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o Introduction to Fourier Transform

o Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals


o CT Fourier transform examples
o Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
o Convergence examples
o Properties of CT Fourier Transform
o CT Fourier transform of periodic signals
o Summary
o Appendix: Transition from CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
o Appendix: Applications
ELEC264: Signals And Systems
Topic 4: Continuous-Time
Fourier Transform (CTFT)
Aishy Amer
Concordia University
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Figures and examples in these course slides are taken from the following sources:
A. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky and S.H. Nawab, Signals and Systems, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1997
M.J. Roberts, Signals and Systems, McGraw Hill, 2004
J. McClellan, R. Schafer, M. Yoder, Signal Processing First, Prentice Hall, 2003
2
Fourier representations
A Fourier representation is unique, i.e., no two
same signals in time domain give the same
function in frequency domain
3
Fourier Series versus
Fourier Transform
Fourier Series (FS): a discrete representation of a periodic signal
as a linear combination of complex exponentials
The CT Fourier Series cannot represent an aperiodic signal for all
time
Fourier Transform (FT): a continuous representation of a not
periodic signal as a linear combination of complex exponentials
The CT Fourier transform represents an aperiodic signal for all time
A not-periodic signal can be viewed as a periodic signal with
an infinite period
4
Fourier Series versus
Fourier Transform
FS of periodic CT signals:
As the period increases T,
0

The harmonically related components kw0 become closer in


frequency
As T becomes infinite
the frequency components form a continuum and the FS
sum becomes an integral
T e k X t x dt e t x
T
k X
t jk
k
T
t jk
/ 2 ; ] [ ) ( ; ) (
1
] [
0
0
0 0
t e
e e
= = =

}

=

5
Fourier Series versus Fourier
Transform

=

=

k
t jk
k
T
t jk
k
e a t x
dt e t x
T
a
0
0
) (
T
Per - CTime DFreq : Series Fourier Inverse CT
) (
1
DFreq
T
Per - CTime : Series Fourier CT
0
e
e
}
}

=

=

e e
t
e
e
e
d e j X t x
dt e t x j X
t j
t j
) (
2
1
) (
CTime CFreq : Transform Fourier CT Inverse
) ( ) (
CFreq CTime : Transform Fourier CT
6
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
7
Fourier Transform of CT
aperiodic signals
Consider the CT aperiodic signal given below:
8
Fourier Transform of CT
aperiodic signals
FS gives:
Define:
This means that:
T
T
0
2
e
t
= T
}
E = 0 , :
2
With
0 0
e
t
e T
T
9
As , approaches
approaches zero
uncountable number of harmonics
Integral instead of
Fourier Transform of CT
aperiodic signals
0
e k
dt e t x j X
d e j X t x
t j
t j
e
e
e
e e
t


}
}
=
=
) ( ) ( : ) transform (forward analysis Fourier
) (
2
1
) ( : ) transform (inverse Synthesis Fourier
10
CT Fourier transform for
aperiodic signals
11
CT Fourier Transform of
aperiodic signal
The CT FT expresses
a finite-amplitude aperiodic signal x(t)
as a linear combination (integral) of
an infinite continuum of weighted, complex
sinusoids, each of which is unlimited in time
Time limited means having non-zero values
only for a finite time
x(t) is, in general, time-limited but must not be
12
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
13
CTFT: Rectangular Pulse Function
14
CTFT: Exponential Decay (Right-sided)
15
16
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
17
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform
Dirichlets sufficient conditions for the
convergence of Fourier transform are similar to
the conditions for the CT-FS:
a) x(t) must be absolutely integrable
b) x(t) must have a finite number of maxima and
minima within any finite interval
c) x(t) must have a finite number of discontinuities,
all of finite size, within any finite interval
18
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform
19
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 1
20
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 1
21
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 2
22
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 2
The Fourier transform for this example is real at all frequencies
The time signal and its Fourier transform are
23
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 3
o Properties of unit impulse:
24
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 4
discontinuities at t=T
1
and t=-T
1
25
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 4
Reducing the width of x(t)
will have an opposite
effect on X(j)
Using the inverse Fourier
transform, we get xrec(t)
which is equal to x(t) at
all points except
discontinuities (t=T
1
& t=-
T
1
), where the inverse
Fourier transform is equal
to the average of the
values of x(t) on both
sides of the discontinuity
26
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 5
27
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 5
This example shows
the reveres effect in
the time and frequency
domains in terms of
the width of the time
signal and the
corresponding FT
28
Convergence of CT Fourier
Transform: Example 5
29
Convergence of the CT-FT:
Generalization
30
Convergence of the CTFT:
Generalization
31
Convergence of the CTFT:
Generalization
which is equal to A, independent of the value of
So, in the limit as approaches zero, the CT Fourier Transform
has an area of A and is zero unless f = 0
This exactly defines an impulse of strength, A. Therefore
32
Convergence of the CTFT:
Generalization
33
Convergence of the CTFT:
Generalization
34
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
35
Properties of the CT Fourier
Transform
The properties are useful in determining the Fourier transform
or inverse Fourier transform
They help to represent a given signal in term of operations
(e.g., convolution, differentiation, shift) on another signal for
which the Fourier transform is known
Operations on {x(t)} Operations on {X(j)}
Help find analytical solutions to Fourier transform problems of
complex signals
Example:

