CHAPTER 9

Antennas and Transmission Lines

1. A transmission line is a two-wire cable used to carry RF energy between two different pieces of
communications equipment or between an antenna and a receiver or transmitter.
2. The two most common types of transmission lines are balanced and coaxial.
3. The primary feature of a transmission line is its characteristic or surge impedance Zo which is a
function of the distributed inductance L and the capacitance C per unit length (Zo = L / C).
4. The characteristic impedance of a balanced line is determined by its physical dimensions. [ Zo =
276 log (2 S I D) where S is the center-to-center spacing of the conductors and D is the diameter of
the
conductors.]
5. The characteristic impedance of coax also depends on its physical dimensions. [ Zo = 138 log (D I
d)
where D is the inside diameter of the shield and d is the diameter of the inner conductor.]
6. The proper use of a transmission line is to terminate it in a load impedance equal to its surge
impedance. All the power applied to the line will be absorbed by the load.
7. Wavelength is the distance between adjacent peaks of a RF wave. It is also the distance traveled by
a
signal in one cycle. Wavelength ( ) is computed with the expression = 300 / f where f is the
frequency in megahertz and is in meters, Or = 984 / f where A is in feet.
8. If a transmission line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance, the load will not absorb all
the
power. Some of it will be reflected back toward the generator.
9. If the load on a transmission line is an open or short, all the power applied to the line will be
reflected
back to the generator.
10. The forward or incident power applied to the line combines with the reflected power to produce a
pattern of voltage and current variations along the line known as standing waves.
11. If the load impedance matches the line impedance, there are no standing waves.
12. A measure of the mismatch between line and load impedances or the maximum and minimum
voltage
and current variations along, the line is the standing-wave, ratio (SWR) which is a number always
greater than 1.
13. The SWR indicates how much power is delivered to the load and lost in the line. With SWR = 1,
all
power is delivered to the load.
14. The ratio of the reflected voltage V, to the incident voltage V, on a transmission line is caIled the
reflection coefficient R (R = Vr I Vi). A properly terminated line will have R = O. A shorted or open
line
will have R =1.
15. The SWR in terms of the reflection coefficient is
16. The SWR = ZO I ZL, or ZL l Zo where ZO is the characteristic impedance and ZL is the load
impedance.
17. Every effort is made to reduce the SWR by using impedance-matching circuits to ensure that
maximum
power is delivered to the load.
18. Transmission lines, one-quarter or one-half wavelength long and either shorted or open, act like
resonant or reactive circuits.
19. At UHF and microwave frequencies where one-half wavelength this less than 1 ft, transmission
lines are
commonly used to replace conventional LC tuned circuits.
R
SWR R
-
= +
1
1
20. A shorted quarter wave and an open half wave act like a parallel resonant circuit.
21. Both an open quarter-wave circuit and a shorted half-wave circuit act like a series resonant circuit.
22. The velocity of propagation of a radio signal is slower in a transmission line than in free space.
This
difference is expressed as the velocity factor F for different types of lines. Coax has a velocity factor
of
0.6 to 0.7. The velocity factor of open wire line or twin lead is in the 0.7 to 0.8 range. In computing the
length of a transmission line at a specific frequency, the velocity factor must be considered ( = 984
F/f).
23. An antenna or aerial is one or more conductors used to transmit or receive radio signals.
24. A radio signal is electromagnetic energy made up of electric and magnetic fields at right angles to
one
another and to the direction of signal propagation.
25. The polarization of a radio signal is defined as the orientation of the electric field with respect to
the
earth and is either vertical or horizontal.
26. The most common antenna is the half wave dipole or doublet that has a characteristic impedance
of
approximately 73 flat the center. Its length in feet is 468/f where f is the frequency in megahertz.
27. The dipole has a bidirectional figure-eight radiation pattern and is usually mounted horizontally
but
may also be used vertically.
28. A popular variation of the dipole is the folded dipole which is one-half wavelength long and has an
impedance of 300 .
29. Another popular antenna is the quarter-wave vertical. The earth acts as the other quarter wave to
simulate a half-wave vertical dipole.
30. The quarter-wave vertical is referred to as a ground plane antenna. It is fed with coax with the
center
conductor connected to the antenna and the shield connected to earth ground, to an array of
quarterwave,
wires m called radials, or to a large, flat, metal surface. Its length in feet is 234/f where f is in
megahertz.
31. The characteristic impedance of a ground plane is about 36.5 . It has an omni directional radiation
pattern that sends or receives equally well in all directions.
32. A directional antenna is one that transmits or receives over a narrow range in only one direction.
33. Directional antennas made up of two or more elements focus the radiation into a narrow beam,
thus
giving the antenna gain.
34. The gain of the, antenna is the power amplification resulting from the concentration of power in
one
direction. The gain may be expressed as a power ratio or in decibels.
35. The effective radiated power (ERP) of an antenna is the power input multiplied by the antenna
power
gain.
