Greek Archaeology on the Shores of the Black Sea

Author(s): John Boardman

Source: Archaeological Reports, No. 9 (1962 - 1963), pp. 34-51
Published by: The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
The Black Sea was one of the richest
colonising
areas
exploited by
the Greeks from the later seventh
century
on. Their cities have been well
explored,
and
many
of them
quite
well
published,
but the
last detailed
survey
of the
archaeological
and other
evidence which
they
offer was Minns's
great Scythians
and Greeks
published
in
I913.
Since the Revolution
Russian
archaeologists
have
paid
more attention to
the
archaeology
of other
periods
and areas of their
country,
but the Greek cities have not been
neglected,
and, particularly
since the Second World
War, major
BULGARIA
The Greek
colony ofApollonia
Pontica
lay
on the island
of St
Kiriak,
near modern
Sozopol,
but there have
been finds also on the
nearby peninsula (Attia)
and
from
Sozopol Bay
itself.
They
include East Greek
pottery
of the
early
sixth
century,2
which lends credi-
bility
to the foundation date
suggested by ps.-
Skymnos,
c. 610. There is also a late archaic male
statue,
found in the thirties but
only published
in
I952.3
It is
very
like the
draped
male statue from
Tigani
in
Samos,
but headless. The site had
already
OL BIA
TYRA5 ?...
orom
a, .
- -
0 0
.
0
W " ,
I Iv PL
HERAW-E(A
304
? ?r0 C
4
cP?IIS
FIG. I
excavations have been carried on in
many sites,
both
old and new. Their
work,
and that of their Rumanian
and
Bulgarian colleagues,
is still not
readily
accessible
to most western scholars who are as reluctant to learn
Eastern
European languages
as the easterners have
been to
give
detailed summaries of their work in
any
other
language.
The work of Turkish
archaeologists
on the south coast sites is more
widely
known. This
article
attempts
to summarise some of the more im-
portant
results of excavations and
publications
of
recent
years,
which
may
interest the Hellenist. We
proceed clockwise, starting
at the
Hellespont.1
yielded
the famous Anaxandros stele
which,
as
Dimitrov observed in
194 2,
is in fact an
amphiglyph.4
Calamis is known to have worked later at
Apollonia,
which
may
well have been one of the richest Black Sea
towns in its
early years.
The
pottery
from excava-
tions on St Kiriak
early
in the
century
was well
distributed,
and some has now been
published
for the
first time.5
Mesembria,
the isthmus site at modern
Nesebur,
offers
very
little of its
early years.6
Its
cemetery
has
yielded
fourth-third
century graves
but
only
since
the last war has the
peninsula
itself been
explored
in
any
detail. Traces of houses of the fifth
century
to
1
For
information, offprints,
books and
photographs
I am
indebted to Dr A.
Peredolskaya,
Dr V.
Skydnova,
Dr I.
Antonova,
Dr N.
Britova,
Dr N.
Sidorova;
Prof. E.
Condurachi,
Miss S.
Dimitriu,
Miss M.
Coja,
P. Alexandrescu
(and
it
gives
me
pleasure
to record the
gratitude
of a
party
from
Oxford,
of which
I was
one,
to the Rumanian
Academy
for their
hospitality
in
1959);
Miss N. K.
Sandars,
Mrs A. D.
Ure,
Prof.
J.
M.
Cook,
Prof. E.
Akurgal.
2
Bull. Inst. Arch.
Bulg.
xviii
(1952)
102
ff. 3
Ibid.
93
ft.
P
Cf. Frel in Studia
Antiqua
Sala-
163 f.
6
As that in
Paris, by Frel,
Bull. Inst. Arch.
Bulg.
xxiii
(i960)
239 ff.; including
a double
eye-cup (24 0 fig. 1.3)
like Rhoikos'
dedication at Naucratis
(Naucratis
ii
pl. 7.I)
and a Chian
stamnos
(I I2 fig. 83).
6 A good survey by Ognenova
in BCH lxxxiv
(1960)
221 ff.
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
35
Hellenistic
period
have come to
light
and a bothros
with votive
pottery
and inscribed dedications to Zeus
and Hera. The
greater part
of a Hellenistic
house,
with one of its
cellars,
and a small furnace for metal-
working
has been excavated.
RUMANIA
Rumanian
archaeologists
have been
exceptionally
active in the last ten
years
and
they
have devoted much
of their time to the Greek colonial sites on their sea-
board.
Reports
and studies of finds
appear quickly
and are of a
very high
standard. Detailed annual
clay
berries attached to it. Traces of cloth were
noted
and,
over the
right hand, scraps
of inscribed
papyrus
which are still
being
treated but
may
remain
illegible.
Tomi too is
largely
hidden
by
modern
Costanza.
Its
history
is still best studied in its
inscriptions8
and
the
literary sources,
and the
predominant
finds in
and near the
city
are from tombs of the Roman and
later
periods. Sporadic
finds in recent
years
include
Chian
amphorae
of the first half of the fifth
century
B.C.
and there remains
hope
of further finds from the
early
Greek
city.
Attention has
naturally
been concentrated on the
0)
0
CIT
ol9
THmEL
us Rou
FIG. 2
reports
can be found in Materiale
si
Cercetdri
arheologice
(with
summaries in
French)
and various studies in
Dacia as well as other
periodicals
and
monographs
like Histria i
(1954 ).
Callatis is
effectively
hidden
by
modern
Mangalia
and hitherto
only
the
cemetery
area north and north-
west of the town had been
explored
and fourth-
century
and Hellenistic
graves
excavated.
Rebuilding
within the town in
1959-6o0
gave
the
opportunity
for
more detailed
study
of the ancient
city.
A
cemetery
area
immediately
north of the ancient
city
wall
yielded
several
tombs,
of
considerably differing types,
including
contracted burials in
pit-graves,
child
burial in
amphorae,
stone-built and tile
graves,
and
cremation
pits.
The finds are
largely
of the fourth
to second centuries
B.C.
and include Attic
red-figure
pottery,
alabastra, gilt clay
reliefs and
figurines.
