Aircraft Engine - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/3/2014 Aircraft engine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_engine 1/11
A Rolls-Royce Merlin installed in a preserved Avro
York
Part of a series on
Aircraft propulsion
Shaft engines :
driving propellers, rotors, ducted fans, or
propfans
Internal combustion engines:
Piston engine
Wankel engine
Turbines:
Turboprop
Turboshaft
External combustion engines:
Steam-powered
Reaction engines
Turbines:
Turbojet
Turbofan
Propfan
Rocket-powered
Motorjet
Pulsejet
Aircraft engine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion
system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power.
Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston
engines or gas turbines.
Contents
1 Aircraft engine manufacturing industry
2 Timeline of aircraft engine development
3 Shaft engines
3.1 Reciprocating (piston) engines
3.1.1 In-line engine
3.1.2 V-type engine
3.1.3 Horizontally opposed engine
3.1.4 H configuration engine
3.1.5 Radial engine
3.1.6 Rotary engine
3.2 Turbine-powered
3.2.1 Turboprop
3.2.2 Turboshaft
4 Reaction engines
4.1 Jets
4.1.1 Turbojet
4.1.2 Turbofan
4.2 Pulse jets
4.3 Rocket
5 Newer engine types
5.1 Wankel engine
5.2 Diesel engine
5.3 Precooled jet engines
5.4 Electric
6 Fuel
7 See also
8 Notes
Ramjet
Scramjet
Others
Human-powered
Electric
Nuclear
Hydrogen
Wright vertical 4-cylinder engine
9 References
10 External links
Aircraft engine manufacturing
industry
As of 2012, the size of the aircraft engine manufacturing
market was almost $40 billion.
[1]
There are over 350
manufacturing companies in the United States employing
over 70 thousand people.
Timeline of aircraft engine development
1848: John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot
wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight,
albeit with negligible payload.
1903: Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer
(12 horsepower).
1903: Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial
engines.
[2]
1906: Lon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8
engine for aircraft use.
1908: Ren Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
1908: Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the world's first rotary engine to be produced in quantity.
In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the
Reims Grande Semaine d'Aviation setting a world record for endurance of 180 kilometres (110 mi).
1910: Coand-1910, an unsuccessful ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon, powered by a piston
engine. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment
thrust.
[3][4][5][6]
1914: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressor a turbocharger to improve high-
altitude performance;
[2]
not accepted after the tests
[7]
1917-18 - The Idflieg-numbered R.30/16 example of the Imperial German Luftstreitkrfte's Zeppelin-
Staaken R.VI heavy bomber becomes the earliest known supercharger-equipped aircraft to fly, with a
Mercedes D.II straight-six engine in the central fuselage driving a Brown-Boveri mechanical supercharger for
the R.30/16's four Mercedes D.IVa engines.
1918: Sanford Alexander Moss picks up Rateau's idea and creates the first successful turbocharger
[2][8]
Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder,
inverted, in-line engine used in
Fairchild PT-19
1926: Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IV (S), the first series-produced supercharged engine for aircraft
use;
[9][nb 1]
two-row radial with a gear-driven centrifugal supercharger.
1930: Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine.
June 1939: Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a liquid-fueled rocket
engine.
August 1939: Heinkel HeS 3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft.
1940: Jendrassik Cs-1, the world's first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service.
1943 Daimler-Benz DB 670, first turbofan runs
1944: Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the world's first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed.
1945: First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines.
1947: Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound.
1948: 100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use; in 1950 used to develop the
larger 280 shp (210 kW) Turbomeca Artouste.
1949: Leduc 010, the world's first ramjet-powered aircraft flight.
1950: Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first production turbofan, enters service.
1968: General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better
efficiency.
2002: HyShot scramjet flew in dive.
2004: Hyper-X, the first scramjet to maintain altitude.
Shaft engines
Reciprocating (piston) engines
In-line engine
This type of engine has cylinders lined up in one row. It typically has an
even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-
cylinder engines. The greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it
allows the aircraft to be designed with a low frontal area to minimise
drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is called an
inverted inline engine: this allows the propeller to be mounted high up to
increase ground clearance, enabling shorter landing gear. The
disadvantages of an inline engine include a poor power-to-weight ratio,
because the crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or liquid-
cooled, but liquid-cooling is more common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders
directly. Inline engines were common in early aircraft; one was used in the Wright Flyer, the aircraft that made the
first controlled powered flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon became apparent, and the
inline design was abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.
