Afi

AVO Fluid Inversion
AFI Main Window.......................................................................................................................... 1

Model .............................................................................................................................................. 2
Model Description...................................................................................................................... 3
Analyze Trends........................................................................................................................... 5
Analyze Trends (Page 2)............................................................................................................. 7
Analyze Trends (Page 3)............................................................................................................. 8
Analyze Trends Display.............................................................................................................. 9
Set Display Ranges............................................................................................................... 11
Add New Depth........................................................................................................................ 12
Edit Existing Depth................................................................................................................... 13
Model Parameters..................................................................................................................... 14
Shale Parameters................................................................................................................... 16
Brine...................................................................................................................................... 18
Oil ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Gas........................................................................................................................................ 20
Matrix.................................................................................................................................... 21
Reservoir............................................................................................................................... 22
Biot-Gassmann Calculations..................................................................................................... 24
Clear Existing Depth................................................................................................................. 27
Copy Depth............................................................................................................................... 28
Import (Export) ASCII Model .................................................................................................. 29
Simulations................................................................................................................................... 30
Run Simulations........................................................................................................................ 31
Display Simulation Result........................................................................................................ 34
Delete Simulations.................................................................................................................... 35
Simulation Plot.......................................................................................................................... 36
View...................................................................................................................................... 37
Calibration................................................................................................................................. 39
Calibration..................................................................................................................................... 40
Calibration Display................................................................................................................... 43
View...................................................................................................................................... 45
Apply Auto Scaling............................................................................................................... 46
Apply Auto Scaling (Page 2)................................................................................................ 47
Apply............................................................................................................................................. 50
Probability Calculations................................................................................................................ 52

AFI Menus 1
AFI Main Window

AVO Fluid Inversion (AFI) is a program which is used to analyze AVO responses, compare
them without theoretically derived responses, and predict fluid properties. This documentation
section describes all the windows and menu used within the AFI program. For a detailed
description of the AFI process, see the document entitled Guide to the AFI Program.

When the AFI program is initiated, the first window which appears is the AFI Main Window.
This window is actually derived from the AVO Processing Window. This means that all the
processes available within the AVO program are also available in AFI. These processes may be
accessed by clicking on the Process option on the horizontal menu bar. These options are
described in detail in the AVO documentation manual.

The additional options required for the AFI process are activated by using the buttons on the left
side bar, and they are:

Model: Set the model parameters which control the probability distributions for the model.

Simulations: Run Monte-Carlo simulations to create synthetic intercept/gradient models.

Calibration: Produce a display which allows the calibration between the synthetic and real
data.

Apply: Apply the calibrated results to real data slices to calculate the probability of pore fluids.
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2 Hampson-Russell Software Services
Model

The Model pullDown menu contains options which are used to create and edit the stochastic
model for the AFI process. A stochastic model is one which is described by probability
distributions. The model used in AFI is a 3-layer model, defined in the next section. Each of the
layers is described by parameters which are themselves probability distributions. The options on
the Model menu are used to create and edit those distributions.

The commands are:

Analyze Trends: Read data from a series of wells in the database. This data is then used to
determine trends in velocity, density, and porosity, which are then used to determine
parameters for the probability distributions.

Add New Depth: Specify a new depth at which a model will be defined

Edit Existing Depth: Examine the probability distribution parameters for a particular depth and
(optionally) modify them.

Clear Existing Depth: Delete all the parameters for a particular depth level.

Clear All Depths: Delete all the parameters for all depth levels.

Copy Depth: Create a new depth level by copying parameters from an existing depth level.

Import/Export ASCII Model: Read and write an ASCII file which contains all stochastic
parameters for all depths
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AFI Menus 3
Model Description

The basic model used in AFI is a 3-layer model, consisting of a sand enclosed by shales. The
shales are assumed to be wet, while the sand is modeled with brine, oil, and gas alternately.
Since we will be using this model to analyze AVO responses, the parameters describing each of
the layers must ultimately define the P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density for the layer.
In fact, the shales are described directly with these parameters:

Notice that each parameter is defined as a probability distribution, which determines the relative
spread of values expected for that parameter. The figure above shows a Normal or Gaussian
distribution for the shale density. Note that the shales above and below the sand are assumed to
have the same distributions.
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In addition to the Normal distribution, the following are available for every parameter:

Constant
Triangular
Normal
Uniform
Log Normal

The Sand layer is characterized by a more fundamental series of rock physics parameters, as
shown below:

Each of these parameters may be described by a probability distribution, although in practice,
many are set as constants. The reason why these rock physics parameters are used is that Biot-
Gassmann substitution is used to calculate the effects of changing fluids within the sand layer.