One
remarkable tomb
complex (Fig. 2),
of which the
principal
burials are
fourth-century
in
date, comprises
a
rectangular
stone monument
(12 X
6
m.) enclosing
three cremation
pits,
and a stone-lined cist within
an oval tumulus
(I3" 5
x 14 -2 m.)
outlined with
stone slabs
(Fig. 3).
The
body
wore what is de-
scribed as a bone coronet with bronze leaves and
gilt
FIG.
3.
most
important
and accessible of the Greek
towns,
Istros
(Roman Histria).
Excavations since
1914
had
uncovered much of its later architecture and
history
but the
layout
and
buildings
of the Greek
colony
remained obscure. The
very appearance
of Istros
7
Dacia v
(1961) 275
ff.
8
Ibid. 233 ff.
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36
J.
BOARDMAN
in the
early days
of the
colony
is still
not clear. The site is now
virtually
cut
off from the sea
by
a series of mudbanks
and
lagoons. Originally
it
may
have
been a
peninsula
site of the
type
favoured
by
the
Greeks,
or
perhaps
no
more than a low hill in the coastal
plain (Fig. 4 ).
Beneath the Roman-
Byzantine
citadel
occupying
the low
hill which must
always
have been the
heart of the
city,
the excavators have
come
upon
the foundations of a small
temple (Fig. 5),
dated
by
finds of Chian
amphorae
of the
early
fifth
century
which were buried
complete
and in-
verted beneath its floor. There are
Ionic architectural
pieces
of the first
half of the fifth
century
from the
general
area.
Fig.
6 shows
part
of an Ionic
anta
capital.
The
temple
is
thought
to
be of
Aphrodite.
From it
(or possibly
its
predecessor,
for there are also sixth-
century
votives of
pottery
and
figurines)
< I
.-CroR z
LAKE
SINOE
TUMeULUS
O----.
._.
~:?f O 2~0 Ito r
FIG. 4
FIG. 5
is a
fragmentary Gorgoneion
antefix in
clay.
The
classical
temple
was overlaid
by
a Doric one of the
Hellenistic
period,
dedicated
(Fig. 7)
to the Thracian
Megas
Theos
by
a Thasian resident in Istros.Y
Clearer evidence for
occupation
of the Greek
period
is found at a
point (Sector X) nearly
I
km.
west of the
temple site,
near a
probable
ancient
anchorage
where at least three levels of
occupation
are
distinguished,
the last
bearing signs
of a violent
destruction
by fire,
associated
by
the excavators with
the
ravages
of the
Scythians
after the Persians had
retired. The houses were of the
simplest,
with
wattle and daub
walls,
and
they lay
outside the sixth-
FIG. 6
9
Cf. BCH lxxxiii
(1959) 4 55
ff-
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
37
FIG. 7
century
circuit wall. Across Sector X ran a Hellen-
istic ditch and traces of the defence wall which ac-
companied
it. Of the same
period
are
deep
founda-
tions,
cut for houses and filled with neat
alternating
layers
of
clay
and crushed rubble. These would have
stabilised the construction in a
low-lying, perhaps
marshy area,
and similar measures have been
observed at
Olbia,
in S. Russia.
Between Sector X and the
'acropolis',
in Sector
Z,
traces have been found of the archaic and
fifth-century
circuit walls. Hellenistic floors
paved
with
amphora
feet
(Fig. 8)
are an unusual feature here. From the
later Hellenistic
period
on this area
lay
outside the
circuit and was used as a
cemetery.
The
city
area
was to shrink
yet farther,
and the
shortest,
best
preserved
circuit is
Roman,
of the fourth
century
A.D.
and later.
North of the
site, beyond
the
present-day
Lake
Sino6,
lies a
large cemetery
of tumuli. One of the
largest (xvi, 'Belvedere')1o
was
4 0
m. across and of the
Roman
period,
but it
lay
over five other small tumuli
of the sixth to fourth centuries B.c. The funeral
pyres,
collective
tombs,
the interment of horses
and,
FIG. 8
apparently,
human
sacrifices,
shows that these are
'Thracian'
burials,
but the burial
goods
include
many
Attic and East Greek
vases, purchased by
the local
notables from the Greek
colony.
The earliest
pottery
does not
carry
the
history
of
Istros
appreciably
earlier than
6oo B.c."
The sixth-
century
vases are rich in
quality
and
variety, including
good
Attic of the middle of the
century
on
(Fig. 9),
Rhodian Wild Goat
vases,
unidentified
black-figure
(Fig. xo),
Chian
(including
the base of an
early
chalice
of
seventh-century type)
and Fikellura. Notable
among
the Fikellura vases is one with a
satyr
and maenad on
either
side,
drawn with some incised detail
(Fig. ii),
and
fragments
with
centaurs.'2
There are
many
archaic Chian wine
amphorae; very
little
Corinthian;
and there seems to have been local
production
of a
bucchero-type pottery
in
Ionian
shapes.
An archaic
pithos
from Sector X has relief decoration of
stamped
(or rolled) guilloche
on raised
bands,
of a
type
met in
the
Cyclades.I3
Part of the torso of a mid-sixth
century
kouros
(Fig. 12)
can be added to the few
pieces
of archaic
sculpture
from the Black Sea cities.14
Other
sculpture
from Istros is
largely
votive statuettes
and reliefs of later date. A small number of
good
late Hellenistic terracottas
(as Fig. 13),
and a
kiln,
found in Sector
X,
offer evidence for local
workshops
10
Dacia iii
(1959) 14 3
ff.
11
A useful
survey
of the
early
levels
by
Condurachi in
Griechische Stddte
(ed. Irmscher
and
Schelov, 1961) I ff.;
and cf.
Pippidi,
BCH lxxxii
(1958) 335
ff. Alexandrescu has
published
fragments (Studii
Classice iv
(1962) 4 9 ff.)
from earlier excavations
which he describes as late or
sub-geometric,
but
they
seem not
unlike the linear-decorated
parts
of
fourth-century
or even later
vases. An East Greek
vase-painter
was called Istrokles in the mid-
seventh
century.