tion multiplica and delay t u a t y FT


t
= } ) 5 ( ) ( {
36
Properties of the CT Fourier
Transform
The properties of the CT Fourier transform are
very similar to those of the CT Fourier series
Consider two signals x(t) and y(t) with Fourier
transforms X(j) and Y(j), respectively (or
X(f) and Y(f))
The following properties can easily been
shown using
37
Properties of the CTFT:
Linearity
38
Properties of the CTFT:
Time shift
39
Properties of the CTFT:
Freq. shift
40
Frequency shift property:
Example
) ( 2
0
e e to
41
Properties of the CTFT
42
Properties of the CTFT
The time and frequency scaling properties indicate that if
a signal is expanded in one domain it is compressed in
the other domain This is also called the uncertainty
principle of Fourier analysis
43
Properties of the CTFT: Scaling
Proofs
44
Properties of the CTFT: Scaling
Proofs
45
Properties of the CTFT: Time Shifting & Scaling: Example
46
Properties of the CTFT: Time Shifting & Scaling
Example
47
Properties of the CTFT: average power
48
Properties of the CTFT:
Conjugation
49
Properties of the CTFT:
Conjugation
50
Properties of the CTFT:
Convolution & Multiplication
x(t)y(t)
Multiplication of x(t) and y(t)
Modulation of x(t) by y(t)
Example: x(t)cos(w0t)
w0 is much higher than the max. frequency of x(t)
51
Properties of the CTFT: Convolution &
Multiplication
52
Properties of the CTFT:
Modulation Property Example
53
Properties of the CTFT:
Convolution
o h(t) is the impulse response of the LTI system
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
j X
j Y
j H =
54
Properties of the CTFT: Convolution
Property Example
55
Properties of the CTFT: Multiplication-
Convolution Duality Proof
56
Properties of the CTFT:
Differentiation & Integration
) ( ) ( ) (
: derivative
th
e e j X j t x
dt
d
k
k
F
k
k

57
Properties of the CTFT: Integration
Property Example 1
o Recall: Relation unit step and impulse:
58
Properties of the CTFT: Integration Property
Example 2
59
Properties of the CTFT:
Differentiation Property Example 1
60
Properties of the CTFT: Differentiation Property Example 2
61
Properties of the CTFT:
Differentiation Property Example 2
62
Proof of Integration Property
using convolution property
63
Properties of the CTFT: Systems Characterized by
linear constant-coefficient differential equations
(LCCDE)
64
Properties of the CTFT: Systems Characterized by linear
constant-coefficient differential equations

= =
=
M
k
k
k
k
N
k
k
k
k
dt
t x d
b
dt
t y d
a
0 0
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
j X
j Y
j H =

=
=
= =
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
j a
j b
j X
j Y
j H
0
0
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
e
e
65
Properties of the CTFT: Systems Characterized by
LCCDE Example 1
) ( ) (
) (
t x t ay
dt
t y d
= +
a>0
a j
j a
j b
j H
h(t)
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
+
= =

=
=
e
e
e
e
1
) (
) (
) (
system this of response impulse the Find
0
0
) ( ) (
2
1
) ( t u e d e j H t h
at t j


= =
}
e e
t
e
66
Properties of the CTFT: Systems
Characterized by LCCDE Example 2a
67
Properties of the CTFT: Systems
Characterized by LCCDE Example 2b
) ( 2
) (
) ( 3
) (
4
) (
2
2
t x
dt
t x d
t y
dt
t y d
dt
t y d
+ = + +
3 1 3 ) ( 4 ) (
2 ) (
) (
) (
) (
2
1
2
1
2
0
0
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
= =

=
=
e e e e
e
e
e
e
j j j j
j
j a
j b
j H
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
) ( ] [ ) (
: response impulse the Find
3
2
1
2
1
t u e e t h
t t
+ =
68
Properties of the CTFT: Systems
Characterized by LCCDE Example 2c
) ( Find ;
1
1
) ( ) ( Let t y
j
t u e t x
FT
t
+
=

e
) 3 ( ) 1 (
2
1
1
) 3 )( 1 (
2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
+ +
+
=
(

+
(

+ +
+
= =
e e
e
e e e
e
e e e
j j
j
j j j
j
j X j H j Y
3 ) 1 ( 1
) (
4
1
2
2
1
4
1
+