A stochastic model is a particular set of parameters for each of the layers in the model. Note
that in practice, we may have different stochastic models for different depths. This is because
the compaction trends for a particular area cause the rock properties to vary with depth. AFI can
define and store stochastic models at any number of depth levels. The first step in an AFI project
is to define the stochastic models for a series of depths. This is usually done by Trend Analysis
of wells within the area.
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AFI Menus 5
Analyze Trends

The Model / Analyze Trends option is used to produce a display which analyzes the data from a
series of wells in order to determine optimal parameters for the stochastic model. If this option
has never been run in this project, the following menu appears first, which sets the parameters for
the calculation:

This menu consists of a series of pages, the first of which is shown above. The parameters for
this page are:

All Logs in Database: This shows all possible logs which are in any well of the current
GEOVIEW database.

Use these logs: These are the logs which will be used in this analysis. The only logs which
can be used are:

P-wave (sonic log)
S-wave (shear log)
Density
Porosity
Condition Log any log which is used to distinguish sand from shale. Typically this
is a Gamma ray or Vshale log.

By default, the program selects P-wave, Density, and Gamma Ray if they are available.

All Useable Wells in Database: This is the set of wells in the database which contain all of the
logs specified in the box Use these Logs.
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Use these wells: This is the set of wells which will actually be used in the analysis. This will
be a subset of the wells listed in the previous item.

Align Logs at this Top: To create the trend analysis, all the points from the selected wells will
be plotted on the same cross-plot. If there is significant depth-variation from well to
well, this may cause an overlap of lithologies which do not belong together. This option
allows all the wells to be aligned at a particular formation. By enabling this option, and
selecting a particular formation top in the next field, each well will be aligned in such a
way that the depth value at this Top will be shifted to the level specified in the field Align
at This Depth.

Apply: Clicking this button at any time causes the plot (if it is visible) to be re-drawn with the
new parameters on the menu.
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AFI Menus 7
Analyze Trends (Page 2)

The second page of the Analyze Trends menu is used to set the conditions which will
distinguish sands from shales.

The parameters are:

It is a SHALE if: This and the next series of field set the conditions. The log selection box
contains all the logs selected on the previous page. By default, the Gamma Ray is used
here, if available.

Depth Blocking Interval: In order to reduce the calculation time and the complexity of the
plot, the logs are first blocked to a uniform depth interval defined by this parameter.

Normalize Condition Logs: If this option is selected, the Condition Log defined in the fields
above is normalized before the condition is applied. Normalizing means that the Mean
and Standard Deviation of the log are calculated and the log is scaled in such a way that
the new Standard Deviation is equal to the average for all wells, and the new Mean is
equal to the value specified in the field Set Mean Value to. If the value set in this field
is zero, the new target mean value will be the average of all the input condition logs.

Use a Depth Smoother of Length: This field is only used if the Normalize Condition Logs
option is used. This sets the length in depth units over which the Mean and Standard
Deviation will be calculated. If this field is set to a value of 0, the Mean and Standard
Deviation will be calculated over the entire length of the log. If this field is set to some
other value, the Mean and Standard Deviation will be calculated as slowly varying depth-
dependent values.
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Analyze Trends (Page 3)

The third page of the Analyze Trends menu is used to set up the control points at which the
stochastic model parameters will be calculated. The purpose of the Analyze Trends process is
to determine stochastic parameters at a series of depth levels. This page determines the levels.

The parameters are:

Method for setting analysis locations: There are two methods. Distribute Uniformly means
that the depths will be set at uniform locations from Minimum Depth to Maximum
Depth with an interval of Interval between control points. Type in a Table means that
the user will specify the depth values specifically. To make the table appear, click on the
Show Table button.

Depth Smoother for Trend Curves: The Trend Curves are the calculated values of the Mean
and Standard Deviation as a function of depth. This smoother defines the length in depth
units over which the Mean and Standard are calculated. A larger number here will cause
the curves to be smoother.
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AFI Menus 9
Analyze Trends Display

The Analyze Trends Display is shown above. Two trend windows are shown simultaneously.
The choice of what is shown in each window is controlled by the Show in View field. The
extracted points are displayed in two colors. The red dots show the points which listed in the
title at the top of the plot. The grey dots show the other points. For example, the figure above is
displaying Shale values, so the red points are shales and the grey points are not shales (sands).
By clicking the Next and Previous buttons, you can toggle between displaying Sands or Shales.

Other important items:

Top Reference Depth: This is a vertical brown line which only appears if the option is chosen
to align all wells on a particular formation top. In that case this line shows the location at
which the top is aligned.

Trend Curves: These blue curves show the calculated Mean and Standard Deviation. The
smoothness of these curves is controlled by the parameter Depth Smoother for Trend
Curves on the previous menu.
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Control Points: These vertical blue lines indicate the depth locations at which the stochastic
model parameters will be calculated. These have been defined by Page 3 of the Analyze
Trends menu.

Set Parameters: This option causes the Analyze Trends menu to re-appear, allowing the
parameters to be modified.

Update Model: This option causes the program to calculate the probability distribution
parameters at the specified control points, and store them as new stochastic model
parameters. These values will then be available for editing or creating simulations.

