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CHAPTER 3
PAVEMENT DESI GN: PAVEMENT DESI GN:
Fl ex i bl e Pavement Desi gn Fl ex i bl e Pavement Desi gn
(J KR Met hod) (J KR Met hod)
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
(J KR Met hod) (J KR Met hod)
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PAVEMENT DESIGN
(1) Traffic Loading
Magnitude of axle load
Wheel configuration
Volume and composition of axle loads
Tyre pressure and contact area
?
(2) Material Characteristics
(3) Climate or Environment
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Single Axle
TridemAxle
Each tyre has point of load
TandemAxle
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Car 1.5 tonne
Lorry 9 tonnes
00114 . 0
16 . 8
5 . 1
4
=
|
.
|

\
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48 . 1
16 . 8
9
4
=
|
.
|

\
|
4
S
x
L
L
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
S
= 80kN, 8.16 tonne,
18,000 lb
Bus 18 tonnes Trailer 26 tonnes
67 . 23
16 . 8
18
4
=
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.
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\
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07 . 103
16 . 8
26
4
=
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.
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\
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BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
Climatic / Environmental Effect
Seepage
from / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
Seepage through
shoulder
Seepage through pavement
from
highlands
Water content rises in subgrade Water content rises in subgrade
Subgrade looses strength and stability Subgrade looses strength and stability
If subgrade is too weak, pavement will fail If subgrade is too weak, pavement will fail
Water ponding
FLEXIBLE - MECHANISTIC-EMPIRICAL
METHOD
Mechanics is the science of motion and the action of
forces on bodies.
Thus, a mechanistic approach seeks to explain
phenomena only by reference to physical causes.
In pavement design the phenomena are the stresses In pavement design, the phenomena are the stresses,
strains and deflections within a pavement structure, and
the physical causes are the loads and material
properties of the pavement structure.
The relationship between these phenomena and their
physical causes is typically described using a
mathematical model. Various mathematical models can
be (and are) used; the most common is a layered elastic
model.
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Along with this mechanistic approach, empirical
elements are used when defining what value of
the calculated stresses, strains and deflections
result in pavement failure.
The relationship between physical phenomena
and pavement failure is described by empirically
derived equations that compute the number of
loading cycles to failure.
The basic advantages of a mechanistic-empirical
pavement design method
Improvement in reliability of pavement design
The ability to predict types of distress
Feasibility to extrapolate from limited field and laboratory data
It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new
pavement construction
It accommodates changing load types
It can better characterize materials allowing for:
Better utilization of available materials
Accommodation of new materials
An improved definition of existing layer properties
It uses material properties that relate better to actual pavement
performance
It provides more reliable performance predictions
It better defines the role of construction
It accommodates environmental and aging effects on materials
The benefit of a mechanistic-empirical approach
is its ability to accurately characterize in situ
material (including subgrade and existing
pavement structures).
This is typically done by using a portable device
(like a FWD) to make actual field deflection
measurements on a pavement structure to be
overlaid.
These measurements can then be input into
equations to determine existing pavement
structural support (often called "backcalculation")
and the approximate remaining pavement life.
This allows for a more realistic design for the
given conditions.
Mechanistic Model
Mechanistic models are used to mathematically
model pavement physics.
There are a number of different types of models
available today (e.g., dynamic, viscoelastic y ( g y
models and the finite elements model (FEM)) but
this section will present the layered elastic
model, as examples of the types of models
typically used.
This model can easily be run on personal
computers and only require data that can be
realistically obtained.
Layered Elastic Model
A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains
and deflections at any point in a pavement structure
resulting from the application of a surface load.
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement
structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly
elastic.
In other words, it is the same everywhere and will
rebound to its original form once the load is removed.
The origin of layered elastic theory is credited to V.J .
Boussinesq who published his classic work in 1885.
Today, Boussinesq influence charts are still widely used
in soil mechanics and foundation design.
This section covers the basic assumptions, inputs and
outputs from a typical layered elastic model.
Assumptions
The layered elastic approach works with
relatively simple mathematical models and
thus, requires some basic
assumptions These assumptions are: assumptions. These assumptions are:
Pavement layers extend infinitely in the
horizontal direction.The bottom layer
(usually the subgrade) extends infinitely
downward.Materials are not stressed
beyond their elastic ranges.
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Inputs
A layered elastic model requires a minimum number of
inputs to adequately characterize a pavement structure
and its response to loading. These inputs are:
Material properties of each layer
Modulus of elasticity
Poisson's ratio
P t l thi k Pavement layer thicknesses
Loading conditions
Magnitude. The total force (P) applied to the pavement surface
Geometry. Usually specified as being a circle of a given radius
(r or a), or the radius computed knowing the contact pressure of
the load (p) and the magnitude of the load (P).
Repetitions. Multiple loads on a pavement surface can be
accommodated by summing the effects of individual loads. This
can be done because we are assuming that the materials are not
being stressed beyond their elastic ranges.
Layered Elastic Inputs
Output
The outputs of a layered elastic model are the stresses,
strains, and deflections in the pavement:
Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces
experienced within the pavement structure at various
points. Stress has units of force per unit area (N/m
2
, Pa
or psi).
Strain. The unit displacement due to stress, usually
expressed as a ratio of the change in dimension to the
original dimension (mm/mmor in/in). Since the strains in
pavements are very small, they are normally expressed
in terms of microstrain (10
-6
).
Deflection. The linear change in a dimension.
Deflection is expressed in units of length (mmor kmor
inches or mils).
Critical Anal ysis Locations in a Pavement Structure
Critical Anal ysis Locations in a Pavement Structure
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JKR ARAHAN TEKNIK (JALAN) 5/85 DESIGN METHOD
PROCEDURE:
1. Design life is usually taken as 10 years.
2. Traffic Estimation:
Initial Annual Commercial Vehicle Traffic per direction, V
o
P
c
where ADT =average dailytraffic
P
c
=percentage of commercial vehicles
D =directional distribution (usually 0.50)
L =lane distribution (usually 1.00)
L D 365
100
P
ADT V
c
o
=
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BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Total Number of Commercial Vehicles per direction, V
c
where r =traffic growth rate
x =design life
r
r V
V
x
o
c
] 1 ) 1 [( +
=
Total Equivalent Standard Axles, ESA
ESA = V
c
x e where e =equivalent factor (Table 3.5)
Daily Traffic Flow at the end of the design period, V
x
V
x
= V
1
(1 + r)
x
where V
1
=ADT / 2 (per direction)
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
3. Capacity Estimation
Maximum Hourly Capacity, c
c = I x R x T
where I =ideal hourlycapacity (Table 3.6)
R =roadway reduction factor (Table 3.7)
T =traffic reduction factor (Table 3.8)
Daily Capacity, C
C = 10 x c (assume c is 10% of C)
Check C > V
x
If C >V
x
capacitywill not be exceeded at the end of the design period (OK)
If C <V
x
capacitywill be exceeded bythe end of the design period (not OK)
When C <V
x
happens, need to reduce design period.
Years required to reach capacity,
( ) r 1 log
V
C
log
n
x
+
=
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
4. Calculate thickness, T
A
.
T
A
= a
1
D
1
+ a
2
D
2
+ a
3
D
3
where a
1
, a
2
, a
3
=structural coefficients (Table 3.9)
d
1
, d
2
, d
3
=layer depth (based on Tables 3.10, 3.11, 3.12)
5. Determine the equivalent thickness, T
A
using Thickness Nomograph
Based on subgrade CBR, ESA and T
A
values (Figure 3.5).
If CBR varies within the 1 mdepth of the subgrade, the mean CBR is calculated:
Make sure T
A
> T
A

