What are the uses of CFCs?

- CFCs are used as refrigerants, propellants in aerosols, blowing agents

for making expanded plastics and as cleaning solvents.
What characteristics of CFCs make it useful to humans? - CFCs are unreactive and they have low
boiling points, are stable and are not toxic.
What is the estimated lifetime of CFCs? - CFCs have an estimated life of 100 years in the
troposphere. When the CFCs rise into the stratosphere, they undergo photodisassociation due to the
UV radiation, which produce chlorine radicals from the CFCs.
What is the history behind the CFCs? - In the 1970s, Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina predicted
that CFCs would damage the ozone layer. Previous data from NASA satellites showed very low ozone
readings, but this was treated as an anomaly. In 1985, Joe Farman and a team of scientists
discovered a hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic, using UV spectroscopy. An aircraft then flew
over the hole and measured a rapid fall in the O
3
concentrations, where the ClO concentrations rose.
Are hydrochloroflourocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons good alternatives to CFCs? - HCFCs and HFCs
contain C-H bonds are broken down in the troposphere, so the compounds never reach the
stratosphere. However, they do form greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
Are alkanes good alternatives to CFCs? - Alkanes do contain Chlorine, so Cl radicals are not
produced. However, they are flammable and produce greenhouse gases.
Why is the greenhouse effect ital. for life on earth? - The greenhouse effect is essential as it keeps
the troposphere at a temperature that allows life to exist on earth.
What is the process of the greenhouse effect? - The greenhouse effect involves high energy solar
radiation, mostly UV and visible radiation, reaching the earths surface and being absorbed by the
earths surface. The earths surface warms up and re-radiates lower frequency infrared radiation. At
a steady rate, the earth should absorb and emir energy at the same rate. CH
4
and CO
2
, and other
greenhouse gases, absorb infrared radiation. Some of the radiation is re-emitted in all directions,
which heats u the atmosphere and earth in the process. Also, the absorbed radiation causes an
increase in vibrational energy in the absorbed radiation causes an increase of vibrational energy in
the molecule: their bonds start to vibrate more. The energy is transferred to other molecules by
collisions. This raises the average kinetic energy and thus the average temperature of the
atmosphere. CO
2
and H
2
O are important greenhouse gases. They absorb radiation in two bands
across the earths radiation spectrum. There is a window in between which allow infra-red radiation
to escape. About 70% escapes through this fixed range of frequencies.
How are humans affecting the ozone layer? - Humans are increasing the concentrations of natural
and artificial greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (e.g. CO
2
and CFCs). The CFCs have a large
greenhouse warming potential. The gases absorb radiation in the window, which leads to an
enhanced greenhouse effect.
How can the rate of global warming be reduced? - The consumption of fossil fuels should be
reduced. Alternative energy sources should be used (i.e. wind, solar, tidal etc.). Photosynthesis can
be increased. CO
2
should be buried or reacted.
What is the structure of diamond, and why is so hard? - Diamond is made up of Carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom is joined tetrahedrally to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. The C-C
bonds are extremely strong and a highly symmetrical structure make diamond the hardest naturally
occurring substance.
What is the structure of Silicon (IV) Oxide? - Silicon (IV) Oxide has Silicon atoms bonded covalently to
oxygen atoms. Silicon (IV) Oxide substances, such as quartz, is an extended structure of SiO
2

tetrahedrons. Each silicon atom has a half-share in four oxygen atoms.
What are the structural differences between CO
2
and SiO
2
? - CO
2
has a molecular structure with
three atoms bonded in a liner fashion. There are weak intermolecular bonds between molecules.
The molecules are polar. SIO
2
atoms are larger and have more electrons. They cannot form double
bonds so discrete SiO
2
molecules are not formed; it is rather a giant network structure. The
intermolecular bonds are very strong and require a lot of energy to break, so SiO
2
has a high melting
and boiling point, and it doesnt dissolve in water.
What are the three sections of the atmosphere? - The atmosphere is split up unto the troposphere,
stratosphere and ionosphere.
How do you convert parts-per-million to a percentage? - PPM 10 000
How do you convert a percentage into parts-per-million? - % 10 000
What is translation energy? - Translation energy is the molecule moving around as a whole
What is rotational energy? - Rotational energy is the molecule rotating as a whole
What is vibrational energy? - Vibrational energy is the vibration of the bonds of the molecule
What is electronic energy? - Electronic energy is the electrons moving from one level to another
What type of radiation changes electronic energy? - UV and visible light
What type of radiation changes vibrational energy? - Infrared radiation
What type of radiation changes rotational energy? - Microwaves
What is Plancks constant? - 6.63 10
-34
JHz
-1