This
argues familiarity
with the Danube
(Istros) by
this date
(J.
M.
Cook,
BSA
53-54 (1958-59)
I6;
Greeks in
Ionia
and the East
53 fig. 12).
R. M.
Cook, ap. Roebuck,
Ionic Trade and Colonisation
I
18 n. 113, points
out that there was
an Istros in East Greece. But the name is Thracian not Greek
(according
to
Detschev,
Die thrak.
Sprachreste),
so this too should
derive from some
knowledge
of the Black
Sea;
and cf.
Hesiod,
Th. 339-
12 Valuable studies of the
pottery by
Dimitriu and
Coja
in
Dacia ii
(1958) 69 ff.;
and cf. Histria i
363 ff.
13 Mat. Cerc. vi
(i959) 283, fig.7,
and Stud.
si
Cerc. de Ist. veche
ix
(1958) 275
ff.
figs. I,
2.
14
Dacia v
(1961) 185
ff. for
sculpture
from Istros.
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38 J.
BOARDMAN
.......I
.........:
.. . ........
..
i:::;
):!:-i
i :
i:
S.?
:i?!iii i!::;2:! ii:::i:;:::
FIG. 9
i!!
F
. :.
1
"
.T:
W
F~c.
FI
.XI
I
.
I
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA 39
and
perhaps
the artisans'
quarter
of the
period.15
Fig. x4
shows an unusual lead
weight
of the
city,
Hellenistic in
date.'16
Istros lies
just
south of the modern delta of the
Danube,
at a
point
whence the main stream of the
FIG.
13
great
river can be
easily
reached where it is
running
north. On the inland
route,
some
20o
km. west of
Istros,
a native
village
excavated at Tariverde17 has
yielded
clear
signs
of
very
close contacts with the
Greeks of Istros in the
early years
of the
colony.
The
-- T
y .,.I ~
1~
ii
I\
1,\1
/ I O
C
B \1 -i~\\
t
..~
r
~1?I
Ui~n~
~U~ ~z?'
' '
1.1li 111
r? \L'I
1;1'
FIG.
14
East Greek and Attic
pottery carry this back to at
least the second
quarter
of the sixth century. Fig. 15
shows
part
of the interior of a
cup, probably not
Attic.18 Much farther off, at
Barbosi,
near where the
Danube turns east to the sea, late sixth-century
FIG.
15
Greek
pottery
had been
reported. Just
north of
Istros,
at
Zmeica,
there seems to have been a similar
emporium
of the Hellenistic
period.
RUSSIA
Most of the
important
Greek sites have been the
scene of renewed excavations
by
Soviet archaeolo-
gists,
and no little work had to be done to
repair
the
ravages
of war at
many places.
Excavations have
been
carefully planned,
conducted and
published.
One feature of the
publication
is the attention
paid
to earlier work on the
sites,
and the
attempt
to cor-
relate all the available
archaeological
evidence.
This has involved much
publication
and some re-
publication
of
important
earlier finds.
(Repetitive
reports,
and
essays barely
rewritten for another
publication,
are
unhappy
characteristics of western
archaeology also.)
Another feature is the time
devoted to the domestic architecture and settlements
in the Greek
cities,
not
simply
their
temples, agora
and walls. And
finally, good
reconnaissance and
excavation have identified a number of minor sites
and
yielded
some evidence about the
relationship
of
Greeks with the native
population.
All this constitutes
what is
perhaps
the most
important
concerted
operation
of recent
years
in the
archaeology
of the
Greek world.
Excavations on Greek colonial sites are
reported
in various Russian
periodicals.
Materiali
i
issle-
dovaniya po archeologii
SSSR
(Materials
and
Researches;
abbrev. Mat. Res.
here), published by
the Moscow
Academy
of
Sciences, appears irregularly
but
often,
and sometimes
part
or all of one volume is devoted
to a
single
site. The most
important
other
periodicals
are the Moscow and Kiev Short Communications
(Kratkie soobscheniya;
two
series),
Review
of
Ancient
History (Vestnik drevny istorii)
and
Sovetskaya archaeologiya.
Other
monographs appear regularly,
and a valuable
15
Dacia v
(I961) 213
ff.
16
Dacia ii (1958) 4 53 fig. 2.
1
Mat. Cerc. iv
(1957) 77 ff-;
v
(1958) 318
if.;
vii
(1960) 273
ff-
18 BCHlxxxii
(1958) 34 9 fig. 20 (reversed).
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4 0 J.
BOARDMAN
0 G
-rYAA
rny$ LmC-KI I
XALOS Lt
PORAF
PA
l
PCu
PdAVA
0 #
IVY P H
C ft?o(VA
s
rt~c-OPO
C
c HIGMSONESO
FIG. I6
survey, by subjects,
not
sites,
was edited
by
Gaidu-
kevich and Maximova in Antichnie
goroda Severnogo
Prichernomoriya
(I955).
Antichnie Gorod
(ed.
Boltun-
ova, 1963)
has
essays
on different
sites.19
These are all
in Russian and summaries in
any
other
languages
are
exceptional.
The westerner with little or no Russian
may
turn to Belin de Ballu's L'Histoire des colonies
grecques du
littoral nord de
la Mer
noire
(Paris, I960),
which is a
bibliography
of works
published
from
194 0
to
1957,
but its summaries of
archaeological
matters
are often
very vague.
Of
greater
service is Bibliotheca
Classica
Orientalis, published
in Berlin
every
two
months,
with
long
summaries in German of Russian
and other East
European
books and
periodicals
on
all classical
subjects.
Here summaries are sometimes
slow to
appear,
and the
coverage
of
archaeological
periodicals
is not
complete.
Some briefer
reports
FIG.
17
19
On
Beresan, Tyras, Olbia,
Kalos
Limen, Chersonesos,
Phanagoria, Kepoi
and Tanais. This book
appeared
after this
article was written.
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
4 1
FIG. 18
appear
in Historia and works on
inscriptions
are
reviewed
by
the Roberts in REG.