36. Directional antennas with two or more elements are caIled arrays. There are two types of arrays:
parasitic and driven.
37. Parasitic elements called reflectors and directors when spaced parallel to a half wave dipole driven
element help focus the signal into a narrow beam.
38. The measure of the directivity of an antenna is the beam width or beam angle measured in degrees.
39. A parasitic array made up of a driven element, reflector, and one or more directors is known as a
Yagi
or beam antenna and has a gain of 10 to 20 dB with a beam width of 40 to 20.
40. Driven arrays consist of two or more half wavelength elements, each receiving power from the
transmission line.
41. The three most popular driven arrays are the collinear, end-fire, and broadside.
42. A widely used driven array is the log periodic antenna which exhibits gain, directivity, and a wide
operating frequency range.
43. A radio wave propagates through space in one of three ways: ground wave, sky waves, or direct
waves.
44. The ground or surface wave leaves the antenna and follows the curvature of the earth. The ground
wave is only effective on frequencies below 3 MHz.
45. The skywave propagates from the antenna upward where it is bent back to earth by the ionosphere.
46. The ionosphere is a portion of the earth's atmosphere 30 to 250 mi above the .earth that has been
ionized by the sun.
47. The ionosphere is made up of three layers of different ionization density: the D, E, and F layers.
The F
layer is the most highly ionized and causes refraction or bending of radio waves back to earth.
48. The refraction of the ionosphere causes a radio signal to be bent back to earth with little or no
attenuation long distances from the transmitter. This is known as a skip or hop.
49. Multiple skips or hops between the ionosphere and earth permit very long distances, even
worldwide,
communications. This effect is useful over the 3- to 30-MHz range.
50. At frequencies above 30 MHz, propagation is primarily by the direct or space wave which travels
in a
straight line between transmitting and receiving antennas. This is known as line-of-sight
communications.
51. Radio waves ate easily blocked or reflected by large objects. This is particularly true of VHF, UHF,
and
microwave signals.
52. The communications distance at VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies is limited to the line-of-
sight
distance between transmitting and receiving antennas.
53. The line-of-sight distance D is limited by the curvature of the earth and is dependent upon the
heights
h, and h, of the transmitting and receiving antennas, respectively.
54. To extend transmission distances at VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies, relay stations known
as
repeater stations receive and retransmit signals.
SELF-TEST
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.
Choose the letter that best answers each question.
1. The two basic types of transmission line are _____.
2. If one wire of a transmission line is connected to ground, the line is said to be _____.
3. The distance that a signal travels during one cycle is called the _____.
4. One wavelength that a frequency of 450 MHz is m _____.
5. A line 4 in. long represents one-half wavelength at a frequency of _____ GHz.
6. The physical dimensions of a transmission line determine its _____.
7. To a generator, a transmission line looks like a(n) _____ made up of distributed _____ and _____.
8. A coax line has a shield braid with an inside diameter of 0.2 in. and a center conductor with a
diameter
of 0.057 in. The characteristic impedance is _____ .
9. The attenuation of 250 ft of RG-11U coax at 100 MHz is _____ dB. (SeeFig.9-7) (page 211-
Frenzel)
t r D = 2h + 2h
10. For optimum transfer of power from a generator to a load of 52 , the transmission line impedance
should be _____ .
11. The current and voltage along a properly matched line are _____.
12. If a transmission line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance, _____ will develop along
the line
13. If a load and line have mismatched impedances, power not absorbed by the load will be _____.
14. Patterns of voltage and current variations along, a transmission line with a mismatched load are
known
as _____.
15. A 52- coax bas a 36- antenna load. The SWR is _____.
16. If the load and line impedances are matched, the SWR will be _____.
17. All incident power on a line will be reflected if the line is _____ or _____ at its end.
18. The ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage on a transmission line is called the _____.
19. The maximum voltage along a transmission line is 150V, and the minimum voltage is 90V. The
SWR is
_____.The reflection coefficient is _____.
20. The reflection coefficient of a transmission line is 0.75. The SWR is _____.
21. An open or shorted transmission line will have a reflection coefficient of _____ and an SWR of
_____.
22. Transmission lines, one-quarter or one haIf wavelength can be used as _____.
23. A transmission line bas an SWR of 1.75. The power applied to the line, is 90 W. The amount of
reflected
power is _____ W.
24. A shorted quarter-wave line looks like a(n) _____ impedance to the generator.
25. The following lines look like a series resonant circuit: a _____ /4 line; a _____ /2 line.
26. Transmission lines less than /4 or between /4 and /2 act like _____ or _____.
27. An open transmission line 6 in. long acts as a _____ resonant circuit at a frequency of 492 MHz.
28. A coax bas a velocity factor of 0.68. One half wavelength of this coax at 120 MHz is _____ ft long.
29. Radio waves are made up of _____ and _____ fields.
30. The polarization of a radio wave depends upon the position of its _____ with respect to the earth's
surface.