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
100
3
1
3
1
2 2
3
1
1 1 n n
CBR h CBR h CBR h
CBR
...
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
Table 3.5: Guide for Equivalence Factor
Percentage of
selected heavy
goods vehicles
0 15% 16 50%
51
100%
Type of road
Equivalence Factor
Local
1.2
Trunk
2.0
3.0 3.7
Table 3.6: MaximumHourly Capacity under ideal conditions
Road Type Passenger Vehicle Unit
per hour
Multilane
Two Lanes (bothways)
Three Lanes (bothways)
2000 per lane
2000 total for bothways
4000 total for bothways
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
Table 3.7: Carriageway Roadway Reduction Factor
Carriageway Width
Shoulder Width
2.00 m 1.50
m
1.25 m 1.00
m
7.5 m
7.0 m
6.0 m
5.0 m
1.00
0.88
0.81
0.72
0.97
0.86
0.78
0.70
0.94
0.83
0.76
0.67
0.90
0.79
0.73
0.64
Table 3.8: Traffic Reduction Factor
Type of Terrain Factor
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
T =100/(100+P
c
)
T =100/(100+2P
c
)
T =100/(100+5P
c
)
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BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
Table 3.9: Structural Layer Coefficient
Component
Type of Layer Property Coefficient
Wearing and Binder
Course
Asphalt Concrete 1.00
Dense Bituminous
Macadam
Type 1 : Stability
>400 kg
0.8
Type 2: Stability
>300 kg
0.55
Base Course
Cement Stabilized
Unconfined compressive
strength (7 days) 30 -40
kg/m
2
0.45
Mechanically
Stabilized crushed
aggregate
80% 0.32
Subbase
Sand, Laterite etc 20% 0.23
Crushed aggregate 30% 0.25
Cement Stabilized 60% 0.28
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
Table 3.10: Structural Layer Coefficient
Type of Layer
Minimum
Thickness
Wearing Course 4 cm
Binder Course 5 cm
Bituminous 5 cm
Base Course
Bituminous 5 cm
Wet Mix 10 cm
Cement Treated 10 cm
Subbase
Granular 10 cm
Cement Treated 15 cm
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
Table 3-11: Standard and Construction Layer Thickness
Type of Layer
Standard
Thickness
One layer lift
Wearing Course 4-5 cm 4-5 cm
Binder Course 5-10 cm 5-10 cm
Base Course
Bituminous 5-20 cm 5-15 cm
Wet Mix 10-20 cm 10-15 cm
Cement Treated 10-20 cm 10-20 cm
Subbase
Granular 10-30 cm 10-20 cm
Cement Treated 15-20 cm 15-20 cm
Table 3.12: MinimumThickness of
Bituminous Layer
T
A
Total thick of
bituminous layer
<17.5 cm
17.5 22.5 cm
23.0 29.5 cm
>30.0 cm
5.0 cm
10.0 cm
15.0 cm
17.5 cm
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel