Count Data.

Data obtained by counting, as

contrasted to data obtained by performing
measurements on continuous scales.
Count data are also referred to as
enumeration data.
Statistic for test concerning differences
among proportions
(CHI SQUARE STATISTICS, X
2
)
where: 0 = observed frequency
e = expected frequency

e
e
X
2
2
0

Contingency Table.
(Test for independence)
The X2 statistic plays an
important role in many other problems
where information is obtained by
counting rather than measuring. This
method we shall describe here applies
to two kinds of problems, which differ
conceptually but are analyzed the
same way.
In the first kind of problem we deal with
trials permitting more than two possible
outcomes. For instance, the weather can get
better, remain the same or get worse; an
undergraduate can be a freshman, a
sophomore, a junior, or a senior; and a movie
may be rated G, PG, R or X.
We could say that we are dealing with
multinomial (rather than binomial) trials.
Also, in the illustration of the
preceding section, each worker might
have been asked whether
unemployment is a more serious
economic problem than inflation,
whether inflation is a more serious
economic problem than
unemployment, or whether he or she
is undecided and this might have
resulted in the following table.
Luzon Visayas Mindanao
Unemployment 57 53 44
Undecided 72 40 48
Inflation 71 57 58
TOTAL 200 150 150
We refer to this kind of table as a
3 x 3 table (where 3 x 3 is read 3 x
3), because it has 3 horizontal rows
and 3 vertical columns; more
generally, when there are r horizontal
rows and c vertical columns, we refer
to the table as an r x c table. Here, as
in the table analyzed in the preceding
section, the column totals
representing the sample sizes, are
fixed. On the other hand, the row
totals depend on the responses of the
persons interviewed, and, hence, on
chance.
A. To show how an r x c table is
analyzed, let us begin by illustrating
the calculation of an expected cell
frequency.
The expected frequency for any
cell of a contingency table may be
obtained by multiplying the total of
the row to which it belongs by the
total of the column to which it belongs
and then dividing by the grand total
for the entire table. Degrees of
freedom, df = (r-1) (c-1).
Solution to Example in Chi -Square:
1. H
0
: For each alternative (unemployment,
undecided, and inflation), the
probabilities are the same for the three
parts of the country.
2. H
A
: For at least one alternative, the
probabilities are not the same for the
three country.
3. Test Statistics:
X
2
< X
c
2
: NS : Accept H
0
X
2
> X
c
2
: S : Reject H
0
4. Rejection Region: @ 0.01 level of
significance
df = (r-1) (c-1) = (3 1) (3 1) = 4
X
2
= 13.277
5. Calculation of Test Statistics:
500 150 150 200 Total
186 58 57 71 Inflation
160 48 40 72 Undecided
154 44 53 57 Unemployment
Total Mindanao Visayas Luzon
o e o e (o e)2 (o-e)2
e
57 61.6 -4.60 21.16 0.3435
72 64.0 8.00 64.00 1.0000
71 74.4 - 3.40 11.60 0.1560
53 46.2 6.80 46.24 1.0009
40 48.0 - 8.00 64.00 1.3333
57 55.8 1.20 1.44 0.0258
44 46.2 -2.20 4.84 1.1048
48 48.0 0 0 0
58 55.8 2.20 4.84 1.0867
4.0510

051 . 4
0
2
2

e
e
X
6. Conclusion
Since X
2
= 4.051 does not exceed X
c
2
=
13.277, the null hypothesis is accepted; the
difference between the observed and
expected frequencies may well be due to
chance.
In the second kind of problem where the
method of this section applies, the column
totals as well as the row totals depend on
chance. To give an example, suppose that a
sociologist wants to determine whether there
is a relationship between the intelligence of
boys who have gone through a special job
training program and their subsequent
performance in their jobs, and that a sample
of 400 cases taken from very extensive files
yielded the following results:
400 118 163 119 Total
70 37 23 10 Above Average
174 56 73 42 Average
156 25 64 67 Below Average
Total Good Fair Poor
Solution
1. H
0
: Intelligence and on-the-job
performance are independent
2. H
A
: Intelligence and on-the-job
performance are not independent.
3. Test Statistics:
X
2
< X
c
2
: NS : Accept H
o
X
2
> X
c
2
: S : Reject H
o
4. Rejection Region: @ 0.01 Level of
Significance
df = (r 1) ( c 1) = (3 1) (3 1) = 4
X
c
2
= 13.277
5. Calculation of Test Statistics:
400 118 163 119 Total
70 27 23 10 Above Average
174 56 76 42 Average
156 25 64 67 Below Average
Total Good Fair Poor
PERFORMANCE
12.8353 265.69 16.3 20.7 37
1.0614 30.25 -5.5 28.5 23
5.6077 116.64 10.8 20.8 10
0.4306 22.09 4.7 51.3 56
0.3668 26.01 5.1 70.9 76
1.8540 96.04 -9.8 51.8 42
9.5869 441.00 -21.0 46.0 25
0.0025 0.16 0.4 63.6 64
9.1457 424.36 20.6 46.4 67
( o e)
2
e
(o e)
2
o - e e o
40.8909
6. Conclusion:
Since X
2
= 40.89 which exceeds
X
c
2
= 13.277, the null hypothesis is
rejected: we conclude that there is a
relationship between IQ and on-the-
job performance.

8909 . 40
0
2
2

e
e
X
Two-Fold Test
( 2 x2 contingency table)


1 1
2
2

c r df
D B C A D C B A
BC AD N
x
Problem 1: Is there any significance
relationship b/n passing the board exam
and success in career?
100 55 45 Total
40 15 25 Unsuccessful
60 40 20 Successful
Total Pass Fail
Solution to Two Fold Examples:
1. H
0
: There is no significant relationship
between passing the board examination and
success in career.
2. H
A
: There is a significant relationship
between passing the board examination and
success in career.
3. Test Statistics:
X
2
< X
c
2
: NS : Accept Ho
X
2
> X
c
2
: S : Reject Ho
4. Rejection Region: @ 0.05 Level of
Significance
df = (r 1) (c 1) = (2 1) (2 1) = 1
X
2
c
= 3.841
5. Calculation of Test Statistics
100 55 45 Total
40 15 25 Unsuccessful
60 40 20 Successful
Total Pass Fail
) 55 )( 45 )( 40 )( 60 (
)] 40 25 ( ) 15 20 [( 100
2
2
x x
X

6. Conclusion:
Since the computed value of chi-
square is greater than the critical
value, therefore, there is a significant
relationship between passing the
board exam and success in career,
hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Problem 2: Is there any significant
relationship between sex and effectiveness
in management?
150 72 78 Total
75 35 40 Not Effective
75 37 38 Effective
Total Female Male Effectiveness
Sex
Solution to Problem No. 2:
1. H
0
: There is no significant relationship
between sex and effectiveness in
management.
2. H
A
: There is a significant relationship
between sex and effectiveness in
management.
3. Test Statistics:
X
2
< X
c
2
: NS : Accept H
0
X
2
> X
c
2
: S : Reject H
0
4. Rejection Region: @ 0.05 Level of
Significance
df = ( r 1) (c 1) = (2 1) (2 1) = 1
X
2
c
= 3.841
5. Calculation of Test Statistics
150 72 78 Total
75 35 40 Not
Effective
75 37 38 Effective
Total FEMALE MALE Effectiven
ess
SEX
1068 . 0
) 72 )( 78 )( 75 )( 75 (
)] 40 37 ( ) 35 38 [( 150
2
2

x x
X
6. Conclusion:
Since X
2
= 0.1068 < than X
c
2
= 3.841, then
the null hypothesi s is accepted, therefore is no
significant relationship between sex and
effectiveness in management.