For works in western
languages
there is
Mongait's
Archaeology
in the U.S.S.R. of which an
English
edition
was
published
in Moscow in
1959.
The new transla-
tion
published by Penguin
Books in
196I
is revised
but
abridged
and lacks the fuller indexes and
maps.
Finally,
Danoff's contributions to
Pauly-Wissowa,
RE
suppl.
vol. ix.
(1962) 866-1175
on 'Pontos
Euxeinos' should be mentioned.
Finds of
early
Greek
objects
in
places
outside the
Greek cities have been charted
by Onajko
in
Sov.
Arch.
1960.
2
25
ff. He lists six sites with seventh-
century
Greek
pottery
near the Middle
Dniepr
and
Don,
but none of it is
appreciably
earlier than the
earliest from Olbia or Berezan. From
Nemirov,
some
150
miles from Kiev and over
300
miles from the
mouth of the
Bug,
is a vase of local manufacture
inscribed in Greek
adZE
~te.20 The
grave group
found
many years ago
at
Krivoroshie, 250
miles from
the sea between the Donetz and the
Don,
has been
republished by
Mantsevich in Bull. Inst. Arch.
Bulg.
xxii
(1959) 57
iff
In includes the
upper part
of a
Wild Goat
style oenochoe,
in the
shape
of a ram's
head
(Fig. 17).
A vase of this
type,
with a bull's
head,
was found
recently
at
Emporio
in Chios in a
late
seventh-century
context
(Arch. Reports 1955 36
fig. 2).
Part of another Chian bull's head vase
(Fig.
I8)
is from
Choperskie,
over
Ioo
miles farther inland
than Krivoroshie.21
20
Soy. Arch. 1959. I 259-61;
for other finds there cf. AA
19i
I
230, 235
f.;
1912 378.
21
IGAIMK 1935 94 fig-. 25.
In the
Museum
of Novocherkassk.
FIG.
19
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4 2 J.
BOARDMAN
.,.? ,..
...
~?.:?.:
''
'
-s'?
- .r ?I r-
.r.
I ?(.(?
'
?. I?
?'. ?~
.,:
; r'
'''
'\ f?
'r rL .
?.?. i' -.?
''
\\ ?\='
r~ ..
( .. .??
hZ -- .? " - 3~4 A.
?~ ? I
?r?
r r.
r
I )
C
?:I F
LL?~ZIY YJC~
cL~Li.
CcrC
~I
'?. \i ccci~
r
r*ll =:
?? ?.?.~ ~=2121' C
rre
r . 1 ? : ,Z r
??r?~ G'~ :r ...
i
?? r's
~31 /rr
'I ,? .I'. /' ?"
II '? I?'?
~J 'I ?. s
II i. '"
rl,; ~::: (I ?? '? ' rrr c
\ '. r
?? c j .. r ?~'
It .r
,I(rle r
( ( )(I((~( r7.
I
((1
' ' ;???? ' I r
II 1'((~ 1~11 ''
It .?,i;c"
~?
-:3.'???'
-? ?-
FIG. 20
General accounts of
Greco-Scythian
art cannot be
mentioned
here,
but Maximova's
study22
of a silver
rhyton (Fig. 19)
from the
early
find at
Kelermes,
of
the same school as the famous Kelermes mirror23
(first
half of the sixth
century)
should be noted.
They
carry
scenes of a
winged goddess
with
griffins (Fig. 2o),
a
centaur,
a hero
fighting
a
lion,
a mounted
Scythian
and
geese.24
Tyras
stands at the mouth of the river of the same
name
(now Dniestr).25
The ancient
city
is concealed
beneath the remblai formed at the time of the con-
struction of the Akerman
fortress,
and excavations
have
yielded
remains
largely
of its later
history,
although something
of the
layout
of the Hellenistic
town can be made out. The
published
finds are no
earlier than the fourth
century
but
sixth-century
pottery
has been
reported.
The Odessos which stood to the west of the
estuary
of the
Borysthenes (Dniepr)
has
long
been
thought
to lie near the mouth of the
Tiligoul (cf. RE, s.v.)
and
excavations have now uncovered
part
of a
major
site
on the left bank of that river.
The island
(?
once a
peninsula)
Berezan
in the
Bug/
Dniepr estuary
has
generally
been
regarded
as the
site of the first Greek settlement in this
area,
before the
foundation at Olbia. It has
yet
to
yield anything
appreciably
earlier than the earliest finds at Olbia
and seems to have been abandoned
by
the Greeks
early
in the fifth
century.
Post-war excavations
have revealed more of the
sixth-century town,
including
a
pit-dwelling
of a
type
met on native sites
of this
period.
The site is the source for much of the
earliest Greek
pottery
from South Russia.
Skydnova
has studied the Chian and Rhodian
vases,26 none
of
them
obviously
earlier than the end of the seventh
century.
There is
good
Attic
black-figure
of the
first half of the sixth
century,
and a
surprising import
is an Eretrian
black-figure
vase
(Fig. 21)
of the mid-
century.27
Other
important
recent
publications
of
its
early pottery
are in Mat.
Res.
50
and
Fabricius,
Arch. Karta i.
Olbia. Sir Ellis Minns reviewed the work done at
Olbia since the
appearance
of his
Scythians
and Greeks
(1913)
in
JHS
lxv
(194 5) 109-12,
with a
plan
of the
site and references to
publications.
Recent work has
been devoted to the
Upper Town,
its
Agora
and
houses,
most of which are Hellenistic or of the Christ-
ian
era,
and to the
repair
of
war-damage,
since the
site had been robbed for defence works and the local
museum ransacked. Articles in Mat.
Res.
50
discuss
various
aspects
of the site and its
history.
In the
Agora
monumental altars of the fifth and third
centuries have been
uncovered,
as well as the founda-
tions of a
large peripteral temple
and a
large public
building.
An
early fifth-century
dedication
(on
a late
black-figure palmette cup)
names
Apollo Delphinios
(AdAptvto)
and a votive
deposit
of his
sanctuary
was
found in
1955.
