Introduction To Measurement

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302044 Metrology and Quality Control AJB
AISSMS College of Engineering, Pune
Unit 1:
Measurement standards and
Comparators
By,
Mr. A J Bhosale
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
AISSMS CoE Pune
Syllabus:
Unit I Measurement standards and comparators
Principles of Engineering metrology, Measurement
standards, Types and sources of errors, Accuracy and
Precision, introduction to uncertainty in measurement,
linear and angular measuring instruments and their
applications.
Calibration: Concept and procedure, traceability,
Gauge R&R
Comparators: Mechanical, Pneumatic, Optical,
Electrical (LVDT).Checking all geometrical forms.
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Principles of Metrology:
Definition: Metrology word is derived from two Greek
words such as metro which means measurement and logy
which means science.
Metrology is the science of precision measurement.
The engineer can say it is the science of measurement of
lengths and angles and all related quantities like width,
depth, diameter and straightness with high accuracy.
Metrology demands pure knowledge of certain basic
mathematical and physical principles.
The development of the industry largely depends on the
engineering metrology.
Metrology is also concerned with the establishment,
reproduction and conservation and transfer of units of
measurements and their standards
Metrology is mainly concerned with:
(1) Establishing the units of measurements, ensuring the
uniformity of measurements.
(2) Developing methods of measurement.
(3) Errors of measurement(Calibration).
(4) Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care.
(5) Industrial inspection and its various techniques
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Necessity and importance of Metrology:
In design, design engineer should not only check his
design from the point of view of the strength or
economical production, but he should also keep in mind
how the dimensions specified can be checked or
measured.
Higher productivity and accuracy can be achieved by
properly understood, introduced the Metrology.
You can improve the measuring accuracy and
dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the product.
Introduction to Measurement:
Measurement is defined as the process of numerical
evaluation of a dimension or the process of comparison
with standard measuring instruments.
The elements of measuring system include the
instrumentation, calibration standards, environmental
influence, human operator limitations and features of the
work-piece.
The basic aim of measurement in industries is to check
whether a component has been manufactured to the
requirement of a specification or not.
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Types of Metrology:
1) Legal Metrology: 'Legal metrology' is that part of
metrology which treats units of measurements, methods
of measurements and the measuring instruments, in
relation to the technical and legal requirements.
The activities of the service of 'Legal Metrology' are:
(i) Control of measuring instruments;
(ii) Testing of prototypes/models of measuring instruments;
(iii) Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its
conformity to the statutory(legal) requirements etc.
Legal Metrology.pdf
2) Dynamic Metrology. 'Dynamic metrology' is the technique of
measuring small variations of a continuous nature. The technique
has proved very valuable, and a record of continuous
measurement, over a surface, for instance, has obvious advantages
over individual measurements of an isolated character.
3) Deterministic Metrology.
Deterministic metrology is a new philosophy in which part
measurement is replaced by process measurement.
In this, the system processes are monitored by temperature,
pressure, flow, force etc. sensors, these sensors are fast and non-
intrusive.
The new techniques such as 3D error compensation by CNC
(Computer Numerical Control) systems and expert systems are
applied, leading to fully adaptive control.
This technology is used for very high precision manufacturing
machinery and control systems to achieve micro technology and
nanotechnology accuracies.
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Institutes & Organisations related to Metrology
CGPM (General Conference on Weights and Measures)
CIPM( International Committee for Weights and
Measures)
BIPM (International Bureau of Weights and Measures)
NIST(National Institute of Standards & Technology)-
US
NPL (National Physical Laboratory)-India & UK
IILM (Indian Institute of Legal Metrology)
NABL (National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratories)-India
Measurement Standards:
1) Primary Standards:
These are fundamental standards like meter that does not
change their value & it is strictly followed & precisely
defined there should be one and one only one material
standard preserved under most careful conditions.
This has no direct application to a measuring problem
encountered in engineering.
These are used only at rare intervals and solely for
comparison with secondary standards.
E.g.- BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Measures)
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
Headquarter- Paris, France, established on 20 May1875.
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2) Secondary Standards:
These are close copies of primary standards as regards in
design, material and length.
Any error existing in these bars is recorded by comparison
with primary standards with long intervals.
These standards are distributed to number of places for safe
custody and used in their turn for occasional comparison
with tertiary standards.
3) Tertiary Standards:
Tertiary standards are the first standards to be used for
reference purposes in laboratories and workshops.
These should also be maintained as a reference for
comparison at intervals with working standards.