Set Ranges: This option causes a menu to appear which allows you to set depth and amplitude
ranges for the display.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 11
Set Display Ranges

This menu is used to set the depth and amplitude ranges for the Analyze Trends Display.
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Add New Depth

The Model / Add New Depth option is used to create a new depth level at which a stochastic
model will be defined. This new level will be added to any previously calculated depth levels.

The probability distribution parameters for this level will be created using the default values,
which have been set during the previous most recent control point creation.

After clicking Ok on this menu, the Model Parameters menu will appear, allowing you to edit
the distribution parameters for this level.
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AFI Menus 13
Edit Existing Depth

The Model / Edit Existing Depth option is used to bring up the Model Parameters menu in
order to view or edit the probability distribution parameters for a depth level. The selection box,
Edit this depth, contains only depth levels which have already been created.

After clicking Ok on this menu, the Model Parameters menu will appear.
AFI September 2004
Model Parameters

The Model Parameters menu is used to set all the probability distribution parameters for a
particular depth level. The menu consists of a series of pages, starting with the Sand
Parameters page.

The Sand Parameters page sets the base parameters for the Wet Sand. These are called the
base parameters because these parameters are input to the Biot-Gassmann algorithm to calculate
the corresponding oil and gas cases. Unlike all the other pages, the parameters on this page are
not probability distributions, but are constant values. They should be the values at this level for
average Wet Sand. If this level has been automatically created by the Analyze Trends window,
then these will be mean values calculated from the sand trend curves.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 15
The main parameters for this page are:

Density: This is the average wet sand density.

Shale Volume: This is the volume of shale in the base wet sand, expressed as a fraction. To
see the significance of this parameter, refer to the section on Biot-Gassmann Theory
later in this document.

Vp: This is the p-wave velocity of the base wet sand.

Water Saturation: This parameter allows for the possibility that the base sand is not
completely wet. The default value for this parameter is 1.0, indicating a wet sand. If any
other value is entered, the algorithm will calculate parameters for the wet sand before
proceeding.

Porosity: This is the base sand porosity, expressed as a fraction.

Type of Hydrocarbon: This parameter is only used if the Water Saturation is set to a value
other than 1.0. In that case, the algorithm creates the pure wet case, assuming the
hydrocarbon is the value entered here.

Calculate: Clicking on this button causes certain derived parameters to be calculated.

The derived parameters are:

Matrix Density
Dry Rock Bulk Modulus
Dry Rock Poisson Ratio

For information on the use of these parameters see the section Biot-Gassmann Theory.

Biot-Gassmann Parameters: These parameters are all set on the subsequent pages of this
menu, but are printed on this page for reference only.
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Shale Parameters

The Shale Parameters page is used to set the probability distributions for the shales above and
below the target sand.

The parameters are:

Shale Vp: This is the p-wave velocity of the wet shale. This is expressed as a probability
distribution using the parameters that follow.
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AFI Menus 17
Distribution: This parameter determines the type of probability distribution. The choices are:

Constant: a single constant value.
Triangular: The distribution is a triangle, specified by 3 numbers.
Normal: A Gaussian distribution.
Uniform: A distribution specifying equal probability between 2 limits.
Log Normal: A Normal distribution after taking the logarithm of the values.

Depending on the type of distribution selected, there are 1, 2, or 3, more parameters
which follow, specifying the probability values. For example, in the case of Normal
distribution, there are 2 parameters, Mean and Standard Deviation.

Shale Density: This is the distribution for the density of the shale layers.

Shale Vs Option: This parameter allows for the (usual) possibility that the S-wave log has not
been measured. There are 2 options available here:

User Supplied: This means that the Vs distribution will be input as a probability
distribution, exactly like the other parameters.

Castagna Derived: This means that the S-wave value will be derived in each case from
the P-wave value using Castagnas equation. If this option is selected, the following
parameters will also be present on the menu.

Vs = Constant1 * Vp + Constant2: These fields only appear if the Shale Vs Option is set to
Castagna Derived. In that case, these fields set the slope and intercept used in
Castagnas equation.

Error: This field only appears if the Shale Vs Option is set to Castagna Derived. In that case,
this specifies a random error to be added to the calculate Vs value. This simulates the
possibility that the Castagna coefficients are not known precisely, or that the equation
does not apply precisely.
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Brine

The Model Parameters / Brine page is used to set values for Brine as used in the Biot-
Gassmann calculation. The two parameters are Brine Modulus and Brine Density, which may
both be set as probability distributions.

Apply these parameters to all depth levels in the model: Clicking on this option will cause
the brine parameters for all other depth levels to be set with these parameters.
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AFI Menus 19
Oil

The Model Parameters / Oil page is used to set values for Oil as used in the Biot-Gassmann
calculation. The two parameters are Oil Modulus and Oil Density, which may both be set as
probability distributions.

the oil parameters for all other depth levels to be set with these parameters.
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Gas

The Model Parameters / Gas page is used to set values for Gas as used in the Biot-Gassmann
calculation. The two parameters are Gas Modulus and Gas Density, which may both be set as
probability distributions.

the gas parameters for all other depth levels to be set with these parameters.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 21
Matrix

The Model Parameters / Matrix page is used to set values for the Matrix as used in the Biot-
Gassmann calculation. The two parameters are Matrix Modulus and Matrix Density, which
may both be set as probability distributions.

the matrix parameters for all other depth levels to be set with these parameters.
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Reservoir

The Model Parameters / Reservoir page is used to set the range of values for target sand layer,
which will be used in the Monte-Carlo calculation.

