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Science 1 Chemistry Revision

TERM 2
Contents

Rates of Reaction .................................................................................................................................................... 2
Atomic Structure ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Ions ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Metallic, Ionic and Covalent Bonding ............................................................................................................ 6
Types of Chemical Reactions ............................................................................................................................. 7
General Information ............................................................................................................................................ 10










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Rates of Reaction
The rate of a reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction happens
If a reaction has a low rate = slower speed of reacting molecules, high rate = higher speed of
reacting molecules
The rate of a reaction can be measured by the rate at which a reactant is used up, or the rate
at which a product is formed.
The temperature, concentration, pressure of reacting gases, surface area of reacting solids,
and the use of catalysts, are all factors which affect the rate of a reaction.
Chemical reactions can only happen if reactant particles collide with enough energy.
The more frequently particles collide, and the greater the proportion of collisions with enough
energy, the greater the rate of reaction.
When two chemicals react, their molecules have to collide with each other with sufficient
energy and the correct orientation for the reaction to take place. This is collision theory.
Collision theory states that as more collisions in a system occur, there will be more
combinations of molecules bouncing into each other. If there are more combinations, as
higher chance that molecules will complete the reaction. The reaction will happen faster which
means that the rate of reaction will increase.





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Atomic Structure
Atom the smallest particle of an element
All of matter consists of atoms
An atom consists of a nucleus, which electrons orbit around it
An atom is an uncharged particle
The nucleus contains two (2) subatomic particles Protons and Neutrons
o Protons
Exist in the nucleus
Have mass
Have a single positive charge
o Neutrons
Exist in the nucleus
Have mass
Have no charge (neutral charge)
o Electrons
Exist outside (around) the nucleus, in constant motion in fixed orbits
Have a negligible (tiny) mass
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Have a single negative charge
Atoms are mostly made out of space, there is little stuff inside the actual atom
Atoms of the same element generally have same structure
o They can vary only in the number of neutrons and electrons
o Atoms of the same electron have same number of protons
o The number of protons determines the type of element
o The number of protons in a nucleus cannot be changed, without changing the type of
element
o The number of protons determines the atomic number and position in the periodic
table
Atomic number = number of protons (also the same to electrons)
Atomic number is unique to an element
The rows on the Periodic table indicate the number of energy levels
The columns on the Periodic table indicate the group number, valence electrons
Protons = electron
A molecule is a particle that is composed of two or more atoms held together by a chemical
bond.
Isotopes are atoms of an element with identical chemical properties, but different masses due
to a difference in the number of neutrons.
The atomic mass of an element is the average of all the atomic masses of the isotopes.
o An isotopes contribution is determined by its relative abundance.
The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass number.
Atomic numbers are whole numbers
Mass numbers are whole numbers
The atomic mass is not a whole number
All matter is composed of atoms and groups of atoms bonded together, called molecules.
Substances that are made from one type of atom only are called pure substances.
Substances that are made from more than one type of atom bonded together are called
compounds.
Compounds that are combined physically, but not chemically, are called mixtures.
Mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Compounds can only be separated by chemical means.
Elements are pure substances. When the subatomic particles of an element are separated
from its atom, it no longer retains the properties of that element.
The number of valence electrons an atom has may also appear in a square.
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom.
These are the electrons that are transferred or shared when atoms bond together
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Ions
Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons
Electrons are organised into shells with a pre-determined number of electrons possible
Reactivity is dependent on the outer shell of electrons
Electrons are gained or lost from the outer shell
Ions occur far more frequently in nature than isotopes
If an electron is lost it gains a positive charge
If an electron is gained it gains a negative charge
Atoms gain or lose in pre-determined amounts, to generally form same type of ion
This is due to the arrange of electron around the nucleus and stability of different
arrangements
Electrons are found in layers around the nucleus.
These layers are called energy levels and can only hold a specific number of electrons
If an element has outer levels full it is very stable and usually unreactive.
For an element to be as stable as possible they fill up their outer energy levels through
bonding with substances or by gaining or losing electrons.
After this point they become charged and known as ions
Positively charged ions are called Cations
Negatively charged ions are called Anions













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Metallic, Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Metallic Bonding
o Metallic bonds are formed by pooled valence electrons of metallic atoms providing
the negative charges to hold positively charged metallic ions together.
o This bonding structure provides relatively low melting points and easy reshaping
(bending, flattening etc.)
o The delocalised electrons provide high electrical conductivity.
o Metallic bonding is the type of bonding found in metallic elements. This is the
electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged ions and delocalised
outer electrons.