4) Working Standards:
These standards are necessary for use in metrology
laboratories and similar institutions
Sometimes standards are classified as:
1) Reference Standards (used for reference purposes)
2) Calibration Standards(used for calibration of inspection
and working standards)
3) Inspection Standards (used by inspectors)
4) Working Standards (used by operators)
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Line Standard:
The measurement of distance may be made between two
parallel lines or two surfaces.
When, the length, being measured, is expressed as a
distance between the centres of two engraved lines as in
a steel rule, it is known as line measurement.
Line standards are used for direct length comparison and
they have no auxiliary devices.
Line Standard
Meter
Yard
1) International Standard Prototype- Meter :
The metre or meter is a base unit of length in the metric
system used around the world for general and scientific
purposes.
Historically, the metre was defined by the French
Academy of Sciences as the length between two marks
on a platinum-iridium bar, which was designed to
represent
1
10,000,000
of the distance from the equator to
the north pole through Paris.
In 1983, it was redefined by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) as the distance travelled
by light in free space(vacuum) in
1
299,792,458
of a second.
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It is the distance between the center portions of two
lines etched on a polished surface of a bar of pure
platinum alloy (90%) or iridium alloy (10%).
It has overall width and depth of 16 mm each and is kept
at 0C and under normal atmospheric pressure.
The web section chosen gives maximum rigidity and
economy in the use of costly material.
The upper surface of web is inoxidizable and needs a
good surface finish for ruling a good quality of engraved
lines.
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2) The Imperial Standard - Yard:
This standard served its purpose from 1855 to 1960.
It is made of one inch square cross section bronze bar (82 % copper,
13 % tin, 5% zinc) and is 38 inches long.
This bar has half inch diameter and half inch deep hole, which are
fitted with 1/10
th
inch diameter gold plug.
The highly polished top surfaces of these plugs three transversely
and two longitudinally engraved lines lying on the neutral axis of the
bronze bar.
The yard is defined as the distance between two central transverse
lines on the plugs when the temperature of the bar is constant at 62
0
F and the bar is supported on rollers in specified manner to prevent
flexure.
To protect the gold plug from accidental damage, it is kept at the
neutral axis, as the neutral axis remains unaffected even if the bar
bends.
1 Yard=0.9144m or 1Meter = 1.09361 Yard
v
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Characteristics of Line Standards:
1. Accurate engraving on the scales can be done but it is
difficult to take full advantage of this accuracy. For example,
a steel rule can be read to about 0.2 mm of true dimension.
2. It is easier and quicker to use a scale over a wide range.
3. The scale markings are not subject to wear although
significant wear on leading end leads to under sizing.
4. There is no 'built in' datum in a scale which would allow easy
scale alignment with the axis of measurement, this again
leads to under sizing.
5. Scales are subjected to the parallax effect, a source of both
positive and negative reading errors.
6. For close tolerance length measurement (except in
conjunction with microscopes) scales are not convenient to
be used.
2) End Standards:
Most of the times engineer is concerned with the
measurement between two surfaces.
When the distance is measured as a separation of two
parallel surfaces, then this is called as End Standards.
The main difference between line standard and end
standard is that, in case of line standard we take every
value of line engraved into consideration and then only
conclusion is drawn.
But in the end standard only two faces are taken into
consideration and no importance is given to
intermediate value or reading between that to parallel
faces.
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Characteristics of End Standards:
1. Highly accurate and well suited to close tolerance
measurements.
2. Time-consuming in use.
3. Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be
obtained.
4. Subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
5. To provide a given size, the groups of blocks are "wrung"
together. Faulty wringing leads to damage.
6. There is a "built-in" datum in end standards, because their
measuring faces are flat and parallel and can be positively
located on a datum surface.
7.They are not subject to the parallax effect.
1) End Bars:
These are used for the measurement of larger sizes of
work. These consist of carbon steel round bar about 20
mm in diameter and made in sizes varying from 10 mm
to 1200 mm.
The faces of End bars lapped and hardened at the ends
are available in sets of various lengths.
These bars are generally not found in majority of works
but in standardising laboratories.
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2) Slip Gauges:
Slip gauges are often called as Johannson gauges, as
Johannson originated them.
These are rectangular blocks of high grade cast steel having
a cross section of about 30 by 10 mm.
These are first hardened to resist wear and carefully
stabilised so that they are independent of any subsequent
variation in size or shape.
Their opposite faces are flat, parallel and accurately the
stated distance apart.
The opposite faces are of such a high degree of surface
finish, that when the blocks are pressed together with a
slight twist by hand, they will wring together. They will
remain attached to each other.
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With the set of slip gauges, combination of slip gauge
enables measurements to be made in the range of 0.0025
to 100 mm.