The parameters are:

Reservoir Porosity: This is the probability distribution which controls the range of sand
porosity which will be modeled.

Reservoir Shale Volume: This is the probability distribution which controls the range of shale
volume in the sand which will be modeled.
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AFI Menus 23
Reservoir Thickness: This is the probability distribution which controls the range of sand
thickness which will be modeled.

Reservoir Water Saturation: This is the probability distribution which controls the range of
sand water saturation which will be modeled.

the all parameters on this page to be applied to all other depth levels.
AFI September 2004
Biot-Gassmann Calculations

This section outlines the mathematical algorithms used to apply fluid replacement modeling to
the input wet sand layer to create the corresponding gas and oil filled cases. The theory for this
section is detailed in Mavko et al (The Rock Physics Handbook), and is based on the theory of
Biot and Gassmann.

The basic problem is that we start with a base case sand layer. Usually, this layer is wet, but we
can accommodate the possibility of hydrocarbons as well. The objective is to calculate Vp, Vs,
and density for the case where the brine is replaced by oil and gas. During this conversion
process, most of the Biot-Gassmann parameters are derived from stochastic variables, which
means they take on random values. This input layer is defined by the following constant
parameters:

0
VSHALE = volume of shale in base sand layer
0
= density of base sand layer
0 W
S = water saturation of base sand layer (usually =1.0)
0 H
= density of hydrocarbon in base sand layer
0 W
= density of water in base sand layer
0
= porosity of base sand layer
0 P
V = P-wave velocity of base sand layer
0 W
K = water bulk modulus in base sand layer
0 H
K = hydrocarbon bulk modulus in base sand layer
0 M
K = matrix bulk modulus in base sand layer

All of these parameters are listed on the Sand Parameters page of the Model Parameters
menu, and are normally determined from trend analysis of well log data.

Step 1:Calculate and store certain base sand parameters

The first step is to calculate three new parameters, which are stored for all later calculations.

Calculate
0 M
= Matrix density of base sand layer.

0 0 0 0
* *(1
f W W H
fluid density S S
0
)
W
= = +
0
)

0 0 0 0
( * )/(1
M f
=

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AFI Menus 25
Calculate
DRY
= dry rock Poissons ratio. This value is calculated from the base VSHALE
value using the empirical formula contained in this plot:

Calculate dry rock Bulk Modulus:
0 B
K =

0 0
0 0
(1 )
1 ( )
W W
f
W H
S S
K
K K
= +
3*(1 ) (1 )
DRY DRY
S = +
2
0 0
*
P
M V =
1 a S =
0 0
* *( 1) ( )
M f M
b S K K S M K
0
= +
0 0 0
*( )*( 1)
M M f
c S M K K K =
2
( 4 y b b ac = + ) 2a
K

0 0
(1 )*
B M
K y =

The values of
0 M
,
DRY
, and are calculated and printed on the Sand Parameters page
when theCalculate button is pressed:
0 B
K

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Step 2: Calculate the new fluid replaced values for Vp, Vs, and Density

The previous step is only performed once, based on the base sand parameters. The next step is
performed once for each realization generated from the stochastic model.

The input values for this step are:

0 M
= Matrix density of base sand layer (calculated in Step 1)
DRY
= dry rock Poissons ratio (calculated in Step 1)
0 B
K = dry rock Bulk Modulus (calculated in Step 1)
W
= output water density (from stochastic model)
W
S = output water saturation (from stochastic model)
= output porosity (from stochastic model)
H
= output hydrocarbon density (from stochastic model)
M
= output matrix density (from stochastic model)
W
K = output water bulk modulus (from stochastic model)
H
K = output hydrocarbon bulk modulus (from stochastic model)

The algorithm is:

0 0
/(1 1 )
p B
K K K
0 M
=
(1 ) (1 )
W W H W M
S S = + + (the desired output density)
1/( [1 ]/ )
f W W W H
K S K S K = +
1/( 1/ )
B P
K K K
M
= +
3 3(1 )
1
4 1
B DRY
B
DRY
K

=

+

( )
2
2
1
4
(1 )
3
B M
B
B
B M
M f
P
K K
K
K K
K K
V
+ +

+
= (the desired output P-wave velocity)
2
S B
V = (the desired output S-wave velocity)
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AFI Menus 27
Clear Existing Depth

The Model / Clear Existing Depth option is used to remove all stochastic model information for
a specified depth level, which has already been previously defined. This step is not reversible.