Ionic Bonding
o Ionic bonds are formed when metallic atoms donate valence electrons to non-metallic
atoms.
o The resulting ions have opposite charges and attract each other into rigid lattices.
o This bonding structure gives high bond strength that provides brittle substances with
high melting points and low conductivity.
o If the lattice is disrupted by being heated or dissolved in water, the ions break apart
and find movement easier.
o Conductivity of molten or aqueous ions is much higher than that of solids.
o Electron gained or lost, weak bond
o Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively and
negatively charged ions.

Covalent Bonding
o Covalent bonds are formed when two non-metallic atoms approach and share valence
electrons.
o These are the strongest of all bonds.
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o Covalent networks form when atoms bond each to several others, making an
interlocking web of atoms.
o Covalent networks are very hard to disrupt, giving these substances very high melting
points and low conductivity in any state.
o One molecule requires little energy to separate from another, so these substances
have very low melting points, often below room temperature.
o Most liquids and gases that we are familiar with are molecular.
o Because molecules hold their electrons so tightly, molecules also tend to be poor
conductors.
o Electrons are shared, extremely stable bonds
o Atoms in a covalent bond are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction
between positively charged nuclei and negatively charged shared electrons.









Types of Chemical Reactions
Exothermic Reactions
o Reactions that release heat
Endothermic
o Reactions that absorb heat
Decomposition
o When a reactant breaks down to give two or more products, we call this type of reaction
decomposition.
o calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
o Decomposition caused by heat is called thermal decomposition.
o Decomposition can also be caused by light.
o silver chloride silver + chlorine

Combination
o The reverse to decomposition - combination involves often two reactants reacting to form
just one product.
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o sodium + chlorine gas sodium chloride

Neutralisation
o When acids react with bases, they neutralise each other the products of a neutralisation
reaction are neither acids nor bases.
o sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + water
o The products of neutralisation are a salt and water.

Electrolysis
o This reaction involves the decomposition of a compound by electricity.
o lead bromide lead + bromine gas

Fermentation
o Natural organisms, such as yeast can cause decomposition to occur. Yeast breaks down
glucose, a sugar, into alcohol.
o glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
o This reaction is important to the yeast cells since it produces the energy they require to
multiply. This reaction is used in the making of beer and wines.
o This reaction is also used in bread making.

Precipitation
o When a reaction involving two solutions produces an insoluble product. The product
appears as a precipitate. This reaction is known as precipitation.
o barium nitrate + copper sulphate barium sulphate + copper nitrate
o In this reaction it is the barium sulphate that appears as the precipitate.

Combustion
o This reaction involves the reaction of a substance with oxygen in the air. Sometimes the
word burning is used instead of combustion.
o The substance that reacts with oxygen is said to be oxidised. The result is a product called
an oxide.
o This is an example of an exothermic reaction, one that gives out heat energy.
o carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
o iron + oxygen iron oxide

Oxidation and reduction
o If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction it is reduced.
o If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction it is oxidised.
o Reduction and oxidation always take place at the same time.

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Acid-base
o This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when an acid and
base react with each other.
o The H
+
ion in the acid reacts with the OH
-
ion in the base, causing the formation of water.
o Generally, the product of this reaction is some ionic salt and water:
o HA + BOH ---> H
2
O + BA

Synthesis
o A synthesis reaction is when two or more simple compounds combine to form a more
complicated one.
o These reactions come in the general form of:
o A + B ---> AB

Single displacement
o This is when one element trades places with another element in a compound. These
reactions come in the general form of:
o A + BC ---> AC + B

Double displacement
o This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two
entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:
o AB + CD ---> AD + CB









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General Information
Change of state is to deal with molecules moving faster or slower (vibration)
Chemical reaction is when a new product is always formed, two substances together then a
new substance is formed
Law of Electrostatics: like charges repel, unlike charges retract
Acid: An acid is a substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H+) to another substance.
(Hydrogen donors)
Base: A base is a substance that can donate hydroxide. (hydroxide donors)
Metals loose electrons
Non-metals gain electrons
Noble gases are totally stable, they don't react with anything (unreactive)
Alkali's are not stable, reacts with basically anything (highly reaction)
Valance electrons cause the instability of elements
Any ionic compound can be broken by putting it into water, water is classified as a universal
solvent
Combustion reactions always involve oxygen and hydrogen carbon/glucose (occur in our body)