+
+
+
==
e e e
e
j j j
j Y
) ( ] [ ) (
3
4
1
2
1
4
1
t u e te e t y
t t t
+ =
69
Properties of the CTFT:
Duality property
70
Properties of the CTFT: Duality
property
71
Properties of the CTFT:
Duality Property Example
72
Properties of the CTFT: relation
between duality & other properties
73
Properties of the CTFT:
Differentiation in frequency Example
) (t u te
at
74
Properties of the CTFT:
Total area-Integral
75
Properties of the CTFT:
Area Property Illustration
76
Properties of the CTFT:
Area Property Example 1
77
Properties of the CTFT: Area Property Example 2
78
Properties of the CTFT:
Periodic signals
79
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
80
Fourier transform for periodic
signals
Consider a signal x(t) whose Fourier transform is given by
Using the inverse Fourier transform, we will have:
This implies that the time signal corresponding to the
following Fourier transform
81
Fourier transform for periodic
signals
Note that
is the Fourier series representation of periodic signals
Fourier transform of a periodic signal is a train of
impulses with the area of the impulse at the frequency
k
0
equal to the k
th
coefficient of the Fourier series
representation a
k
times 2
82
Fourier transform for periodic
signals: Example 1
83
Fourier transform for periodic
signals: Example 1
Recall: FT of square signal
84
Fourier transform for periodic
signals: Example 2
FT of periodic time
impulse train is another
impulse train (in frequency)
85
Fourier Transform of Periodic
Signals: Example 2 (details)
86
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Summary
Appendix
Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
87
CTFT: Summary
88
Summary of CTFT Properties
89
Summary of CTFT Properties
90
CTFT: Summary of Pairs
91
CTFT: Summary of Pairs
92
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Summary
Appendix: Transition CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
Appendix: Applications
93
Transition: CT Fourier Series to
CT Fourier Transform
94
Transition: CT Fourier Series to
CT Fourier Transform
Below are plots of the magnitude of X[k] for 50% and
10% duty cycles
As the period increases the sinc function widens and its
magnitude falls
As the period approaches infinity, the CT Fourier Series
harmonic function becomes an infinitely-wide sinc
function with zero amplitude (since X(k) is divided by T
o
)
95
Transition: CT Fourier Series to
CT Fourier Transform
This infinity-and-zero problem can be solved by normalizing the
CT Fourier Series harmonic function
Define a new modified CT Fourier Series harmonic function
96
Transition: CT Fourier Series to
CT Fourier Transform
97
Outline
Introduction to Fourier Transform
Fourier transform of CT aperiodic signals
Fourier transform examples
Convergence of the CT Fourier Transform
Convergence examples
Fourier transform of periodic signals
Properties of CT Fourier Transform
Summary
Appendix: Transition: CT Fourier Series to CT Fourier Transform
Appendix: Applications
98
Applications of frequency- domain
representation
Clearly shows the frequency composition a signal
Can change the magnitude of any frequency
component arbitrarily by a filtering operation
Lowpass -> smoothing, noise removal
Highpass -> edge/transition detection
High emphasis -> edge enhancement
Processing of speech and music signals
Can shift the central frequency by modulation
A core technique for communication, which uses
modulation to multiplex many signals into a single
composite signal, to be carried over the same physical
medium
99
Typical Filters
Lowpass -> smoothing, noise removal
Highpass -> edge/transition detection
Bandpass -> Retain only a certain frequency range
100
Low Pass Filtering
(Remove high freq, make signal
smoother)
101
High Pass Filtering
(remove low freq, detect edges)
102
Filtering in Temporal Domain
(Convolution)
103
Communication:
Signal Bandwidth
Bandwidth of a signal is a critical feature when
dealing with the transmission of this signal
A communication channel usually operates only at
certain frequency range (called channel bandwidth)
The signal will be severely attenuated if it contains
frequencies outside the range of the channel
bandwidth
To carry a signal in a channel, the signal needed to
be modulated from its baseband to the channel
bandwidth
Multiple narrowband signals may be multiplexed to
use a single wideband channel
104
Signal Bandwidth:
Highest frequency estimation in a signal: Find
the shortest interval between peak and valleys
105
Estimation of Maximum
Frequency
106
Processing Speech & Music
Signals
Typical speech and music waveforms are semi-periodic
The fundamental period is called pitch period
The fundamental frequency (f
0
)
Spectral content
Within each short segment, a speech or music signal
can be decomposed into a pure sinusoidal
component with frequency f
0
, and additional
harmonic components with frequencies that are
multiples of f
0
.
The maximum frequency is usually several multiples
of the fundamental frequency
Speech has a frequency span up to 4 KHz
Audio has a much wider spectrum, up to 22KHz
107
Sample Speech Waveform 1
108
Numerical Calculation of CT
FT
The original signal is digitized, and then a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is applied, which
yields samples of the FT at equally spaced intervals
For a signal that is very long, e.g. a speech signal
or a music piece, spectrogram is used.
Fourier transforms over successive overlapping short
intervals
109
Sample Speech
Spectrogram 1
110
Sample Speech Waveform 2
111
Speech Spectrogram 2
112
Sample Music Waveform
113
Sample Music Spectrogram

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