The Model / Clear All Depths option removes all stochastic model information for all
previously defined depth levels.
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Copy Depth

The Model / Copy Depth option creates a new depth level at the specified depth by copying all
parameters from a previously defined depth level.
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AFI Menus 29
Import (Export) ASCII Model

The options to Export / Import ASCII Model are used to create and read an ASCII file which
contains all the stochastic parameters currently defined in the model.

An example file is shown below, with 4 depth levels:

Note that all parameters in this file are in free format, so this option can either be used to store a
model created in AFI, or to start from scratch and create a new model externally.
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Simulations

The Simulations button contains all the options which create and manage simulations. By
simulations is meant a set of particular values for the stochastic model, generated from the
probability distributions, along with their corresponding calculated intercept and gradient values.
In order to run simulations, a model must already have been created at one or more depth levels,
using the options under the Model button. This step must be run before the Calibration or
Apply options may be run.

The options are:

Run Simulations: This option creates a simulation result by Monte-Carlo analysis, using the
existing model.

Display Simulation Result: This option displays the results of a previously generated
simulation run.

Delete Simulations: This option deletes the stored data from a previously generated simulation
run.
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AFI Menus 31
Run Simulations

The Run Simulations option creates a new set of simulated points from the existing model. The
model must already have been defined for one or more depth levels using the options under the
Model button. The result of this process is a set of predicted values of intercept and gradient for
each of the 3 possible fluids: brine, oil, and gas. If the model contains more than one depth level,
simulations will be run for all depth levels at once.

The process consists of the following steps. First, a particular instance of the 3-layer model is
created for brine case. This uses the Biot-Gassmann theory described in the previous section,
Biot-Gassmann Calculations. Using that model, two synthetic traces are generated internally
as shown in this figure:
AFI September 2004

Note that in this process a wavelet is assumed to be known. From the calculated synthetic traces,
the top of the sand (or alternatively, the base) is picked automatically. From the picked
amplitudes, the theoretical intercept and gradient are calculated. Note that although only the top
of the sand is picked, the sand thickness is still modeled because of wavelet interference from the
base.

This effectively has created a single point in the Intercept / Gradient space, corresponding to a
brine case. Now, the process is repeated two more times using Biot-Gassmann calculations to
replace the brine with oil and then with gas. At this point, there are three values in Intercept /
Gradient space. Finally, by repeating this 3-step process many times (typically 200), a cluster is
generated in Intercept / Gradient space for each of the fluid types at each depth level.

The parameters on this menu are:

Number of Simulations: This is the number of points which will be created in each of the fluid
clusters. There is never any harm in setting this to a very large number. It only affects
the run-time. Since the clusters are typically shaped as ellipsoids, the default value of
200 is usually enough.

Calculation Option: This refers to the algorithm which is used to calculate the synthetic
amplitudes. The options are Zoeppritz or Aki-Richards. This parameter does not
usually have a big influence on the results.

Near / Far Angle: These parameters set the two angles for the synthetic traces. Theoretically,
the resulting Intercept and Gradient should not be very sensitive to these values.
However, if the Far Angle is too large, the definition of Gradient may not be very
meaningful. It is recommended that the Far Angle should not exceed 45 degrees.

Model this Interface: The options here are to model the Top of Sand or the Base of Sand. In
applying these results to real data, it is critical to be consistent with the picked values on
the real data.
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AFI Menus 33
Model Sand Thickness: This is the option to allow the thickness of the sand to influence the
result. If this is set to No, the thickness is effectively so large that there is no influence
from the base of the sand layer. In this case, the probability distribution for the thickness
will be ignored, and the wavelet will also not affect the result. If this option is set to Yes,
the thickness will be varied using the probability distribution for this parameter. Also,
the wavelet specified in the next field will be used to create the internal synthetics.

Use this wavelet: The field is only used if the option to Model Sand Thickness is set to Yes.
The list of available wavelets is the set of all wavelets in the project. Typically, a wavelet
should be extracted from the real data which is used in this project.

Simulation Name: This is a name, which is used to describe and refer to this simulation result
in subsequent processes. Many simulations may be created with varying parameters.
This is done by supplying different names. The default option is to keep using the same
name, which means that each time a new simulation run is performed, the old results will
be over-written.
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Display Simulation Result

The Display Simulation Result option is used to display the calculated Intercept / Gradient
results for a particular simulation run.

The options are:

Display this simulation: This is the name given to the simulation result to be displayed. This
name was chosen on the Run Simulations menu.

Display: This determines how many cross-plot windows will be displayed on the screen at
once. This is only available if the stochastic model contains more than one depth level.
Each window then shows one of the depth levels for this simulation. The parameter
starting at depth specifies the first depth which will be shown.

Automatic Scaling. This option determines whether the scales for the Intercept and Gradient
axes will be set automatically or manually. If this option is turned Off, then the
subsequent parameters are used to set the range for X (intercept) and Y (gradient) values
on the plot.
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AFI Menus 35
Delete Simulations

The Delete Simulations option is used to delete all the stored data corresponding to one or more
simulation runs.

The parameters are:

All Simulations in Project: This lists all simulation results currently stored in the project.