They are supplied in sets of 103 pieces down to 32
pieces.
For e.g. 103 pieces
Range Step Pieces
1.01-1.49 0.01 49
0.5-24.50 0.5 49
25,50,75,100 25 4
1.005 0.005 1
Total=103
Set of 45 Pieces-
Set of 87 Pieces-
Range Step Pieces
1.001-1.009 0.001 09
1.01-1.09 0.01 09
1.1-1.9 0.1 09
1-9 1 09
10-90 10 09
Total-45
Range Step Pieces
1.001-1.009 0.001 09
1.01-1.49 0.01 49
0.5-9.5 0.5 19
10-90 10 9
1.005 - 1
Total-87
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Slip gauges are classified according to their guaranteed accuracy:
AAfor Master Slip Gauges(Accurate upto- 2 micron/meter)
Afor Reference purpose,(Accurate upto- 4 micron/meter)
B for working slip gauges(Accurate upto- 8 micron/meter)
As regards grades or classes of slip gauges, these could also be
designed in five grades as under:
1) Grade 2- Workshop Grade- Used for setting up machine tools,
positioning milling cutters and checking mechanical widths.
2) Grade 1-Used for more precise work such as setting up sine bars,
sine tables, checking gap gauges and setting dial test indicators to
zero.
3) Grade 0-Inspection Grade- Confined to Tool-room or machine
shop inspection.
4) Grade 00-Used in standard room and kept for work of
the highest precision only.
5) Calibration Grade-Special grade, with the actual sizes
of the slips stated or calibrated on a special chart
supplied with the set.
They are not costly as Grade 00, because these are not
made to specific or set tolerances.
It must be remembered that a slip gauges, like any other
engineering component, cannot be made to an exact
size.
As closer the limits the more expensive the slip gauges
but in case of calibration grade, greater tolerances on
length are permissible.
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Wringing of Slip Gauges:
The phenomenon of Wringing takes place when two flat
lapped surfaces are placed in contact with a sliding
movement.
If the surfaces are clean, they will adhere strongly when slid
carefully together.
Various investigators have proved that the force of adhesion
of two flat, optically polished, surfaces is much greater than
can be accounted for by atmospheric pressure alone.
It is generally accepted that there is molecular adhesion
between the surfaces and the liquid film(0.00635m.)
If two highly finished slip gauges are firmly wrung together
and left for several days, they may become very strongly
attached.
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Wringing Process:
Wringing Process:
1. Wiping a clean gauge block across an oiled pad.
2. Wiping any extra oil off the gauge block using a dry
pad.
3. The block is then slid perpendicularly across the other
block while applying moderate pressure until they form
a cruciform.
4. Finally, the block is rotated until it is inline with the
other block.
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3) Wavelength Standards:
In 1829, Jacqnes Babinet, a French philosopher, suggested
that wave lengths of monochromatic light might be used as
natural and invariable units of length.
It was nearly a century later that the Seventh General
Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris approved the
definition of a standard of length relative to the meter in
terms of the wavelength of the red radiation of cadmium.
In 1892, A. A. Michelson, assisted by J R Benoit at BIPM,
made the first determination of the meter in wavelength.
Material standards are liable to destruction and their
dimensions change slightly with time.
But with the monochromatic light we have the advantage of
constant wavelength and since the wavelength is not a
physical one, it need not be preserved.
This is reproducible standard of length and the error of
reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 millions.
It is because of this reason that International standard
measures the meter in terms of wavelength of krypton 86
(Kr 86).
Light wavelength standard, for some time, had to be
objected because of the impossibility of producing pure
monochromatic light as wavelength depends upon the
amount of isotope impurity in the elements.
But now with rapid development in atomic energy industry,
pure isotopes of natural elements have been produced.
Krypton 86, Mercury 198 and Cadmium 114 are possible
sources of radiation of wavelength suitable as natural
standard of length.
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Orange-red line of krypton-86 propagating in a vacuum
1650763.73 x wavelength of the radiation
Advantages of Wavelength Standards:
1. It is not influence by effects of variations of environmental
temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing because it is not a
material standard.
2. There is no need to store it under security and thus there is no
fear of its being destroyed as in the case yard and meter.
3. It is easily available to all standardizing houses, laboratories
and industries.
4. It can be easily transferred to other standards.
5. This standard can be used for making comparative statement
much higher accuracy.
6. It is easily reproducible.
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Accuracy & Precision:
The purpose of measurement is to determine the true
dimensions of a part. But no measurement can be made
absolutely accurate. There is always some error.
