet ween di f f er ent i at i on and opposi t i on and
whi ch comes about in dynami c model s, in ballet, or in archi t ect ure. 73
The geomet r i c fi gure that best depi ct s this t ype of uni t y is the circle.
72 Cf. [Kandinsky 1926].
73 Once again one notes that Lipps' theory of aesthetic mechanics is highly topical.
For cognitive semantics, and Talmy in particular, linguistic modalities are grounded
precisely in the experience of physical forces operating in a context of obstacles. Cf.
[Talmy 1988]. On this cf. [Albertazzi 1999c].
186 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
B. The second fundament al principle of mechani cal aest het i cs is the
principle of equilibrium, whi ch art i cul at es into the t wo f ol l owi ng sub-
principles:
( B . 1)
( B . 2)
t he principle of competitiveness;
the principle of confluxion.
The principle of equi l i bri um rests on the fact t hat every activity has a
counter-tendency (principle of compet i t i veness), so that a f or m at rest is in a
state of equi l i bri um bet ween t wo cont rary t endenci es. A classic exampl e of a
state of equi l i bri um is provi ded by the gol den section, whi ch is in fact best
sui t ed to artistic styles, like Art Deco, whi ch refer to the organi c world. 74
Thi s is also due to the action of the principle of confluxion, whi ch helps to
shape the spaces of natural forms. A st rai ght forward exampl e is the Mtiller-
Lyer illusion: the lines appear to be of di fferent lengths because, accordi ng to
Li pps, also the parts of the external space f r om both sides are i nvol ved in t hei r
assessment . 75
Or consi der Schuhmann' s illusion, where the whi t e space bet ween the t wo
vertical bl ack lines seems to be wi der t han the same space bet ween t wo bl acker
vertical bands of greater t hi ckness. 76
Or agai n, consi der t he space encl osed by t wo pairs of parallel hori zont al
lines and whi ch di ffers accordi ng to the length of the pairs. 77
Furt her, given two equal figures encl osi ng the same area, i f part of the
out l i ne of one of the fi gures is mi ssi ng, the l engt h of t hat side is over-
est i mat ed .78
Fi nal l y, at the point at whi ch the di rect i on changes, the movement al ways
appears to be one and the same: an obt use-angl ed change of di rect i on, in fact,
gives rise to the present at i on of an activity which deviates. 79
A uni t ary geomet ri c f or m at rest is a point. Here t he movement s in opposi t e
di rect i ons are in a state of i ndi fference or in equi l i bri um. 8 In this case too, one
of the principles of Li pps' mechani cal aest het i cs expresses a key not i on in
Kandi nsky' s aesthetics.
74 Cf. [Zimmer 1998].
75 [Mtiller-Lyer 1889].
76 [Schumann 1900]; [Lipps 1897].
77 [Thi6ry 1896]; [Lipps 1897].
7s [MiJller-Lyer 1889]; [Lipps 1897].
79 Brentano' s theory of continua resolves this problem by distinguishing between the
external and internal boundary. Cf. [Brentano 1928], 15, 39.
s0 Also [Btihler 1913], part II, chap. 3, 3, maintained that a certain extension, if not
also a form, ' of surfaces' (Fl~lchengestalt) is given in the impression of the point too.
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 187
Movement s of equal i nt ensi t y but of di fferent force, and t herefore bot h
symmet ri c and a-symmetric may start f r om the point. These movement s are:
m.
B.
the horizontal line, whi ch starts symmetrically from a mid-point;
the vertical line, which starts a-symmetrically from the mi d-poi nt as the
origin of upward or downwar d movement (both are present, for exampl e, in
the shape of a jug).
The relationship bet ween the t wo f undament al forces of opposi t i on -
vertical and horizontal (taken f r om t he concept s of force and opposi t i on in
mechani cs) 8~ - and whi ch are the basis of the principle of equi l i bri um, namel y
the principles of compet i t i veness and confl uxi on, are fi gurat i vel y expressed by
t wo classical forms:
1) the Ionic column, where as the downwar d movement (movement in vertical
line) proceeds it grows i ncreasi ngl y elastic, and t herefore gains i mpet us;
2) the Gothic cusp, where the upwar d vertical movement (again movement in
vertical line) seems instead to t ermi nat e.
Two activities therefore take place in one single figural phenomenon: a
primary act i vi t y and a secondary tendency. For exampl e, a pri mary downwar d
act i vi t y operates in the base of the col umn, whi l e in the col umn i t sel f t here is a
pri mary upward activity whi ch strives agai nst gravity.
4. Tectonics: the rules of construction
What are the implications of percept i ve illusions for aesthetic t ect oni cs?
The optical corrections used in artistic tectonics, like the torus or the
trochilus, are devices used to el i mi nat e or reduce opt i cal -geomet ri c i l l usi ons,
whi ch in fact are not hi ng but illusions of form, size or direction. As Li pps
poi nt s out, illusions are deictic: apparent (i.e. not obj ect i vel y given) curvat ures,
or folds and di scont i nui t i es are general l y the safest protest against the aesthetic
sentiment, against what is 'mechanically impossible.'
The percept i ve illusions whi ch, as we have seen, subsume a syst emat i c
mereological theory subst ant i al l y arise f r om three types of opposi t i on, namel y
t hose between:
st According to Biihler, verticality is identified first in the case of directions, but ho-
rizontality is 'psychically' first with respect to direction. Cf. [Bi.ihler 1913], chap. 2, 2.
188 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
a) extension and limitation;
b) gravity and vertical activity;
c) identity and diversity of direction.
Li pps' aesthetic mechanics is principally exemplified by the columns of
Greek temples, which are vertically erected configurations (Gebilde) whose
inner state is a conflict bet ween vertical extension and horizontal limitation,
and in which the distribution of forces varies bet ween the Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian orders. In Lipps mechanical aesthetics, the erecting of a col umn is
not metaphorical in character, as Dessoi r argued, but, as we have seen, belongs
to an aesthetics of particulars analysed in the terms of an experimental theory of
particulars, and specifically of the expressive qualities. In fact, consi der the
characteristics of the following columns.
The Doric column stands directly on the stylobate. Wi t hout a base, it is
fluted, and the diameter of the column gradually diminishes (tapers). Locat ed at
1/3 of its height is a slight corrective convexity (the entasis). The col umn has a
circular moulding (echinus) surmounted by a quadrangular slab (abacus).
Above the architrave, which j oi ns the columns, the frieze consists of decorative
slabs with three vertical grooves.
The Ionic Column does not stand directly on the stylobate, but on a base with
convex (torus) and concave (trochilus) mouldings. It is slim and tapering with
flutes interspaced by rounded dividers. The circular moulding (echinus) of the
capital is ornamented with ovoid decorations. Inserted bet ween the echinus and
the square slab above it (the abacus) is the pulvin, which curves laterally into
t wo large volutes. The frieze of the architrave bears animal reliefs (zoophorus).
Finally, the Corinthian column is very similar to the Ionic col umn except
that the capital is decorated with stylized acanthus leaves.
As an example of Li pp' s mechanics, let' s analyze the mechanical-aesthetic
features of the Doric column, as to the conflicting forces and their effect s in the
column.
1. The vertical elevation of a doric column, which implies the t ype of axis
figuration, does not in fact fol l ow a straight line, because of the entasis.
The optical illusion therefore arises whereby the col umn appears to be in
tension at its mid-point, which is underestimated.
2. The column has a rounded (not square) shape which creates the illusion of
an activity that pulls inwards and shrinks, giving the impression of a
closure fixed in itself.
3. Because of the successive thinning due to the entasis, the illusion arises of
underestimating the l ower part and overestimating the upper part of the
column, so that it appears elongated.
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 189
. The rhythm expr essed by t he fl ut i ng of t he col umns cr eat es cont r ast i ng
ef f ect of movement s, whi l e t he vari ous movement s pr esent in t he col umn
f l ow t oget her into a sort of decision-line in favour of the straight line,
whi ch pr oduces t he i mpressi on of some sort of still act i vi t y.
The general thesis of aest het i c mechani cs is thus the f ol l owi ng: the mode of
aesthetic behaviour is not conveyed by t he col umn, but by t he spatial
configuration that is represented in the col umn. In ot her words, t he lines,
surfaces and corporeal configurations (not masses!) car r y wi t hi n t hemsel ves
t he lines, whi ch are l i mi t ed by the surfaces or whi ch fill t he cor por eal space.
It is t her ef or e not t he roof of a bui l di ng that bears downwar ds but its
triangular or t rapezoi dal surface. It is not t he marbl e but t he human f or m of
Myr on' s Discobolus t hat bends, st ret ches his arm, turns his head.