In the town basement-storerooms
of classical date were identified and a start has been
made on the detailed
study
of the architecture of the
houses. A
regular grid-plan
of roads seems to have
been established in
part
of the
town,
north of the
Agora, by
about
500.
Some of the finer town houses
have
good
ashlar
walls,
others are of mudbrick. An
interesting
feature is the
damp-course
foundations of
ashes and
clay
which recalls the measures for land
reclamation or consolidation at Istros
(see above).
The traces of a fortification wall on the west are now
22
In Gr. Stddte (above,
n.
i1) 60 ff., pls. 23, 24 , 27-29,
and
Sovy.
Arch.
1956 215
ff.
23
Gr. Stddte 35 ff., pl. 20o; Rostovtseff,
Iranians and Greeks
pl.
6.
24
Some scenes copied in Cook,
Greeks in lonia and the East
53
fig. 13;
and cf. Radet,
Cybdbde'
19 fig.
25.
25
Athenian Tribute Lists
(ATL)
i
557
f.
places Tyras
farther
upstream
but the Akerman site has
yielded plenty
of
Tyras
coins.
The
equation
of
Tyras
with
Ophioussa,
made
by Pliny
and
Stephanus,
is contested
(Soy.
Arch.
1959.
2 6o
ff.).
26
Soy. Arch.
I957-4 I28 ff.; I960.2 153
ff.
(fig. I3.3--?
early
Attic
black-figure; fig. 14
is a Chian
storage jar).
27
Soobsch. Erm. xvi
(I959) 4 8
f.
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
4 3
thought
to be of the fifth
century (cf.
Hdt. iv
78.4 ).
There are said to be
signs
of an extensive disaster in
the
city
followed
by rebuilding,
in the late fourth
century.
Contracted burials of the sixth-fourth
centuries found in the cemeteries of Olbia
(and
Chersonesos)
are identified as of
Scythians living
in
the Greek towns
(cf.
Hdt. iv
78.5-79.2); grave goods,
like
vases,
are
Greek,
but
weapons
are of
Scythian
sought out,
and in Mat.
Res.
50 154
ff. a useful
conspectus
is
given
of finds there in the
Scythian
animal
style.
In Soobsch. Erm. xii
(1957)
4 8
ff.
important
earlier finds of Attic
pottery
are
published,
including
some
Sophilean fragments.
An unusual
bone
ring,
with a female
portrait
head as
device,
was
found in
194 8
and dated to the third
century by
Maximova
(Sov.
Arch. 28
(1958) 24 8-55).
The
FIG. 21
types.
These finds are
largely
from a
cemetery
in the
north-east
quarter
of the later town.
Architectural and
sculpture
finds
published
in Sov.
Arch.
29/30 24 8 ff.
include a late archaic volute
fragment
which is
thought
to be the acroterion of an
altar,
the shoulder of an archaic kore and archaic
terracottas. Studies of the
fourth-century
and Hellen-
istic terracottas have
suggested
that most were im-
ported
from Asia Minor and that the
only
local school
was influenced
by Scythian
motifs. The native
element in Olbia has
naturally
been
particularly
development
and
dating
of the cast bronze coins of
Olbia have been discussed
by Furmanskaj (Kratkie
Kiev
1954 . 3
6o
ff.)
in the
light
of new finds. Since
some were found at
Berezan,
which seems to have been
abandoned in the
early
fifth
century,
the issue
may
begin
as
early
as
500.
Attention has been
paid
to sites near Olbia where
the
population
seems to have been at least in
part
Greek,
from as
early
as the end of the sixth
century.
One of
these,
at
Sirokaya balka, just
south of
Olbia,
yields
evidence for close relations with the Greek
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4 4 J.
BOARDMAN
colony
from its earliest
years.
These settlements
include native
pit-houses
as well as mudbrick and
stone structures of Greek
type.
Kerkinitis
(Eupatoria)
was the most
noteworthy
Greek
city
in the West Crimea.28 Excavations there
have shown that the native site which
preceded
the
Greek foundation was in close touch with the Greek
colonies,
to
judge
from the
pottery,
which
goes
back
to the later sixth
century.
Some have
suggested
that
Kerkinitis was in fact founded as a Greek
colony
before
its resettlement from Chersonesos in the fourth
century.
Its fortification wall was built in the Hellenistic
period; part
of a round tower has been excavated.
There have been several excavations of
Scythian
sites
and burials in this
area,
and much of the Hellenistic
art of the Greek cities on this coast is seen to be semi-
barbaric.
Kalos
Limen,
named in three Chersonesos
inscrip-
tions,
is located
by
Russian
archaeologists 65
km.
north of Kerkinitis. It is a
smaller,
later
site,
but a
nearby Scythian
tumulus has
produced,
it is
said,
sixth-
century
Greek
pottery.
The town itself was founded
around
3oo-one
of several settled from Chersonesos.
Chersonesos,
near
Sevastopol,
is the
subject
of
studies
published
in Mat.
Res.
34 .
Excavations
continue on the
site,
which is another of those at which
the
relationship
with the local
population-Taurians
and
Scythians-can
be studied in some detail. The
colony
seems to have taken the
place
of a Taurian
settlement,
and a fifth-fourth
century cemetery
includes
4 0 (out
of
150)
contracted
burials,
which are
thought
to be of native Taurians
living
beside the
Greeks. The
cemetery
area was later
incorporated
within the town. The earliest Greek finds are of the
end of the sixth
century.
These
suggest
that the site
was a Milesian settlement before its new foundation
from Herakleia Pontika towards the end of the fifth
century.
A late classical fortress wall has been dated
by
finds of
red-figure,
and a
theatre,
whose earliest
period
seems to be of the third
century
B.C.
has been
excavated-the first to be found in
any
of the Black
Sea cities.
In the Hellenistic town one house was found to
cover an area of some
150 sq. m., including apebble-
paved
court. It had a cellar cut in the rock while
one of the
larger
rooms had a central stone altar and a
hearth in the corner. Its storeroom was well stocked
with
amphorae
and
fishing gear.