The amount of error depends upon the following factors:
1. The accuracy and design of the measuring instrument
2. The skill of the operator
3. Method adopted for measurement
4. Temperature variations
5. Elastic deformation of the part or instrument etc.
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Precision:
Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.
It refers to the group of measurements for the same characteristics
taken under identical conditions. It does not have any meaning
for single measurement.
It indicates to what extent the identically performed
measurements agree with each other.
If the instrument is not precise it will give different (widely
varying) results for the same dimension when measured again and
again.
The set of observations will scatter about the mean. The scatter of
these measurements is designated as , the standard deviation.
It is used as an index of precision. The less the scattering more
precise is the instrument. Thus, lower, the value of , the more
precise is the instrument.
Accuracy:
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of
the quality characteristic agrees with the true value.
The difference between the true value and the measured
value is known as error of measurement.
It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true
value and therefore a set of observations is made whose
mean value is taken as the true value of the quality
measured.
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Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring
system:
The basic components of an accuracy evaluation are the
five elements of a measuring system such as:
Factors affecting the Calibration Standards.
Factors affecting the Work piece.
Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the
Instrument.
Factors affecting the Person, who carries out the
measurements,
Factors affecting the Environment.
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1. FactorsaffectingtheStandard: It may be affected by:
- coefficient of thermal expansion,
- calibration interval,
- stability with time,
- elastic properties,
- geometric compatibility
2. FactorsaffectingtheWork piece: These are:
- cleanliness, surface finish, waviness, surface defects etc.,
- hidden geometry,
- elastic properties,
- adequate datum on the work piece,
- arrangement of supporting work piece,
- thermal equalization etc.
3. Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of
I nstrument:
- adequate amplification for accuracy objective,
- scale error,
- effect of friction, backlash, hysteresis, zero drift error,
- deformation in handling or use, when heavy work pieces
are measured,
- calibration errors,
- mechanical parts (slides, guide ways or moving elements),
- repeatability and readability,
- contact geometry for both work piece and standard.
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4. FactorsaffectingPerson:
- training, skill,
- sense of precision appreciation,
- ability to select measuring instruments and standards,
- sensible appreciation of measuring cost,
- attitude towards personal accuracy achievements,
- planning measurement techniques for minimum cost, consistent with
precision requirements etc.
5. FactorsaffectingEnvironment:
- temperature, humidity etc.,
- clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision,
- adequate illumination,
- temperature equalization between standard, work piece, and instrument,
- thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights,
- heating elements, sunlight and people,
- manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
Repeatability:
It is the ability of measuring instrument to repeat the
same results for the measurements for the same quantity,
when the measurement is carried out,
- By the same observer,
- With the same instrument,
- Under same conditions,
- Without any change in location,
- Without the change in method of measurement,
- And the measurements are carried out in short interval
of time.
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Reproducibility:
Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern of variation
in measurement i.e. closeness of the agreement
between the results of measurements of the same
quantity, when individual measurements are carried
out:
by different observers,
by different methods,
using different instruments,
under different conditions, locations, times etc.
Magnification:
In order to measure small differences in dimensions the
movement of the measuring tip in contact with the work
must be magnified.
For this the output signal from measuring instrument is
to be magnified.
This magnification means increasing the magnitude of
output signal of measuring instrument many times to
make it more readable.
Sensitivity:
The ability of measuring instrument to detect small
differences in quantity being measured.
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Types of Error:
Error
Static Loading
Dynamic
Environmental
Reading
Systematic Random
Characteristic
Parallax Interpolation
Systematic Error:
These error include calibration errors, error due to
variation in the atmospheric condition, variation in
contact pressure etc.
If properly analysed, these errors can be determined and
reduced or even eliminated hence also called
controllable errors.
All other systematic errors can be controlled in
magnitude and sense except personal error.
These errors results from irregular procedure that is
consistent in action. These errors are repetitive in nature
and are of constant and similar form
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Random Error:
These errors are caused due to variation in position of
setting standard and work-piece errors.
Due to displacement of level joints of instruments, due
to backlash and friction, these error are induced.
Specific cause, magnitude and sense of these errors
cannot be determined from the knowledge of measuring
system or condition of measurement.
These errors are non-consistent and hence the name
random errors.
READING ERROR:
Parallax error :
Occurs when the line of vision is not in line with measuring
value.
Error can be reduced by placing a mirror behind the pointer,
as this ensures normal reading
Interpolation error:
This occurs when the pointer shows some value which is
between any two graduation marks.
Depends Thickness of graduation marks, Spacing of the
scale divisions Thickness of the pointer.
Error can be reduced Using a magnifier over the scale or
Using a digital read out system
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CHARACTERISTIC ERROR:
Calibration error and repeatability error are the
examples of this static type.
