(vii)

1. 1. 1. 1. 1. In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n In tr o d u cti o n 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7

El ectroni csAtomi c structureStructure of
elementsThe electronEnergy of an electron
Val ence el ectronsFree el ectronsVol tage
sourceConstant vol tage sourceConstant
current sourceConversion of voltage source into
current sourceMaxi mum power transfer
theoremThevenins theoremProcedure for
finding thevenin equivalent circuitNorton's
theoremProcedure for finding norton equivalent
circuit Chassis and ground.
C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S
C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S
2. 2. 2. 2. 2. El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n El ectr o n Em i ssi o n 2837 2837 2837 2837 2837
Electron emissionTypes of electron emissionTher-
mionic emissionThermionic emitterCommonly
used thermionic emittersCathode construction
Field emissionSecondary emissionPhoto electric
emission.
3 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 3 . Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed T Ga s- Fi l l ed Tu b es u b es u b es u b es u b es 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7 3 8 4 7
Gas-filled tubesConduction in a gasCold-cath-
ode gas diodeCharacteristics of cold-cathode
diodeApplications of glow tubesHot-cathode
gas diodeThyratronApplications of Thyratron.
(viii)
4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e Ato m i c Str u ctu r e 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4 4 8 5 4
Bohrs atomic modelEnergy levelsEnergy bands
lmportant energy bands in solids Classification of
solids and energy bands Silicon.
5 . 5 . 5 . 5 . 5 . Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs Sem i co n d u cto r Ph ysi cs 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75 5 5 75
SemiconductorBonds in semiconductorsCrystals
Commonly used semiconductors Energy band
description of semiconductorsEffect of tempe-
rature on semiconductorsHole currentIntrinsic
semi conductorExtri nsi c semi conductorn-type
semiconductorp-type semiconductorCharge on n-
type and p-type semiconductors Majority and
minority carrierspn-junctionProperties of pn-junctionApplying D.C.
voltage acrosspn junctionVolt-ampere characteristics of pn-junction
Important termsLimitations in the operating conditions of pn-junction.
6 . 6 . 6 . 6 . 6 . Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e Sem i co n d u cto r Di o d e 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4 76 12 4
Semiconductor diodeCrystal diode as a rectifier
Resistance of crystal DiodeEquivalent circuit of
crystal diodeCrystal diode equivalent circuits
lmportant termsCrystal diode rectifiersHalf-wave
rectifierOutput frequency of Half-wave rectifier
Efficiency of half-wave rectifierFull-wave rectifier
Centre-tap full-wave rectifierFull-wave bridge
rectifierOutput frequency of full-wave rectifierEfficiency of full-wave
rectifierFaults in centre-tap full-wave rectifierNature of rectifier output
Ripple factorComparison of rectifiersFilter circuitsTypes of filter circuits
Voltage multipliersHalf-wave voltage doublerVoltage stabilisationZener
diodeEquivalent circuit of zener diodeZener diode as voltage stabiliser
Solving zener diode circuitsCrystal diodes versus vacuum-diodes.
7. 7. 7. 7. 7. Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es Sp eci a l - Pu r p o se Di o d es 125 140 125 140 125 140 125 140 125 140
Zener diodeLight-emitting diode (LED)LED voltage and
currentAdvantages of LEDMulticolour LEDsApplica-
tions of LEDsPhoto-diodePhoto-diode operation
Characteristics of photo-diodeApplications of Photo-
diodesOptoisolatorTunnel diodeTunnel diode oscilla-
torVaractor diodeApplication of varactor diode
Shockley diode.
(ix)
8 . 8 . 8 . 8 . 8 . T TT TTr a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1 14 1 19 1
TransistorNaming the transistor terminalsSome
facts about the transistorTransistor actionTransistor
symbol sTransi stor as an ampl i fi erTransi stor
connecti onsCommon base connecti on
Characteristics of common base connection
Common emitter connectionMeasurement of
l eakage currentCharacteri sti cs of common
emi tter connecti onCommon col l ector
connectionComparison of transistor connections
Commonly used transistor connectionTransistor as an amplifier in CE
arrangementTransistor load line analysisOperating pointPractical way
of drawing CE circuitOutput from transistor amplifierPerformance of
transistor amplifierCut off and saturation pointsPower rating of transistor
Determi nati on of transi stor confi gurati onSemi conductor devi ces
numberi ng systemTransi stor l ead i denti fi cati onTransi stor testi ng
Applications of common base amplifiersTransistors versus vacuum tubes.