A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 Engine
A ULPower UL260i horizontally
opposed air-cooled aero engine
V-type engine
Cylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks, typically tilted
60-90 degrees apart from each other and driving a common crankshaft.
The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. The V design provides
a higher power-to-weight ratio than an inline engine, while still providing a
small frontal area. Perhaps the most famous example of this design is the
legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, a 27-litre (1649 in
3
) 60 V12
engine used in, among others, the Spitfires that played a major role in the
Battle of Britain.
Horizontally opposed engine
A horizontally opposed engine, also called a flat or boxer engine, has two
banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally located crankcase.
The engine is either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-cooled versions
predominate. Opposed engines are mounted with the crankshaft
horizontal in airplanes, but may be mounted with the crankshaft vertical in
helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout, reciprocating forces tend to
cancel, resulting in a smooth running engine.
Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the
most common engines used in small general aviation aircraft requiring up
to 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine. Aircraft that require more than
400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine tend to be powered by turbine
engines.
H configuration engine
An H configuration engine is essentially a pair of horizontally opposed engines placed together, with the two
crankshafts geared together.
Radial engine
This type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged around a centrally located crankcase. Each row
generally has an odd number of cylinders to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only one crank throw
per row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a favorable power-to-weight ratio. Because the cylinder
arrangement exposes a large amount of the engine's heat-radiating surfaces to the air and tends to cancel
reciprocating forces, radials tend to cool evenly and run smoothly. The lower cylinders, which are under the
crankcase, may collect oil when the engine has been stopped for an extended period. If this oil is not cleared from
the cylinders prior to starting the engine, serious damage due to hydrostatic lock may occur.
Most radial engines have the cylinders arranged evenly around the crankshaft, although some early engines,
sometimes called semi-radials or fan configuration engines, had an uneven arrangement. The best known engine of
this type is the Anzani engine, which was fitted to the Bleriot XI used for the first flight across the English Channel in
1909. This arrangement had the drawback of needing a heavy counterbalance for the crankshaft, but was used to
avoid the spark plugs oiling up.
A Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine
Le Rhone 9C rotary aircraft engine
In military aircraft designs, the large frontal area of the engine acted as an extra layer of armor for the pilot. Also air-
cooled engines, without vulnerable radiators, are slightly less prone to battle damage, and on occasion would
continue running even with one or more cylinders shot away. However, the large frontal area also resulted in an
aircraft with an aerodynamically inefficient increased frontal area.
Rotary engine
Rotary engines have the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase, as in a radial engine, (see above), but the
crankshaft is fixed to the airframe and the propeller is fixed to the engine case, so that the crankcase and cylinders
rotate. The advantage of this arrangement is that a satisfactory flow of cooling air is maintained even at low
airspeeds, retaining the weight advantage and simplicity of a conventional air-cooled engine without one of their
major drawbacks. The first practical rotary engine was the Gnome Omega designed by the Seguin brothers and
first flown in 1909. Its relative reliability and good power to weight ratio
changed aviation dramatically.
[10]
Before the first World War most
speed records were gained using Gnome-engined aircraft, and in the
early years of the war rotary engines were dominant in aircraft types for
which speed and agility were paramount. To increase power, engines
with two rows of cylinders were built.
However, the gyroscopic effects of the heavy rotating engine produced
handling problems in aircraft and the engines also consumed large
amounts of oil since they used total loss lubrication, the oil being mixed
with the fuel and ejected with the exhaust gases. Castor oil was used for
lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol, and the resultant fumes were
nauseating to the pilots. Engine designers had always been aware of the
many limitations of the rotary engine so when the static style engines
became more reliable and gave better specific weights and fuel
consumption, the days of the rotary engine were numbered.
Turbine-powered
Turboprop
While military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes do
not. Yet, civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit from the high power
and low maintenance that a gas turbine engine offered. Thus was born the
idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller. Because gas
turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop features a gearbox to
lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller tips don't reach
supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the propeller are
separate from the rest of the rotating components so that they can rotate
at their own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine engine). A
turboprop is very efficient when operated within the realm of cruise
speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to 400 mph (320 to
640 km/h).
Turboshaft
Cutaway view of a Garrett TPE-331
turboprop engine showing the
gearbox at the front of the engine
A Rolls-Royce Model 250 turboshaft
engine common to many types of
helicopters
A General Electric J85-GE-17A
turbojet engine. This cutaway clearly
shows the 8 stages of axial
compressor at the front (left side of
the picture), the combustion
chambers in the middle, and the two
stages of turbines at the rear of the
engine.
Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary power units. A turboshaft engine is similar in
principle, but in a turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine and the engine is bolted to the airframe: in a
turboshaft, the engine does not
provide any direct physical
support to the helicopter's
rotors. The rotor is connected
to a transmission which is
bolted to the airframe, and the
turboshaft engine drives the
transmission. The distinction is
seen by some as slim, as in
some cases aircraft companies
make both turboprop and
turboshaft engines based on
the same design.
Reaction engines
Reaction engines generate the thrust to propel an aircraft by ejecting the exhaust gases at high velocity from the
engine, the resultant reaction of forces driving the aircraft forwards. The most common reaction propulsion engines
flown are turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other types such as pulsejets, ramjets, scramjets and Pulse Detonation
Engines have also flown. In jet engines the oxygen necessary for fuel combustion comes from the air, while rockets
carry oxygen in some form as part of the fuel load, permitting their use in space.
Jets
Turbojet
A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed
for military fighters during World War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all
aircraft gas turbines. It consists of a compressor to draw air in and
compress it, a combustion section where fuel is added and ignited, one or
more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to
drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust
gases out the back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were
introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft equipped with them was at
least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft. In
the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became
apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and
create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very
slowly to power changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots when
they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks eventually led to
the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in
production. The last airliner that used turbojets was the Concorde,
whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be highly efficient.
Turbofan
A cutaway of a CFM56-3 turbofan
engine
An XLR99
A turbofan engine is much the same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the front that provides thrust in much
the same way as a ducted propeller, resulting in improved fuel-efficiency.
Though the fan creates thrust like a propeller, the surrounding duct frees
it from many of the restrictions that limit propeller performance. This
operation is a more efficient way to provide thrust than simply using the
jet nozzle alone and turbofans are more efficient than propellers in the
trans-sonic range of aircraft speeds, and can operate in the supersonic
realm. A turbofan typically has extra turbine stages to turn the fan.
Turbofans were among the first engines to use multiple spools
concentric shafts that are free to rotate at their own speedto let the
engine react more quickly to changing power requirements. Turbofans
are coarsely split into low-bypass and high-bypass categories. Bypass air
flows through the fan, but around the jet core, not mixing with fuel and
burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through the
engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters due to
high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel efficiency and low
noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550 miles per hour
(800 to 885 km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass turbofans can reach supersonic speeds,
though normally only when fitted with afterburners.
Pulse jets
Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices thatin a repeating cycledraw air through a no-return valve at the
front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignited it. The combustion forces the exhaust gases out the back
of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses rather than as a steady output, hence the name. The only
application of this type of engine was the German unmanned V1 flying bomb of World War II. Though the same
engines were also used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise generated by the engines
caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea unworkable.
Rocket
A few aircraft have used rocket engines for main thrust or attitude
control, notably the Bell X-1 and North American X-15. Rocket engines
are not used for most aircraft as the energy and propellant efficiency is
very poor except at high speeds, but have been employed for short
bursts of speed and takeoff. Rocket engines are very efficient only at
very high speeds, although they are useful because they produce very
large amounts of thrust and weigh very little.
Newer engine types
Wankel engine
Another promising design for aircraft use was the Wankel rotary engine. The Wankel engine is about one half the
weight and size of a traditional four-stroke cycle piston engine of equal power output, and much lower in
complexity. In an aircraft application, the power-to-weight ratio is very important, making the Wankel engine a
good choice. Because the engine is typically constructed with an aluminium housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium
Powerplant from a
Schleicher ASH 26e self-
launching motor glider,
removed from the glider and
mounted on a test stand for
maintenance at the Alexander
Schleicher GmbH & Co in
Poppenhausen, Germany.
Counter-clockwise from top
left: propeller hub, mast with
belt guide, radiator, Wankel
engine, muffler shroud.
expands more than steel when heated, a Wankel engine does not seize when overheated, unlike a piston engine.
This is an important safety factor for aeronautical use. Considerable development of these designs started after
World War II, but at the time the aircraft industry favored the use of turbine engines. It was believed that turbojet
or turboprop engines could power all aircraft, from the largest to smallest designs.
The Wankel engine did not find many applications in aircraft, but was used by
Mazda in a popular line of sports cars. Recently, the Wankel engine has been
developed for use in motor gliders where the small size, light weight, and low
vibration are especially important.
[11]
Wankel engines are becoming increasingly popular in homebuilt experimental
aircraft, due to a number of factors. Most are Mazda 12A and 13B engines,
removed from automobiles and converted to aviation use. This is a very cost-
effective alternative to certified aircraft engines, providing engines ranging from
100 to 300 horsepower (220 kW) at a fraction of the cost of traditional engines.
These conversions first took place in the early 1970s, and with hundreds or even
thousands of these engines mounted on aircraft, as of 10 December 2006 the
National Transportation Safety Board has only seven reports of incidents
involving aircraft with Mazda engines, and none of these is of a failure due to
design or manufacturing flaws. During the same time frame, they have reports of
several thousand reports of broken crankshafts and connecting rods, failed
pistons and incidents caused by other components not found in the Wankel
engines. Rotary engine enthusiasts refer to piston aircraft engines as
"Reciprosaurs," and point out that their designs are essentially unchanged since
the 1930s, with only minor differences in manufacturing processes and variation in
engine displacement.
Diesel engine
Most aircraft engines use spark ignition, generally using gasoline as a fuel. Starting
in the 1930s attempts were made to produce a compression ignition Diesel engine for aviation use. In general,
Diesel engines are more reliable and much better suited to running for long periods of time at medium power
settings, which is why they are widely used in, for example, trucks and ships. The lightweight alloys of the 1930s
were not up to the task of handling the much higher compression ratios of diesel engines, so they generally had poor
power-to-weight ratios and were uncommon for that reason, although the Clerget 14F Diesel radial engine (1939)
has the same power to weight ratio as a gasoline radial. Improvements in Diesel technology in automobiles (leading
to much better power-weight ratios), the Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the high relative taxation of
AVGAS compared to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen a revival of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft. Thielert
Aircraft Engines converted Mercedes Diesel automotive engines, certified them for aircraft use, and became an
OEM provider to Diamond Aviation for their light twin. Financial problems have plagued Thielert, so Diamond's
affiliate Austro Engine developed the new AE300 turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes engine.
[12]
Competing new Diesel engines may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free emissions to small aircraft, representing the
biggest change in light aircraft engines in decades. Wilksch Airmotive build 2-stroke Diesel engine (same power to
weight as a gasoline engine) for experimental aircraft: WAM 100 (100 hp), WAM 120 (120 hp) and WAM 160
(160 hp)
Precooled jet engines
For very high supersonic/low hypersonic flight speeds inserting a cooling system into the air duct of a hydrogen jet
engine permits greater fuel injection at high speed and obviates the need for the duct to be made of refractory or
actively cooled materials. This greatly improves the thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high speed.
It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient performance for antipodal flight at Mach 5, or even
permit a single stage to orbit vehicle to be practical. The hybrid air-breathing SABRE rocket engine is a pre-cooled
engine under development.
Electric
About 60 electrically powered aircraft, such as the QinetiQ Zephyr, have been designed since the 1960s.
[13][14]
Some are used as military drones.
[15]
In France in late 2007, a conventional light aircraft powered by an 18 kW
electric motor using lithium polymer batteries was flown, covering more than 50 kilometers (31 mi), the first electric
airplane to receive a certificate of airworthiness.
[13]
Limited experiments with solar electric propulsion have been performed, notably the manned Solar Challenger and
Solar Impulse and the unmanned NASA Pathfinder aircraft.
Fuel
All aviation fuel is produced to stringent quality standards to avoid fuel-related engine failures. Aviation standards
are much more strict than those for road vehicle fuel because an aircraft engine must meet a strictly defined level of
performance under known conditions. These high standards mean that aviation fuel costs much more than fuel used
for road vehicles.
Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically designed to run on aviation gasoline. Avgas has a higher octane
rating than automotive gasoline to allow higher compression ratios, power output and efficiency at higher altitudes.
Currently the most common Avgas is 100LL that refers to the octane rating (100 octane) and the lead content (LL
= low lead).
Refineries blend Avgas with tetraethyllead (TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings, a practice that governments
no longer permit for road vehicle gasoline. The shrinking supply of TEL and the possibility of environmental
legislation banning its use has made a search for replacement fuels for general aviation aircraft a priority for pilot's
organizations.
[16]
Turbine engines and aircraft Diesel engines burn various grades of jet fuel. Jet fuel is a relatively heavy and less
volatile petroleum derivative based on kerosene, but certified to strict aviation standards, with additional additives.
See also
Aircraft diesel engine
Aircraft engine position number
Air safety
Engine configuration
Hyper engine
Notes
1. ^ The world's first series-produced cars with superchargers came earlier than aircraft. These were Mercedes
6/25/40 hp and Mercedes 10/40/65 hp, both models introduced in 1921 and used Roots superchargers. G.N.