Delete These Simulations: These are the simulation which you wish to delete. Note that this
step is irreversible.
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Simulation Plot

The Simulation Plot shows calculated simulations at one or more depths. The critical controls
for this plot are:

View: This pulldown has options specific to this plot. See the following sections for details.

Calibration: This option allows an extra menu to appear on the base of the plot which allows
interactive manipulation of the parameters used in the simulation runs.

Next >> / << Prev: These buttons are used to scroll the plot through different levels. This is
only useful if there are more depth levels calculated than are being currently displayed.
For example, if there are 6 depth levels, and only 4 display panels, then clicking on Next
will cause the plot be re-drawn with the next depth levels displayed.
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AFI Menus 37
View

The View pullDown menu of the Simulation Plot has specific features for this type of plot.
These features are:

Set Axes Range: This brings up a menu which allows you to set the ranges for the Intercept
(X) and Gradient (Y) axes.

Gas / Oil / Brine / No Probability: These options allow you to display the calculated
probability for each fluid component as a color display behind the cluster points.

Classify Real Data: This option is only available if real data points are being plotted, ie, when
this plot is being used as a Calibration Plot. In that case, enabling this option will cause
each real data point to be classified according to its probability of being one of the fluid
types.

Real Data on Top: This option is only available if real data points are being plotted. In that
case, this option controls whether the real points are plotted over the simulation points, or
vice versa.

Show Legend / Titles / Color Bar: These options control the amount of annotation being used
on the display. When more than one cross-plot is being displayed, there is usually a need
to minimize annotation to increase the space available for the actual plot. By default all
of these annotation items are removed. These options allow you to turn each on
individually. The next option, Minimize Annotation, turns all of them off together.
AFI September 2004
Set Axes Range

The Set Axes Range menu allows you to set the Minimum and Maximum values for the axes
for all the plots simultaneously. These parameters will be stored and used on all subsequent
plots. The option Use Automatic Scaling forces all the axes to be re-scaled automatically.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 39
Calibration

The Calibration option of the Simulation Plot is used to turn on and off a base menu:

This menu is used to interactively change a single parameter at all depth levels in the display.
For example, the figure shown above asks the program to change the Output Porosity to a
Uniform Distribution from 0.5 to 0.40. Clicking on the Update Model button will cause the
simulations to be re-run for all depth levels currently showing in the display. To control the
calculation time, the Number of Simulations defaults to 20 instead of 200, but this may be set
to any value. The new values used in the model are not saved, meaning that when the
Simulation Plot is removed, the changes are lost.
AFI September 2004
Calibration

The Calibration option is used to simultaneously display simulation data and real data for the
purpose of calibrating, i.e., determining scalers which allow the two types of data to be
displayed on the same scale. For details on these scalers, see the section Calibration Display.

In order to run this process, two types of data must be available. The first is simulation data,
which is created by using the Simulations option. The second is real data values. The real data
are data slices derived from 3D seismic data. Two slices are always required, in either of these
two forms:

(1) An Intercept and Gradient slice
(2) An amplitude slice from a near-angle stack and an amplitude slice from a far-angle stack.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 41
These slices are usually generated in the AVO program. For more information on how to
generate amplitude slices, see the AVO documentation.

In addition to generating data slices, it is usually helpful to define zones on the slices to be used
in the analysis, as shown below:

These zones are areas of known fluid types, or areas of specific interest. The procedure for
defining zones on data slices is controlled by the View / Zones option of the Data Slice
Window.

The items on this menu are:

Number of cross plots: This can be set to 1, 2, or 4. This option is only useful if there are
several zones defined on the real data slices. Each cross plot contains the data from one
of these zones.

Zone List: This is the list of all zones defined for the selected cross plots. These zones must
have already been defined using the Data Slice options as described above.

Selected zone: This is the set of zones that will be displayed. There should be as many items
here as the Number of cross plots defined above. Note that <NO_ZONE> is an
allowable option, meaning that all of the real data points will be plotted in that cross plot.

Use this simulation: This is the name of the simulation data set which will be displayed. This
name has been set when the Run Simulations option was used.
AFI September 2004
Select simulation depths this way: This option is only used when the stochastic model has
more than one depth level. Then the program must decide which depth level to use for
each of the cross plots. There are two options here. Use a constant depth means that
the depth value specified in the next field will be used for all the cross plots. Use a
depth slice means that there is a depth slice available which will be used. The name of
the depth slice is specified in the next field. This depth slice is used this way: all the
points for the Selected Zone in a particular cross plot are compared with the depth slice
to determine the average depth for those points. Then the depth level nearest the average
is used for that cross plot. Note that a depth slice may be calculated from a time horizon
in AVO or AFI using the option Horizon / Time-Depth Conversion.