9. 9. 9. 9. 9. T TT TTr a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g r a n si sto r Bi a si n g 192239 192239 192239 192239 192239
Faithful amplificationTransistor biasinglnherent
variations of transistor parametersStabilisationEs-
sentials of a transistor biasing circuitStability fac-
torMethods of transistor biasingBase resistor
methodEmitter bias circuitCircuit analysis of emit-
ter biasBiasing with collector feedback resistor-
Voltage divider bias methodStability factor for po-
tential divider biasDesign of transistor biasing cir-
cuitsMid-point biasingWhich value of to be
usedMiscellaneous bias circuits Silicon versus germaniumInstantaneous
current and voltage waveformsSummary of transistor bias circuits.
10 . 10 . 10 . 10 . 10 . Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e T Si n g l e Sta g e Tr a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79 2 4 0 2 79
Single stage transistor amplifierHow transistor amplifies?
Graphical demonstration of transistor amplifierPractical
circuit of transistor amplifierPhase reversalInput/output
phase relationshipsD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits
Load line analysisVoltage gainA.C. emitter resistance
Formula for A.C. emitter resistanceVoltage gain of CE
amplifierVoltage gain of unloaded CE amplifierVoltage
gain of CE amplifier without C
E
Input impedance of CE
amplifierVoltage gain stabilitySwamped AmplifierClassification of
amplifiersAmplifier equivalent circuitEquivalent circuit with signal source
Gain and transistor configurations.
(x)
11. 11. 11. 11. 11. M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e T M u l ti sta g e Tr a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Am p l i fi er s 280 305 280 305 280 305 280 305 280 305
Multistage transistor amplifierRole of capacitors in
transistor amplifierslmportant termsProperties of db
gainR.C. coupled transistor amplifierTransformer
coupled amplifiersDirect-coupled amplifierCom-
parison of different types of couplingDifference be-
tween transistor and tube amplifiers.
12. 12. 12. 12. 12. T TT TTr a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s r a n si sto r Au d i o Po w er Am p l i fi er s 306 334 306 334 306 334 306 334 306 334
Transistor audio power amplifierSmall-signal and large-signal amplifiers
Output power of amplifierDifference between voltage and power
ampl i fi ersPer formance quanti ti es of power
ampl i fi ersCl assi fi cati on of power ampl i fi ers
Expressi on for col l ector effi ci encyMaxi mum
collector efficiency for series-fed class A amplifier
Maximum collector efficiency of transformer coupled
class A power amplifierImportant points about class
A power amplifierThermal runawayHeat sink
Mathematical analysisStages of a practical power
amplifierDriver stageOutput stagePush pull amplifierMaximum
efficiency for class B operationComplementary-symmetry amplifier.
13. 13. 13. 13. 13. Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck Am p l i fi er s Wi th Neg a ti ve Feed b a ck 335363 335363 335363 335363 335363
FeedbackPrinciples of negative voltage
feedback in amplifiersGain of negative
voltage feedback amplifierAdvantages of
negati ve vol tage feedbackFeedback
ci rcui tPri nci pl es of negati ve current
feedbackCurrent gain with negative current
feedbackEffects of negati ve current
feedbackEmitter followerD.C. analysis of emitter followerVoltage gain
of emi tter fol l owerI nput i mpedance of emi tter fol l owerOutput
impedance of emitter follower Applications of emitter followerDarlington
amplifier.
14 . 14 . 14 . 14 . 14 . Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s Si n u so i d a l Osci l l a to r s 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8 3 6 4 3 8 8
Sinusoidal oscillatorTypes of sinusoidal oscillations
Oscillatory circuitUndamped oscillations from tank
ci rcui tPosi ti ve feedback ampl i fi erOsci l l ator
Essentials of transistor oscillatorExplanation of
barkhausen criterionDifferent types of transistor
osci l l atorsTuned col l ector osci l l atorCol pi tt' s
(xi)
oscillatorsHartley oscillatorPrinciples of phase shift oscillatorsPhase shift
oscillatorWien bridge oscillator Limitations of LC and RC oscillators
Piezoelectric crystalsWorking of quartz crystalEquivalent circuit of crystal
Frequency response of crystalTransistor crystal oscillator.