Georgano, ed. (1982). The new encyclopedia of motorcars 1885 to the present (3rd ed.). New York: Dutton.
p. 415. ISBN 0-525-93254-2.
References
1. ^ "Pell Research Aircraft Engine Manufacturing Industry Report" (https://www.pellresearch.com/Aircraft-Engine-
and-Engine-Parts-Manufacturing.htm). Pellresearch.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
2. ^
a

b

c
Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia of the History of Technology (http://books.google.com/books?
id=fj96Dpp3-5gC&lpg=PA315&dq=rateau%20engine&pg=PA315#v=onepage&q&f=false). London: Routledge.
pp. 31521. ISBN 0-203-19211-7.
3. ^ Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1970). Aviation: an historical survey from its origins to the end of World War II
(http://books.google.com/books?id=hxEOAQAAIAAJ). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
4. ^ Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1960). The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of Its Origins and Development
(http://books.google.com/books?id=mzcZAAAAIAAJ). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
5. ^ Winter, Frank H. (December 1980). "Ducted Fan or the World's First Jet Plane? The Coanda claim re-examined"
(http://books.google.com/books?id=XkBWAAAAMAAJ). The Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society)
84.
6. ^ Antoniu, Dan; Cico, Geroge; Buiu, Ioan-Vasile; Bartoc, Alexandru; utic, Robert. Henri Coand and his
technical work during 19061918 (in Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Anima. ISBN 978-973-7729-61-3.
7. ^ Guttman, Jon (2009). SPAD XIII vs. Fokker D VII: Western Front 1918 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=8TBE5nGmxbEC&lpg=PA25&dq=Rateau%20Hispano&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false) (1st ed.). Oxford:
Osprey. pp. 2425. ISBN 1-84603-432-9.
8. ^ Powell, Hickman (Jun 1941). "He Harnessed a Tornado..." (http://books.google.com/books?
id=UycDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA66&ots=1wK1pz44JD&dq=altitude%20record%20supercharger%20british&pg=PA
70#v=onepage&q&f=false). Popular Science.
9. ^ Anderson, John D (2002). The airplane: A history of its technology. (http://books.google.com/books?
id=FrvrkXYDCL8C&lpg=PA253&dq=Siddeley%20Jaguar%20the%20first%20production%20supercharged&pg=P
A253#v=onepage&q&f=false). Reston, VA, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 25253.
ISBN 1-56347-525-1.
10. ^ Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2003). Aviation. London: NMSO. p. 175. ISBN 1 9007 4752 9.
11. ^ "ASH 26 E Information" (http://web.archive.org/web/20061008125929/http://www.alexander-
schleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm). DE: Alexander Schleicher. Archived from the original
List of aircraft engines
Model engine
United States military aero engine designations
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Aircraft
engines.
Look up aircraft engine in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
(http://www.alexander-schleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm) on 2006-10-08. Retrieved 2006-
11-24.
12. ^ "Diamond Twins Reborn" (http://www.flyingmag.com/pilot-reports/pistons/diamond-twins-reborn). Flying Mag.
Retrieved 2010-06-14.
13. ^
a

b
Worldwide premire: first aircraft flight with electrical engine (http://www.apame.eu/AA%20Projects.html),
Association pour la Promotion des Aronefs Motorisation lectrique, December 23, 2007.
14. ^ Superconducting Turbojet (http://www.physorg.com/printnews.php?newsid=101391900), Physorg.com.
15. ^ Voyeur (http://www.litemachines.com/mil/mil_main.htm), Litemachines.
16. ^ "EAA'S Earl Lawrence Elected Secretary of International Aviation Fuel Committee"
(http://www.eaa.org/communications/eaanews/pr/011207_lawrence.html) (Press release).
External links
Aircraft Engines and Aircraft Engine Theory (includes links to
diagrams) (http://www.aviation-history.com/index-engine.htm)
The Aircraft Engine Historical Society
(http://www.enginehistory.org/)
Jet Engine Specification Database (http://www.jet-engine.net/)
Aircraft Engine Efficiency: Comparison of Counter-rotating and
Axial Aircraft LP Turbines (http://www.softinway.com/news/articles/Counter-Rotating-and-Traditional-
Axial-Aircraft-Low-pressure-Turbines/1.asp)
The History of Aircraft Power Plants Briefly Reviewed : From the " 7 lb. per h.p" Days to the " 1 lb. per h.p"
of To-day (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20-%201222.html)
"The Quest for Power" (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%200959.html) a
1954 Flight article by Bill Gunston
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