Type of Calibration: There are two choices here. Intercept / Gradient means that the real data
slices are Intercept and Gradient. The names of these slices are then specified in the
fields Intercept Slice and Gradient Slice. Near Angle / Far Angle means that the real
data slices are the amplitude slice at a near angle and the amplitude slice at a far angle.
Then the subsequent fields specify the names of those slices and the angles at which they
were derived.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 43
Calibration Display

The Calibration Display shows cross plots of real data points (in black) and simulated points (in
color). The cross plot axes are Intercept and Gradient. The purpose of the cross plot is to set
scalers which allow the real and simulated data to be plotted simultaneously. These scalers are
also used in the subsequent step of predicting the fluid properties from the real data slices.

The reason why scalers are required is that, while the simulated data accurately reflect the real
range of intercept and gradient for reflection coefficients, the real data values typically have an
arbitrary scaling. There may also be an error in the gradient due to processing limitations.

AFI assumes that the correction of the real data is effected by two numbers:

global
S = a number which multiplies both the intercept and gradient values
gradient
S =a number which multiplies only the gradient values

If the input (unscaled) real data values are
input
I and , then the output scaled values will be:
input
G

*
output global input
I S I =
* *
output global gradient input
G S S G =
AFI September 2004
The scalers may be specified in two ways. One way is to type them in manually, then click on
the Apply Manual Scaling button. The cross plots will be redrawn after applying the new
scalers to the real data. The second way is to ask the program to do an automatic scaling. This is
initiated by clicking on the Apply Auto Scaling button. This will cause a series of menus to
appear which are described in the following pages. Normally, the best procedure is to apply the
auto scaling first, followed by manual modifications.

If the scalers are modified in any way, and then the Ok button is clicked on this menu, the
following menu appears:

If you click Yes on this, the new scalers will be saved in the project and will available for
application to the real data in the next stage. Otherwise, the new scalers will be discarded.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 45
View

The View pulldown menu of the Calibration Plot has specific features for this type of plot.
These features are:

Set Axes Range: This brings up a menu which allows you to set the ranges for the Intercept
(X) and Gradient (Y) axes.

Gas / Oil / Brine / No Probability: These options allow you to display the calculated
probability for each fluid component as a color display behind the cluster points.

Classify Real Data: This option is only available if real data points are being plotted, ie, when
this plot is being used as a Calibration Plot. In that case, enabling this option will cause
each real data point to be classified according to its probability of being one of the fluid
types.

Real Data on Top: This option is only available if real data points are being plotted. In that
case, this option controls whether the real points are plotted over the simulation points, or
vice versa.

Show Legend / Titles / Color Bar: These options control the amount of annotation being used
on the display. When more than one cross-plot is being displayed, there is usually a need
to minimize annotation to increase the space available for the actual plot. By default all
of these annotation items are removed. These options allow you to turn each on
individually. The next option, Minimize Annotation, turns all of them off together.
AFI September 2004
Apply Auto Scaling

The Apply Auto Scaling button is used to automatically calculate optimal scalers for the real
data intercept and gradient. The definition of the scalers is shown in the previous menu,
Calibration Display. This process works with the following steps:

(1) Select a series of wells which tie the current volume.
(2) For each well, select the default P-wave, S-wave, and density logs. If P-wave is not
available, ignore this well. If S-wave is not available, calculate it using Castagnas
equation. If density is not available, calculate it using Gardners equation.
(3) Using the current wavelet in the project, calculate two traces, one at incident angle 0
degrees and one at 45 degrees. From these traces, calculate the model intercept and
gradient,
M
I and
M
G . Note that each of these is a trace over the entire available time
range.
(4) Now, from the real data volume, collect pre-stack traces from bins around each well
location. This is very similar to the composite trace extraction in other AVO processes.
From these pre-stack traces, calculate the real intercept and gradient,
R
I and .
R
G
(5) Using a user-defined time window calculate the root-mean-square values for each of
these: , , ,
RMS
M
I
RMS
M
G
RMS
R
I
RMS
R
G
(6) Finally, calculate the desired scalers:
RMS RMS
global M R
S I I =
*
RMS RMS
gradient M global R
S G S G =

This menu has a series of pages. The first page selects the wells which will be used in the
analysis.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 47
Apply Auto Scaling (Page 2)

The second page of the Apply Auto Scaling menu specifies the parameters for extracting the
real data traces around each well location. This is identical to the Composite Trace extraction
menu for the process of Log Correlation or Wavelet Extraction Using Wells.
AFI September 2004

The third page of the Apply Auto Scaling menu sets the time window over which the analysis is
done. There are two options: the option to Apply to the complete seismic time window and
the option to Apply to a target zone. In the second case, that zone may be specified using
horizons. Note that since each of the wells in the project has a depth-time curve, the time
window on the seismic is that same as that on the well.