Another house was
supplied
with oval vats which contained traces of
colouring
matter and
may
have been a
dyeing
establishment. The
pre-war
find of a Hellenistic
pebble
mosaic
showing
two women
bathing
is now
published,
in Mat.
Res.
34 (Fig. 22).
It is in a
residential
area, mainly
of two-house insulae
(Fig. 23),
in
the north of the town.
Early
Hellenistic farm
28
On the problems of the location of Kerkinitis at
Eupatoria
see A TL i
4 96
f.
Burn,
The
Lyric Age of
Greece I
15, suggests
that
Herodotus' Kerkinitis was
Berezan,
but the Greek settlement at
Berezan seems not to have survived the
early
fifth
century,
while
Kerkinitis,
from its
coins,
did.
FIG. 22
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
4 5
houses on the
peninsula
site have been discovered and
the
property
of one
kleros
estimated at over
700 acres;
its
produce-wheat,
wine and timber. A whole wine
installation which was
excavated,
with its
presses,
vats and
cellars,
is of the
early
Roman
period.
There
was a local
pottery producing
wine
amphorae
in the
Hellenistic
period.
The
amphora stamps
of the
astynomoi
have been studied as well as the local
tile
stamps
of the same date. The
pottery industry
at
Chersonesos seems to have been
particularly
active in
the third
century
B.C. Other studies of finds at
Chersonesos draw attention to the
jewellery
finds in
tombs there and the evidence for the cult of Herakles.
In the East Crimea and the Taman
peninsula
work
has
proceeded apace
on the
already partly explored
colonial
sites,
as
Panticapaeum
and
Phanagoria,
but
the
identity
and
early importance
of other
subsidiary
foundations has now been established. Excavations
on
nearly
all the Greek sites have shown that
they
were
CELLAR
COURT cour
,N A
SM.
FIG.
23
founded on
pre-existing
native settlements. Gener-
ally
the finds of the first centuries of the Greek towns
have been
slight, except
for
pottery,
but the
prosperity
of the
Bosporan Kingdom
in the Hellenistic
period
has been well demonstrated
by
the
well-appointed
houses and factories which have been uncovered.
These,
and their successors of the Roman
period,
offer a vivid
picture
of the
vigorous
commercial life
fostered
by
the Greeks in the Black Sea. The vine was
cultured to
good effect,
wineries have been found and
whole series of
locally-made
wine
amphorae recog-
nised.29
Tanning
and
dyeing
are attested and
especially
the fisheries which are
represented by
the
pickling
vats in which the Kerch
herring
and
tunny
were
prepared
for
export
to the
Aegean.
Panticapaeum (Kerch)
on the western shore of the
Cimmerian
Bosporus
had been the scene of
early
excavations,
and the Greek and native
cemetery
sites had been well
explored.
The same areas have
been studied further in recent
years
and attention has
been
paid
also to the
subsidiary
foundations at
Myrmekion, Tiritaka,
etc.
In
Panticapaeum
excavations have been conducted
mainly
on the north and seaward sides of Mt Mithra-
dates,
the town
acropolis.
The site had suffered from
wartime
trenching,
and in works of reconstruction the
opportunity
was taken to
explore
more of the town
area. The most
important reports
of the work done
0 /Octf
FIG.
24
appear
in Mat.
Res.
56
and
103.
The earliest
pottery
from the site now
published
includes East Greek
fragments
of the earlier
part
of the sixth
century,30
Rhodian and Chian.
Much more of the monumental architecture of the
town has been uncovered. This includes
mouldings
from various
Ionic
buildings, ranging
from the late
sixth
century
to Roman in date. An archaic
base31
with fluted torus and
triple
scotia in the
spira (Fig. 24 )
most resembles a
type
found in
Chios,32
and other
architectural
styles
of that island are reflected in a
late classical ovolo
fragment (Fig. 25)
carved with
elaborated lotus and
palmette.33
In the Hellenistic
period
the
slopes
of the town were terraced for
larger
FIG.
25
houses. To the north-east of Mt Mithradates a
pre-
Greek,
'Cimmerian' settlement has been
identified,
and is
thought
to have served as an
emporium
for the
Greeks before the
colony
was founded. The
nearby
cemetery
contains elaborate tumulus
burials, richly
29 A valuable
conspectus
of
imported
and local wine
amphorae
from the area is to be found in Mat. Res.
83.
30 A
fragment with
a
dog,
first
published as late seventh-
century, is recognised by Sidorova as later, Fikellura, Mat. Res.
103 125 fig. 9.I.
31 Mat. Res.
56 30 fig.
16"
I.
32 Cf.
Antiquaries Journal
xxxix
(1959) 174 -
33
Mat. Res.
103
22
fig. 13.
Cf.
AntJ (last note) 189 ff.,
and
note that another
moulding
of this
style
has been found at Olbia.
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4 6 J.
BOARDMAN
FIG. 26
FIG. 27
furnished, especially
in the fourth-third centuries
B.C.
The stone-built burial chambers seem to
copy
native
constructions,
more often of
wood,
such as are found
in the Kuban tumuli.
Of the rich finds of
pottery published
in Mat. Res.
56
and
103
we
may pick
out the
early sixth-century
East Greek
jug (Fig. 26)
with a wine
jar
drawn
upon
its shoulder
(56 183, fig. 1.1; 103 1o9, fig. 2),
and the
fragment
of an East Greek
black-figure
vase
(56
188
fig. 3.14 ;
our
Fig. 27)
with a
vintage scene,
from a
FIG. 28
school
(or artist)
whose work is found also in Etruria
and
Egypt,34
as well as other fine
black-figure
(Clazomenian).
The
plainer pottery
which was
made in
Panticapaeum
and
Phanagoria
from their
earliest
days
has been
carefully
studied
by Kruglikova.
The limestone head of a
warrior,
found in
194 6,
is
attributed to a local
workshop;
it is
apparently
fifth-
century.
