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Properties of selected
Carbohydrates
i. sugar
Mono- and oligosaccharides and
their corresponding sugar alcohols,
with a few exceptions, are sweet.
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-D-Mannose has a sweet-bitter
taste, and some oligosaccharides are
bitter.
Chain and Ring forms
simple sugars can exist in a chain
form or a ring form
ring form is favored in aqueous
solutions
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Isomers, which differ only in their
configuration about their carbonyl
carbon atom are called anomers.




















-D-Glucose -D-Glucose
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Stereochemistry- study of the
arrangement of atoms in three-
dimensional space
Stereoisomers - compounds in which
the atoms are linked in the same order
but differ in their spatial arrangement
Enantiomer - one of two stereoisomers
that are mirror images of each other
that are non-superposable (not
identical)
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Polysaccharides are polymers of
simple sugars.
Many polysaccharides, unlike sugars, are
insoluble in water.
Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides and
oligosaccharides that are resistant to
digestion and absorption in the human
small intestine but which are completely or
partially fermented by microorganisms in
the large intestine.
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Polysaccharides are widely and
abundantly distributed in nature,
fulfilling roles as:

Structure-forming skeletal
substances (cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin in plants; chitin,
mucopolysaccharides in animals).
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Assimilative reserve substances
(starch, dextrins, inulin in plants;
glycogen in animals).

Water-binding substances (agar,
pectin and alginate in plants;
mucopolysaccharides in animals).

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ii. Starch
Starch is composed of a mixture of two
substances: amylose, an essentially linear
polysaccharide, and amylopectin, a highly
branched polysaccharide. Both forms of
starch are polymers of -D-Glucose.
Amylose forms a colloidal dispersion in
hot water whereas amylopectin is
completely insoluble.
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Amylose molecules consist typically
of 200 to 20,000 glucose units which
form a helix as a result of the bond
angles between the glucose units.


Amylose
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Amylopectin differs from amylose in
being highly branched. Short side
chains of about 30 glucose units are
attached with 16 linkages
approximately every twenty to thirty
glucose units along the chain.
Amylopectin molecules may contain
up to two million glucose units.
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Amylopectin


The side branching chains are clustered together within the amylopectin molecule
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Starches are transformed into many
commercial products by hydrolysis
using acids or enzymes as catalysts.

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in
which water is used to break long
polysaccharide chains into smaller
chains or into simple carbohydrates.
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iii. Hemicellulose
polysaccharide components of
plant cell walls other than cellulose
comprise almost one-third of the
carbohydrates in woody plant tissue.
The chemical structure of
hemicelluloses consists of long
chains of a variety of pentoses,
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hexoses, and their corresponding
uronic acids.
Though indigestible, they can be
fermented by yeasts and bacteria.
found in fruit, plant stems, and
grain hulls.
The polysaccharides yielding
pentoses on hydrolysis are called
pentosans.
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Xylan is an example of a pentosan
consisting of D-xylose units with
14 linkages



Xylan



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iv. Cellulose
a polymer of -D-Glucose
Cellulose is the major structural
material of plants.
Cellulose can be hydrolyzed to its
constituent glucose units by
microorganisms that inhabit the
digestive tract of termites and
ruminants.
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Cellulose may be modified in the
laboratory by treating it with nitric acid
(HNO
3
) to replace all the hydroxyl
groups with nitrate groups (-ONO
2
) to
produce cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose
or guncotton) which is an explosive
component of smokeless powder.

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v. Pectin
Acts as a cementing material in the
cell walls of all plant tissues.
The white portion of the rind of
lemons and oranges contains
approximately 30% pectin.
Pectin is the methylated ester of
polygalacturonic acid, which consists of
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chains of 300 to 1000 galacturonic acid
units joined with 14 linkages.
The Degree of Esterification (DE)
affects the gelling properties of pectin.
Pectin is an important ingredient of
fruit preserves, jellies, and jams.


Pectin is a polymer of -Galacturonic acid with a variable number of methyl ester groups
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Commercial pectins are galacturonoglycans [poly(a-D-
galactopyranosyluronic acids) with various contents of
methyl ester groups (Table 2). Native pectins found in the
cell walls and intercellular layers of all land plants are more
complex molecules that are converted into commercial
products during extraction with acid.

Commercial pectin is obtained from citrus peel and apple
pomace. Pectin from lemon and lime peel is the easiest to
isolate and is of the highest quality. Pectins have an unique
ability to form spreadable gels in the presence of sugar and
acid or in the presence of calcium ions and are used almost
exclusively in these types of applications.

Note: Pomace is the solid remains of grapes, olives, or other fruit after pressing for juice or oil.
It contains the skins, pulp, seeds, and stems of the fruit.
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Glycosidic Linkage
A covalent bond which bonded a
carbohydrate molecule to another
molecule is called as glycosidic bond.
Generally glucose circulate in bloodstream in the form of
glucose or form disaccharides, in which two Monosaccharides
linked with glycosidic linkage which formed by a condensation
reaction between the hydroxyl group of the first-position carbon
and the hydroxyl group of the fourth-position carbon of each
monosaccharide units.
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During polymerization, carbonyl group of one
monosaccharide unit gets condenses with
alcoholic unit of another monosaccharide to
form disaccharide unit.















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vi. Gum Arabic
an exudate of acacia trees, of which there are
many species distributed over tropical and
subtropical regions

a heterogeneous material, but generally
consists of two fractions. One is about 70% of
the gum, composed of polysaccharide chains
with little or no nitrogenous material, and
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molecules of higher molecular weight that have
protein as an integral part of their structures.

The polysaccharide structures, both those
attached to protein and those that are not, are
highly branched

Gum Arabic dissolves easily when stirred in
water. It is unique among the food gums
because of its high solubility and the low
viscosity of its solutions.
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The soft drink industry consumes about 30% of
the gum supply as an emulsifier and stabilizer.

More than half the world's supply of gum
arabic is used in confections such as caramels,
toffees, jujubes, and pastilles. Its functions in
confections are to prevent sucrose
crystallization and to emulsify and distribute
fatty components

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vii. Algal Polysaccharide
Algal polysaccharides, or seaweed gums, are
derived from brown seaweeds, such as
alginates, and red seaweeds, such as agar and
carrageenan, which is also known as Irish
moss.
Alginates form insoluble gels that are used as
emulsifiers, thickeners, and binders in food
production.

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Agar
Agar is a gelatinous substance, obtained
from algae and discovered in the late 1650s
or early 1660s by Minoya Tarozaemon in
Japan, where it is called Kanten.
Agar is derived from the polysaccharide
agarose, which forms the supporting
structure in the cell walls of certain species
of algae, and which is released on boiling.
Agar is actually the resulting mixture of two
components: the linear polysaccharide
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agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of
smaller molecules called agaropectin




The structure of an agarose polymer.

Agar forms a gel that is soluble in hot water
but not cold water. Agar is used as a culture
medium for microbes as well as a stabilizer in
many food items.
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Carrageenan

are a family of linear sulfated
polysaccharides

Carrageenan can be broken into
components that do and do not form gels.
Carrageenan is used in many food items
to thicken them and create a smooth
texture.
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extracted from red seaweeds with a
dilute alkaline solution; the sodium salt of
a carrageenan is normally produced.

Also prepared and used is an alkali-
modified seaweed flour called processed
Euchema seaweed (PES) or Phillippine
natural grade (PNG) carrageenan


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Chitin (C8H13O5N)
is a long-chain polymer of a
N acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose,
and is found in many places throughout the
natural world.
It is the main component of the cell walls of
fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such as
crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters and shrimps)
and insects, the radulae of molluscs, and the
beaks and internal shells of cephalopods,
including squid and octopuses.
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The structure of chitin is comparable to the
polysaccharide cellulose, forming crystalline
nanofibrils or whiskers.
In terms of function, it may be compared to the
protein keratin. Chitin has also proven useful
for several medical and industrial purposes.