Thus t he el evat i on of t he Dor i c col umn, or mor e si mpl y that of a t abl e or
chai r leg, pert ai ns not to t he material mass but to t he form of the vertical
straight line.
By cont rast , a meander, f or exampl e, fl ows ent i r el y hor i zont al l y. It
proceeds, t hen moves backwar ds, t hen moves f or war d again, and so on. The
di rect i ons of this movement a r e right-angular, fi rst upwar ds and t hen
downwar ds, but the overal l context is one of forward movement.
The corol l ari es to this t hesi s are as fol l ows.
CI . The object of t he arts of abst ract spatial forms is living or force-filled
space, in t he sense t he i nher ent in f or ms is onl y t hei r natural type of origin
in t hei r occurrence. That whi ch el evat es or devi at es is t her ef or e a par t i cul ar
piece of formed space.
C2. Act i ve in a spatial conf i gur at i on are a form-in-itself and a form-in-context.
C3. To stylize is to mechanize: t hat is, ever y geomet r i c f or m is nat ur e st yl i zed
accor di ng to its aest het i c meani ng.
5. Psychologism, anti-psychologism and beyond
Li ke l ogi c, mat hemat i cs, economi cs and met aphysi cs, al so aest het i cs was
caught up in t he psychol ogi st affaire of t he l at e ni net eent h and ear l y t went i et h
cent ury. The pr obl em of t he l ogi cal nat ure of t he operat i ons of t hought , whi ch
f r om Bool e t o Br ouwer , Russel l and Schl i ck was a cruci al aspect of t he cri si s of
t he foundat i ons, is part i cul arl y evi dent in aest het i cs. As Fanci uIl i acut el y poi nt -
ed out in a critical not e on Me uma nn' s book publ i shed in De Sar l o' s Cultura
Filosofica, t he expr essi on "psychol ogi cal aest het i cs" is pl eonast i c, c umbe r s ome
190 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI
and ugly, because the adjective is implicit in the noun. 82 I have quoted Fan-
ciulli' s observation because of its provenance (De Sarlo' s school of philosophy
and psychology was in the avant-garde, and indeed comparable with the schools
of Graz, Berlin and Leipzig), 83 and in order to draw a number of conclusions.
Firstly, in those years the accusation of psychologism was so widespread at
the time, and bandied about by so many authors, that it is obscure and
undefinable. In effect, a true theoretical history of psychologism has yet to be
written, s4 To remain within the area of reference of this paper, Brentano too
was accused of psychologism, and Husserl himself, who in the first edition of
his Logical Investigations attacked Lipps' position, revised it in the second.
Secondly, the central issue, the nature of the representation understood also
in its presentational primitives, never amounted to more than an unproven
axiom even in descriptive psychology, as Schlick pointed out. s5 Experimental
analysis in this area has lapsed into oblivion for various historical and cultural
reasons.
Thirdly, as far as aesthetics is concerned, and Lipps' theory in particular, the
question concerns the foundation itself of the discipline, namely the ontological
relationship between the identification of particulars as meaningful objectual
traits in actual aesthetic experience and the individuation of aesthetic objects a-
temporally configurable as such. The question is still unresolved because, as I
mentioned at the outset, a theory of the morphogenesis of particulars has yet to
be developed. Because Fechner believed that it was impossible to analyse what
he called the direct factors, he resolved the issue by resorting to their
straightforward statistical enunciation and enumeration. It was a crucial
problem of psychophysics which traversed, albeit implicitly, the aesthetics of
the Munich school. Moreover, as Dessoir observed, 86 it was also a question of
vital importance for the phenomenological movement.
Finally, also from an expressive point of view, the question of a
psychological aesthetics, to use Fanciulli' s expression, once again relates to the
etymological origins of the term and to the unavoidable sensed connection that
the discipline evidences between cognitive structures and figural qualities,
tertiary in particular; a question of inner psychophysics which still today the
cognitive sciences are endeavouring to answer.
s2 [Fanciulli 1907].
s3 Cf. [Albertazzi, Cimino and Gori-Savellini 1998].
84 From a historical point of view see [Kusch 1995].
s5 On this see [Albertazzi 1996a].
s6 [Dessoir 1907].
THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS: A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 191
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