31. The antenna is connected to the transmitter or receiver by a(n) _____.
32. A radio wave has its magnetic field horizontal to the earth. It is, therefore, _____ polarized.
33. One of the most widely used and simplest antennas is the half-wave _____.
34. The length of a doublet antenna at 150 MHz is _____ ft.
35. The feed impedance of a dipole antenna is approximately, _____ .
36. The horizontal radiation pattern of a dipole looks like a(n) _____.
37. The measure of an antenna's directivity is _____.
38. An antenna that radiates equally well in all horizontal directions is said to be _____.
39. A quarter-wave vertical antenna is commonly known as a(n) _____ antenna.
40. The length of a quarter-wave vertical antenna at 890 MHz is _____ in.
41. For proper operation of a vertical antenna, the shield of the feed coax must make a good
connection to
_____ or a set of quarter-wave wires called _____.
42. The horizontal radiation pattern of a quarter-wave vertical is a(n) _____.
43. The feed impedance of a quarter-wave vertical is approximately _____ .
44. An antenna that transmits or receives equally well in two opposite directions is said to be _____.
45. A unidirectional antenna transmits best in _____ direction(s).
46. A directional antenna that focuses the energy into a narrow beam has _____ since it effectively
amplifies the signal.
47. To have gain and directivity, an antenna must have two or more _____.
48. List two basic types of antenna arrays.
49. The three basic elements in a Yagi antenna are _____.
50. The two parasitic elements in a beam antenna are the _____.
51. A Yagi may have one or more _____ elements.
52. The beam width of a Yagi is usually in the range of _____ to _____ degrees.
53. The length of the driven element in a Yagi at 222 MHz is _____ ft.
54. List three kinds of driven arrays.
55. True or false. Yagis and driven arrays may be operated either horizontally or vertically.
56. A popular wideband driven array is the _____ array.
57. An impedance-matching circuit used to make the antenna, transmission line, and transmitter
impedances match is the _____.
58. A transformer used for impedance matching is the _____.
59. A quarter-wavelength section of transmission line used for impedance matching is called a(n)
_____.
60. A coax balun has an impedance-matching ratio of _____.
61. A quarter-wavelength of coax with a velocity factor of 0.7 at 220 MHz is _____ in.
62. List the three paths that a radio signal may take through space.
63. A radio wave that propagates near the surface of the earth is called a(n) _____ or _____ wave.
64. The radio wave that is refracted by the ionosphere is known as a(n) _____ wave.
65. A radio wave that propagates only over line-of-sight distances is called a(n) _____ or _____ wave.
66. The surface wave is effective only at frequencies below about _____ MHz.
67. The upper part of the earth's atmosphere ionized by the sun that affects radio waves is called the
_____.
68. The _____ layer has the greatest effect on a radio signal.
69. The ionized atmosphere causes radio waves at some frequencies to be _____.
70. True or false. Radio waves are easily reflected by large objects.
71. True or false. The ionosphere reflects radio waves.
72. Only signals in the _____ to _____ MHz range are significantly affected by the ionosphere.
73. Worldwide radio communications is possible thanks to _____ transmission.
74. The VHF, UHF, and microwave signals travel in a(n) _____.
75. To increase transmission distances at VHF and above, special stations called are _____ used.
76. A microwave relay station contains a(n) _____ and a(n) _____ operating on different frequencies.
ANSWERS
1. balanced, coax
2. unbalanced
3. wavelength
4. 0.667
5. 1.475
6. characteristic or surge impedance
7. low-pass filter, capacitors, inductors
8. 75.23
9. 6.25
10. 52
11. constant or fiat
12. standing waves
13. reflected
14. standing waves
15. 1.44
16. 1
17. open, shorted
18. reflection coefficient
19. 1.67,0.25
20. 7
21. 1, infinity
22. tuned or resonant circuits
23. 6.3 [0.07(90)=6.3] (See Fig. 9-12.)
24. high or infinite
25. open, shorted
26. inductors, capacitors
27. series
28. 2.788
29. electric, magnetic
30. electric field
31. transmission or feed line
32. vertically
33. dipole or doublet
34. 3.12
35. 73
36. figure eight
37. beam width
38. omni directional
39. ground plane
40. 3.16
41. earth ground, radials
42. circle
43. 36.5
44. bidirectional
45. one
46. gain
47. elements
48. parasitic, driven
49. director, reflector, driven element
50. director, reflector
51. director
52. 20, 40
53. 2.1
54. collinear, end-fire, broadside
55. true
56. log-periodic
57. antenna tuner
58. balun
59. Q section, matching stub
60. 60.4:1
61. 9.39
62. ground or surface wave, sky wave, direct or space wave
63. ground, surface
64. sky
65. 65. direct or space
66. 3
67. ionosphere
68. F
69. refracted or bent
70. true
71. false
72. 3, 30
73. multiple hop
74. straight line
75. repeaters
76. transmitter, receiver