15. 15. 15. 15. 15. T TT TTr a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r T r a n si sto r Tu n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s u n ed Am p l i fi er s 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10 3 8 9 4 10
Tuned ampl i fi ersDi sti ncti on between tuned
amplifiers and other amplifiersAnalysis of paralled
tuned circuitCharacteristics of parallel resonant
circuitAdvantages of tuned amplifiersWhy not
tuned amplifiers for low frequency amplification?
Frequency response of tuned amplifierRelation
between Q and bandwi dthSi ngl e tuned
ampl i fi erAnal ysi s of tuned ampl i fi erA.C.
equivalent circuit of tuned amplifierDouble tuned
amplifierBandwidth of double-tuned amplifierPractical application of
double tuned amplifierTuned class C amplifierClass C operationD.C.
and A.C. loadsMaximum A.C. output power.
16. 16. 16. 16. 16. M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n M o d u l a ti o n An d Dem o d u l a ti o n 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1 4 11 4 4 1
Radio broadcasting, transmission and receptionModulationTypes of
modulationAmplitude modulationModulation factorAnalysis of ampli-
tude modulated waveSideband frequencies in AM
waveTransistor AM modulatorPower in AM wave-
Limitations of amplitude modulationFrequency
modulationTheory of frequency modulationCom-
parison of FM and AM DemodulationEssentials in
demodulationA.M. diode detectorA.M. radio re-
ceiversTypes of A.M. radio receiversStages of
superhetrodyne radio receiverAdvantages of
superhetrodyne circuitFM receiverDifference be-
tween FM and AM receivers.
17. 17. 17. 17. 17. Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y Reg u l a ted D.C. Po w er Su p p l y 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7 4 4 2 4 6 7
Ordinary D.C. power supplylmportant terms
Regulated power supplyTypes of voltage regu-
latorsZener diode voltage regulatorCondition
for proper operation of zener regulatorTransis-
tor series voltage regulatorSeries feedback
voltage regulatorShort-circuit protectionTran-
sistor shunt voltage regulatorShunt feedback
voltage regulatorGlow-tube voltage regulatorSeries triode voltage regu-
(xii)
latorSeries double triode voltage regulatorIC voltage regulatorsFixed
positive voltage regulatorsFixed negative voltage regulatorsAdjustable
voltage regulatorsDual-tracking voltage regulators.
18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 18 . So l i d - Sta te Sw i tch i n g Ci r cu i ts 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5 4 6 8 5 0 5
Switching circuitSwitchMechanical switchElectromechanical switch or
relayElectronic switchesAdvantages of electronic switchesImportant
termsSwitching transistorsSwitching action of a tran-
sistorMultivibratorsTypes of multivibratorsTransistor
astabl e mul ti vi bratorTransi stor monostabl e
multivibratorTransistor bistable multivibratorDifferen-
tiating circuitIntegrating circuitImportant applica-
tions of diodesClipping circuitsApplications of clip-
persClamping circuitsBasic idea of a clamperPosi-
tive clamperNegative clamper.
19 . 19 . 19 . 19 . 19 . Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef Fi el d Ef fect T fect T fect T fect T fect Tr a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s r a n si sto r s 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 3
Types of field effect transistorsJunction field effect transistor (JFET)Prin-
ciple and working of JFETSchematic symbol of JFETImportance of JFET
Difference between JFET and bipolar transistorJFET
as an amplifierOutput characteristics of JFETSa-
lient features of of JFETImportant termsExpression
for drain currentAdvantages of JFETParameters
of JFETRelation among JFET parametersVariation
of transconductance (g
m
or g
fs
) of JFETJFET bias-
ingJFET biasing by bias batterySelf-bias for JFET
JFET with voltage-divider biasJFET connections
Practical JFET amplifierD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits of JFETD.C. load
line analysisVoltage gain of JFET amplifier (with source resistance R
S
)JFET
applicationsMetal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)Types of MOSFET
Symbols for D-MOSFETCircuit operation of D-MOSFETD-MOSFET transfer
characteristicTransconductance and input impedance of D-MOSFETD-
MOSFET biasingCommon source D-MOSFET amplifierD-MOSFETs versus
JFETsE-MOSFETE-MOSFET biasing circuitsD-MOSFETs versus E-MOSFETs.
2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s Si l i co n Co n tr o l l ed Recti fi er s 554576 554576 554576 554576 554576
Silicon Controlled rectifier (SCR)Working of SCR
Equivalent circuit of SCR-V-I characteristics of SCRSCR
in normal operationSCR as a switchSCR switching
SCR half-wave rectifierSCR full-wave rectifierSingle-
phase SCR inverter circuitApplications of SCR-Light-
activated SCR.