Other
sculptures
from the
Bosporan
area
are also now taken to be from local schools
working
in
a
style
which is seen to reflect
something
of the native
tradition,
but since there was no real native tradition
for this
type
of work it should
perhaps
rather be
34
On
the Ricci
hydria
and the Oxford Karnak vase
(JHS
lxxviii
(1958) pls. I, 2a;
and cf. now AA
1962 759 ff., figs. 11, 12).
Note the characteristic
way
of
showing
the vine.
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
4 7
regarded
as
unusual, provincial
Greek.
Especial
attention has been
paid
to the
certainly
local
vogue
for
anthropomorphic
stelae in the Hellenistic
period,
and to the local
production
of bone
plaques
and
statuettes. A fine head of a woman
(Fig. 28),
in
island
marble,
was found in
194 9,
and
part
of a
large
relief
showing
a
griffin (1954 )
is dated to the fourth
century.
The terracottas of
Panticapaeum
and
Phanagoria
are discussed
by Kobylina
in a mono-
graph
of
1961.
An unusual bronze
fragment (Fig.
LO
?Ilz
Ar
FIG.
29
29)
from a stand or handle bears a late sixth
century
dedication to
Ephesian
Artemis
,2XNAPTEMIE1EX2
(Vestnik I960.3
i30). S6n
is taken to be a name.
Myrmekion
lies to the east of
Panticapaeum, looking
south
along
the straits. It has been the scene of
joint
Polish-Russian excavations which are described
by
Michalowski in
Myrmeki i, ii,
and earlier finds are
reviewed in Mat. Res.
25.
A
fifth-century
fortification
wall has been
traced, covering part
of the earlier
cemetery.
The earliest finds are of the end of the
sixth
century.
Hellenistic wineries and
fish-salting
stations have been identified. A
nearby vineyard
estate,
with its
workshops
and
installations,
has been
thoroughly investigated.
It is of the second-first
centuries B.C.
FIG. 30
FIG. 31
Tiritaka,
some
io
km. south of
Panticapaeum,
appears
to have been an
important fishing
centre in
its later Greek and Roman
periods. Sixth-century
houses are
reported
and
fifth-century
and Hellenistic
fortifications. The earliest
finds,
now
published,
suggest
that Tikritaka was founded well before
550.
Mat. Res.
25
includes various
essays
on the site and
publishes
the
pre-war
finds. These include some fine
East Greek
pottery,
as well as some most unusual
fragments
which
appear
to be
orientalising (227 fig.
1.2-8)
and a
fragment
with an
inscription.
The for-
mer
(from
a
dinos) may
be related to Aeolic versions
of the canonic East Greek Wild Goat
style vases,
and
seem to have
something
in common with
Phyrgian
painted
wares of the sixth
century.
Work at
Nymphaeum
is described in Mat. Res.
69
and there is an
important monograph by Chydyak,
Is Istorii
Nympheya
(I962).
The most
important
recent finds have been in the
sanctuary
areas on the
acropolis (Aphrodite
and
Kabeiroi)
and the lower
terrace of the town in the southern
quarter
near the
ancient harbour
(Demeter).
The shrines of Demeter
and
Aphrodite
were founded in the
early years
of the
colony,
in the sixth
century
to
judge
from the votives.
The
Aphrodite sanctuary
was of unusual
plan.
Four-roomed in the first
phase,
then three-roomed
with hearth-altars. The distinctive
offerings identify
the
deity
as well as an
assemblage
of cult
objects.
The finds in the Demeter
sanctuary
include
good
East Greek and Attic
pottery.
For the Kabeiroi a
small
apsidal temple (5
X
14 '3 m.)
of
fifth-century
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4 8 J.
BOARDMAN
FIG. 32
date
(Fig. 30)
succeeded an archaic
temple,
and
near
by
were
large
votive
deposits
of the
early
sixth
to fourth centuries. The architectural terracottas of
the Kabeiroi and Demeter
temples
seem to have been
imported
from
Sinope
in the fifth
century.35 They
are in the form of double
rosettes,
with blossoms
(Fig.
31)
or female heads at the centre. All the sanctuaries
were
destroyed
in the fourth
century, possibly
on the
occasion of Leukon's
expedition against
Theodosia.
Later,
the
city
wall ran over the
sanctuary
area.
In the town the stone-built houses of the Greeks
overlie the foundation
pits
of the huts
occupied by
the
natives
immediately (it
is
assumed)
before their
arrival. Fifth-fourth
century
houses were cleared on
the
acropolis (Fig. 32,
with a
cistern).
Skydnova
has
distinguished
a
group
of archaic
vases,
found
only
in the Demeter
sanctuary
at
Nymphaeum,36
which
may
be of local manufacture
(fragments
in
Fig. 33).
The
shapes
are East
Greek,
and the linear
decoration is derived from that of the
simpler
East
Greek
vases,
with floral elaboration of the common
'moustaches' motif and a fondness for
groups
of tear-
shaped
blobs. The
style
is close to that of vases from
Olynthus,
of Robinson's
pre-Persian Group III,37
and there
may
be some connexion between these
provincial
wares. The earliest
pottery
from the site
now includes
mid-sixth-century
Attic
black-figure.38
Theodosia. A little more has been done in the fifth-
century
levels of the
town,
which
appears
to have been
founded on a native site.
Sixth-century
finds include
some Attic
black-figure
of the second
quarter
of the
century (ABV
81
no. 7)
and
suggest
either settlement
35
On the
importance
of the short route across from
Sinope
see
Maximova in
Klio
xxxvii
(1959)
IOI
ff.
36 Kratkie Ukrain.
(I957)
73-75; Archeologiya
x
(1958)100
ff.
37
Olynthus v pls. 25-4 1, 4 5.22;
xiii
pls. 1-3, 6-Io;
and a
column crater from Phanai in
Chios,
ADelt ii
(i916)
204 fig. 23.
38 Soobsch. Erm.
1956 4 5 f.
FIG.
33
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
4 9
FIG.
36
Fia. 34
F13
.
35
Fie.
37
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50
J.
BOARDMAN
by
other Greeks
(Milesians
from
Panticapaeum)
before the
Megarian
settlement from Herakleia,
or
(just
as
probable)
close relations between the natives
and the Milesian cities in the straits.