Ideally the window should be specified as several hundred milliseconds long, in a zone which
does not include the desired analysis horizon. It is not necessary that the analysis region contain
AVO anomalies in fact, it is probably better if it does not.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 49

The fourth page of the Apply Auto Scaling menu is used to set the parameters for calculating
Intercept and Gradient on the real data traces. These parameters are identical to those used in
conventional AVO analysis. For details on this page, see the AVO documentation.
AFI September 2004
Apply

The Apply button is used to analyze a set of real data slices and calculate fluid probabilities.
This is the last step in the AFI process, and it assumes that the following steps have already been
done:

(1) A stochastic model has already been created using options under the Model button.
(2) Simulations have been run for this model using the Simulations button.
(3) Real data slices have been extracted. These slices can be either Intercept and Gradient, or
amplitudes from Near Angle and Far Angle stacks.
(4) Calibration between the model and real data slices has been performed using the
Calibration button.
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 51
The result of this process is to produce two types of maps:

(1) Indicator map. This is a map showing the most likely fluid (brine, oil, gas) at each
location.
(2) Probability maps. These show the calculated probability for each of the fluid types.

The parameters are:

Type: There are two choices here. Intercept / Gradient means that the real data slices are
Intercept and Gradient. The names of these slices are then specified in the fields
Intercept Slice and Gradient Slice. Near Angle / Far Angle means that the real data
slices are the amplitude slice at a near angle and the amplitude slice at a far angle. Then
the subsequent fields specify the names of those slices and the angles at which they were
derived.

Global / Gradient Scaler: These are the scalers which have been determined during the
calibration process. These cannot be changed in this menu. If you wish to change them,
use the Calibration button.

Use Depth Slice: This option is only used when the stochastic model has more than one depth
level. Then the program must decide which depth level to use for each of the data points
at which the fluid probability is calculated. There are two options here. If this option is
toggled Off then the depth value specified in the next field will be used for all the data
points. If this option is toggled On, then the depth slice specified in the next field will be
used. This depth slice is used this way: the depth for the selected point is determined by
referring to the depth slice. Then the depth level nearest that depth is used for that
calculation. Note that a depth slice may be calculated from a time horizon in AVO or AFI
using the option Horizon / Time-Depth Conversion.

Use this simulation: This is the name of the simulation data set which will be used in the
calculation. This name has been set when the Run Simulations option was used.

Output: These are the option maps which will be created. Note that the names may be
modified.

Minimum Acceptable Probability: This is a number between 0 and 1. If a non-zero number is
entered here, then as each point is calculated, the probability associated with the most
likely fluid is compared with this number. If that probability is less than this number, a
NULL value will be entered on the map, causing it not to be plotted. This useful for
discriminating points where the probabilities are all similar and no fluid can be reliably
determined.
AFI September 2004
Probability Calculations

This section outlines the mathematical theory used to perform probability calculations in AFI.

The basic problem is this: We have three clusters of points, corresponding to brine, oil, and gas.
Given a new point, calculate the probability that this point belongs to each of the three clusters.

We assume that each of the clusters can be represented by a 2-dimensional probability
distribution. Consider, for example, the Gas distribution. Assuming that Gas was the only
cluster present, we could write

( ) ,
gas
P I G = probability that the point (I,G) is a gas.

There are many possible alternatives for the theoretical probability distribution. The one which
AFI uses is the Cauchy distribution.

Define the vector x as the 2-dimensional vector at the desired location:

1
2
x I
x
x G

= =

(1)

We also have the set of points in the gas cluster:

1
2
k k
k
k k
x I
x
x G

= =

=

the location of the k
th
point in the cluster (2)
AFI September 2004
AFI Menus 53
The vector is the vector containing the mean values of the cluster points along the I and G
directions for the gas cluster:

1
1 1
2
2
1
1
1
N
k
gas
k
N
gas k
k
x
I N
G
x
N
=
=

= = =

(3)

The matrix is the covariance matrix for the cluster:

=
22 12
12 11

(4)

where:

1
1
( )(
N
k k
ij i i j j
k
x x
N
)
=
=
(5)

Now define the Mahalanobis distance as:

) ( ) (
1 T 2
x x =

(6)

We can write that the probability associated with the point x, given a single gas cluster is:

1/2
2
1
( )
2 (1
gas
p
=
) +
x
(7)

Equation (7) is the 2-dimensional Cauchy distribution, and this is the probability distribution
which is plotted in color on the Simulation Display Maps.

To complete the process, we need to account for the fact that there are, in fact, three
distributions. The theory which allows us to handle this is Bayes theorem, written for this case
as:

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
, *
| ,
, * , * , *
gas gas
gas gas oil oil brine brine
P I G P
P gas I G
P I G P P I G P P I G P
=
+ +

(8)
AFI September 2004
In equation (8)

( | , P gas I G = ) the probability of gas at point (I,G) given all three clusters
( ) ,
gas
P I G = the probability of gas at point (I,G) given the gas cluster alone
(calculated previously)

gas
P = the prior probability of gas, i.e., the probability before doing any analysis.
Within AFI, the prior probabilities for each of the fluids are assumed to be 1/3,
i.e., no prior information.

For this reason, the preceding equation reduces to:

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
,
| ,
, , ,
gas
gas oil brine
P I G
P gas I G
P I G P I G P I G
=
+ +

(9)

There are similar equations for the probability of oil and brine. Note that the denominator is the
same for all the equations.
AFI September 2004

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