- Consider the error you may make in a reading a scale as
shown.
Should the gap be wide or narrow for best results?
Measurement 2 is best.
1 and 3 give the wrong
readings.
This is called a
parallax error.
It is due to the gap here,
between the pointer and
the scale.
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Zero Drift Errors
A particular type of systematic error is the zero Drift error.
Apparatus that does not read zero even when it should.
Over a period of time, the
spring may weaken, and so
the pointer does not point
to zero.
What affect does this
have on ALL the readings?
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Environmental Error:
Temperature plays an important role. Eg. While using
slip gauges, due to handling the slip gauges may acquire
human body temperature whereas work piece is at 20
degree C.
Elastic Deformation Error:
Contact Error:
Airys Formula
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The 1 second is called the absolute
uncertainty
Every measurement has an uncertainty or error.
e.g. time = 5 seconds 1 second
There are three main types of uncertainty.
Random Uncertainties
Systematic Errors
Reading Uncertainties
Uncertainties
Repeated measurements of the same quantity, gives a range of readings.
The random uncertainty is found using:
readings of number
reading min reading max
y uncertaint random

Taking more measurements will help eliminate (or reduce) random uncertainties.
The mean is the best estimate of the true value.
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5
200 210 209 210 209
length mean

5
1038
mm 208 length mean

give the mean to same number of significant figures as measurements
(a)
Example 1
Five measurements are taken to determine the length of a card.
209mm, 210mm, 209mm, 210mm, 200mm
(a) Calculate the mean length of card.
(b) Find the random uncertainty in the measurements.
(c) Express mean length including the absolute uncertainty.
(b)
readings of number
reading min reading max
y uncertaint random

5
200 210
mm 2
(c)
mm 2 mm 208 card of length
The 2mm is the absolute uncertainty.
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Reading Uncertainties
A reading uncertainty is how accurately an instruments scale can be read.
Analogue Scales
Where the divisions are fairly large, the
uncertainty is taken as:
half the smallest scale
division
Where the divisions are small, the uncertainty is
taken as:
the smallest scale division
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Digital Scale
For a digital scale, the uncertainty is taken
as:
the smallest scale reading
e.g. voltage = 29.7 mV 0.1 mV
This means the actual reading could be
anywhere from
For a digital meter the uncertainty is taken as the smallest
scale reading.
e.g. Voltage = 29.7 mV 1 mV
(actual reading could be from 29.65 to 29.74)???
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Percentage Uncertainty
The percentage uncertainty is calculated as follows:
100
reading
y uncertaint absolute
y uncertaint %
Example 1
Calculate the percentage uncertainty of the measurement:
d = 8cm 0.5cm
100
reading
y uncertaint absolute
y uncertaint %
100
8
0.5

100 0.0625
% 6.25
(d = 8cm 6.25%)
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COMPARATORS
Comparison Measurement:
Process consisting of comparing measurement of part to
known standard or master of exact dimension required
Comparators
Any instrument used to compare size of workpiece to known
standard
Incorporate some means of amplification to compare part size
to set standard
Standard usually gauge blocks (Slip Gauges).
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Method of Comparison:
Need of Comparators:
I. In mass production, where components are to be checked
at a very fast rate.
II. As laboratory standards from which working or inspection
gauges are set and correlated.
III. For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
IV. Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as
working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain
required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing.
V. In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in
three or more groups depending upon their tolerances.
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Characteristics of Good Comparators:
1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform
response.
12. It should have less maintenance.
13. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
14. It should be free from backlash and wear.
Types of Comparator:
COMPARATOR
MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
OPTICAL PNEUMATIC
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1) Mechanical Comparator:
It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.
Mechanical
Comparator
Dial Indicators
Johansson
Mikrokator
Sigma
Comparator
Mechanical -
Optical
Comparator
Rack and Pinion
Cam and Gear
Tight Taught String
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Dial Indicator:
Work piece Under Measurement
Dial Indicator:
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Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality,
roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as in
tension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism,
squareness and alignment, flatness.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable
accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to check
the parallelism of shaper arm with table surface or vice.
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Johansson Mikrokator:
- Developed by:
H. Abramson (Swedish Engineer)
and C. E. Johansson (Company)
in 1938.
Also known as Abramsons
Movement
- Magnification:
(9.11*L) / (W^2*n)
Magnification upto 5000x
possible
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Sigma Comparator:
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If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge
L = Length of y-arm
R = Driving drum radius
D Length of the pointer
Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)
Mechanical-Optical Comparator:
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Electrical Comparator:
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Pneumatic Comparator:

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