Phanagoria
was the
principal
Greek
city
on the east
side of the straits. Excavations there have been
summarised in Mat. Res.
19
and
57.
Recent
work
FIG. 38
has been devoted to the Hellenistic
cemetery
and to
parts
of the
town,
from which
pottery
of the later
sixth
century
has been recovered. The
literary
date
for the foundation
(by
Teians
fleeing
before the
Persians)
is
c. 54 0.
Vase
fragments published
as
'Chalcidian'
(which
would be
unique
in this
area)
seem more
probably
Ionian
in
origin (Mat.
Res.
19
196 fig. 6.2,
3; 57 164 -67; 103 95).
Local
produc-
tion of architectural terracottas
brought
an end to the
import
of these
fittings
from
Sinope.
Trade with the
native
population
is attested
by
the rich finds of wine
amphorae,
the earliest
being
Chian and Thasian of
the fifth
century,
which have been made in a number
of the native fortified towns some distance off
inland,
to the south east.
Other finds include
(from
near
Phanagoria)
a
magnificent
marble acroterion
(Fig. 34 ),
dated to
the fourth
century, part
of an archaic
grave
relief
(Fig. 35),
Hellenistic terracottas of the
highest
quality (the
head of a
young satyr, Fig. 36)
and the
fragment
of a vase
stamped
with the device of a
satyr's
head
(Fig. 37),
which recalls the coins of Pantica-
paeum,
and the initials of the
city's name, (DA.
Early
Hellenistic houses have been discovered at
Patraea,
a small site on the north side of the
bay facing
Phanagoria,
and there is now
sixth-century pottery
from
Kepoi,
at the eastern recess of the
bay.
At
Hermonassa,
modern
Taman,
the first serious excava-
tions have reached the
sixth-century
level at a
depth
of over
9 m.
and mudbrick houses of the late sixth
century
have been identified.
In
Gorgippia,
modern
Anapa,
a reconnaissance
established the area of the
city
and
position
of its
cemetery.
There are
superficial
indications that it
could have been an
early
settlement,
of the end of the
sixth
century. Nearby
Sindian
towns,
which were
absorbed in the
Bosporan Kingdom,
have also been
explored.
Many
of the
villages
in the Taman
peninsula
have
been
investigated.
Some are fortified. There is
imported
Greek
pottery
in several of
them,
and their
way
of life seems to have been
considerably
condi-
tioned
by
the
proximity
of the Greek colonies
although
their
simple
architecture and elaborate burial customs
remained unaffected.
Tanais.
Knipovich
has
given
a full account of the
site on the Don and its
history
in Tanais
(Moscow,
194 4 ).
An earlier
settlement,
near
Elisavetovskaya,
may
have been called
Tanais,
before the foundation
of the better known town near
Nedvigovski.
In the
Taganrog
Straits underwater
exploration
has
yielded
late
seventh-century
Greek
pottery, perhaps
from a
pre-colonial trading post (cf.
the
early
finds
up
the
Don, above).38sa
Colchis. The eastern coast of the Black Sea has
hitherto been somewhat
neglected,
but the
topography
of the Greek settlements is now better understood and
the
early importance
of the Greek settlement at
Phasis
appreciated.
Early
coins of
Colchis,
with a
woman's head
(obv.)
and bull's head
(rev.)
have
generally
been
put c.4 oo despite
their obvious archaic
appearance.
The discovery
of examples
with later
sixth-century pottery
at
Nymphaeum,
and the
pub-
lication of coins with other late archaic devices
reinforces the argument
from style,39
but it is clear
38sa Archaeology xvi. 93 f.
39 Vestnik 1952 238-4 2; Kapanadze, Grusinskaya
numismatika;
Lang,
Num. Notes and Mon. no.
130, 7,
doubted the
early date,
but later admitted one of the other
types (lion-minotaur),
Num. Chron. 1957 138
f.
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GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA
51
also that the
simpler
archaic
type,
with the woman's
and bull's
heads,
had a
long
life.4 0 This
may
have
been the earliest mint for silver coins in the Black
Sea
area, perhaps using
local mineral resources.
TURKEY
Of the Greek sites on the south shores of the Black
Sea
comparatively
little is known.
Trapezous
re-
mains to be found beneath Trebizond. Excavations
at
Sinope
have met with some success both in the
peninsula
town and in the
cemetery
on the mainland.
The evidence
bearing
on the date of the foundation
still
hardly brings
it
earlier
than 6oo.4 1 Pre-war
finds in the area are now
published.
One is a
superb
bronze
hydria,
with a woman's bust at the
upper
handle
junction,
inscribed
nap
hEpas
ApyEtaa Eyt
ov
haFEO6Aov,
a twin of the
Argive prize hydria
in New
York.4 2
Two
grave
stelae with two and three
(Fig. 38)
figures
are
early
classical in
date-early examples
of
the naiskos-stelae.4 3 In the town the foundations of
a Hellenistic
temple
and altar were
found, together
with architectural revetments and
mouldings
from
archaic to Roman in
date,
and votives-terracottas
and
vases, including
some
Phrygian.
For Greek
finds in the
Propontis
and the rest of North
Turkey
the reader is referred to the article
by J.
M. Cook in
Arch.
Reports for 1959-60.
4 0
Cf. the
fourth-century
hoard from
Kobyleti
with coins of
Sinope
and
Colchis, Vestnik 1961.1 4 2
if.
4 1 See Arch.
Reports for 1959-60 34 ,
and
Boysal
in AA
i959
8-20. On Greek
penetration
of the Black
Sea,
Graham in Bull.
Inst. Class. Stud. London v
(1958) 25 ff.
4 2
Akurgal and
Budde, Vorliiuf.
Ber.
Sinope (1956)
12
ff.;
Jeffery,
Local
Scripts I64 -
4 3 Akurgal
and
Budde, pls.
6, 7; Akurgal, Zwei
Grabstelen
(Berlin Winckelmannsprogramm II I); Jeffery, op. cit., 369.
Oxford JOHN
BOARDMAN
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