(xiii)
2 1. 2 1. 2 1. 2 1. 2 1. Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs Po w er El ectr o n i cs 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0 5 77 6 0 0
Power electronicsThe triacTriac constructionSCR
equivalent circuit of triacTriac operationTriac phase
control ci rcui tAppl i cati ons of tri acThe Di ac
Appl i cati ons of di acUni j uncti on transi stor (UJT)
Equi val ent ci rcui t of a UJTCharacteri sti cs of UJT
Advantages of UJTApplications of UJT.
2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts El ectr o n i c In str u m en ts 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6 6 0 1 6 2 6
Electronic instrumentsMultimeterApplications of multimeterSensitivity of
multimeterMerits and demerits of multimeterMeter protectionElectronic
vol tmetersVacuum tube vol tmeter (VTVM)
Applications of VTVMMerits and demerits of VTVM
Transistor voltmeter circuitBridge rectifier voltmeter
Cathode ray osci l l oscopeCathode ray tube
Deflection sensitivity of CRTApplying signal across
vertical platesDisplay of signal waveform on CRO
Signal pattern on screenVarious controls of CRO
Applications of CRO.
2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 . In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts In teg r a ted Ci r cu i ts 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1 6 2 7 6 4 1
Integrated circuitsAdvantages and disadvantages
of integrated circuitsInside an IC packageIC
classificationsMaking monolithic ICFabrication of
components on monolithic ICSimple monolithic ICs
IC packingsIC symbolsScale of integrationSome
circuits using ICs.
2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s Hyb r i d Pa r a m eter s 642661 642661 642661 642661 642661
Hybri d parametersDetermi nati on of h
parametersh parameter equi val ent ci rcui t
Performance of a linear circuit in h parameters
The h parameters of a transistorNomenclature for
transi stor h parametersTransi stor ci rcui t
performance in h parametersApproximate hybrid
formul as for transi stor ampl i fi erExperi mental
determination of transistor h parametersLimitations
of h parameters.
(xiv)
2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s Op er a ti o n a l Am p l i fi er s 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8 6 6 2 72 8
Operational amplifierDifferential amplifier
(DA)Basic circuit of differential amplifier
Operation of differential amplifierCommon-
mode and differential-mode signalsDouble-
ended input operation of DAVoltage gains of
DACommon-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
D.C. analysis of differential amplifier (DA)
Overview of differential amplifierParameters
of DA (or OP-amp) due to mismatch of transistorsInput bias currentA.C.
analysis of differential amplifierCommon-mode voltage gainOperational
amplifier (OP-amp)Schematic symbol of operational amplifierOutput
voltage from OP-ampA.C. analysis of OP-ampBandwidth of an OP-amp
Slew rateFrequency response of an OP-amp OP-amp with negative
feedbackApplications of OP-ampInverting amplifierInput and output
impedance of inverting amplifierNoninverting amplifierVoltage follower
Multistage OP-amp circuitsEffect of negative feedback on OP-amp
i mpedancesFaul ts i n feedback ci rcui tsSummary of OP-amp
configurationsSumming amplifiersApplications of summing amplifiers
OP-amp integrators and differentiatorsOP-amp integratorCritical
frequency of i ntegratorsOP-amp di fferenti atorComparators
Comparator circuits.
26. 26. 26. 26. 26. Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs Di g i ta l El ectr o n i cs 729 773 729 773 729 773 729 773 729 773
Analog and digital signalsDigital circuitBinary
number systemPlace valueDecimal to binary
conversionBinary to decimal conversionOctal
number systemHexadecimal number system
Binary-coded decimal code (BCD code)Logic
gatesThree basic logic gatesOR gateAND
gateNOT gate or inverterCombination of basic
logic gatesNAND gate as a universal gate-
Excl usi ve OR gateEncoders and decodersAdvantages and
disadvantages of digital electronicsBoolean algebraBoolean theorems
DeMorgans theoremsOperator precedenceCombinational logic
circuitsBoolean expressions for combinational logic circuitsAND and OR
operations in Boolean expressionTruth table from logic circuitDeveloping
l ogi c ci rcui t from i ts Bool ean expressi onSum-of-products form
Simplification of Boolean expressionsBinary additionElectronic adders
Flip-flops.
I II IIn d ex n d ex n d ex n d ex n d ex 775 778 775 778 775 778 775 778 775 778