What equation links energy and frequency? - E = Hf
What happens to molecules under visible or UV radiation? - When a molecule absorbs visible or UV
radiation, the electrons can be excited to higher electronic energy levels. The electrons will return to
their original energy level over time, releasing he absorbed energy. Or, chemical bonds can break
and radicals can form (photodisassociation). Or, an electron may be ejected from the molecule,
which is then ionised.
What is a radical? - A radical is a species with one or more unpaired electrons.
What is heterolytic fission? - Heterolytic fission is where both electrons of a shared pair go to one
atom. This forms ions.
What is homolytic fission? - Homolytic fission is where each of the shared pair of electrons goes to
each of the atoms. Both atoms gain one unpaired electrons. This forms radicals.
What is an initiation reaction? - Initiation reactions are where there are no radicals at the start of the
reaction, but radicals are formed by the end of the reaction.
What is a propagation reaction? - A propagation reaction is where there are radicals at the start of
the reaction, and new radicals are made at the end of the reaction.
What is a termination reaction? - A termination reaction is where two radicals collide at the start of
the reaction, and there are no radicals at the end.
What is a radical substitution reaction? - A radical substitution reaction is where a halogen can
substitute a hydrogen in an alkene chain, which produces a halogenoalkane.
What is an example of an initiation reaction? - Cl
2
- (Hf) ->2Cl
What are two examples of propagation reaction? - CH
4
+ Cl -> CH3 + HCl and CH
3
+ Cl
2
-> CH
3
Cl + Cl
What are two examples of termination reactions? - CH
3
+ CH
3
-> C
2
H
6
and CH
3
+Cl -> CH
3
Cl
How is O
3
formed in the stratosphere? - In the stratosphere, O
2
photodisassociates under UV
radiation to form oxygen atoms which are radicals (O). O reacts with O
2
to form O
3
.
What are the two reactions which break down O
3
? - X + O
3
-> XO + O
2
(removal of ozone) and XO + O
-> O
2
+ X (production of ozone-removers).
What is the reaction between O and O
3
? - O + O
3
-> 2O
2
Describe the cycle of ozone depletion? - Radical and ozone reactions use radicals as catalysts. The
cycle of ozone depletion is a catalytic cycle: one Cl radical can remove one million ozone molecules.
How does ozone protect humans, and why is it so damaging that the ozone layer is thinning in
places? - O
3
absorbs radiation between 10.1 10
14
Hz and 14.0 10
14
Hz. This is the most damaging
section of UV radiation. It damages the skin of humans. In areas where the ozone layer is thinning,
there is a higher incidence of skin cancer and other UV-related illnesses.
What is dynamic equilibrium? - Dynamic equilibrium is where the rate of the forward reaction is the
same as the rate of the backward reaction.
What is a steady state? - A steady state is where the products are made at the same rate as the
reactants.
What is le Chetaliers principle? - le Chetaliers principle states that the position of the equilibrium
can be altered by changing the concentration of solutions, the pressure of gases or the temperature.
What happens to the equilibrium when the temperature is changed? - A temperature increase
causes the equilibrium to turn to the endothermic reaction, and vice-versa.
What happens to the equilibrium when the pressure is changed? - A pressure increase causes the
equilibrium to move to the side with fewer gas molecules, and vice-versa.
What factors affect the rate of reaction? - The rate of reaction can be affected by concentration,
surface area, pressure, particle size, catalysts, and temperature along with radiation intensity.
What is collision theory? - Collision theory states that reaction only occur when the particles of the
reactants collide with a certain minimum kinetic energy.
What factors affect collision theory? - At higher pressures and concentrations, the particles are
closer together so there are more collisions. At higher temperatures, more particles have enough
energy to overcome minimum kinetic energy barrier. With smaller reactants there is a larger surface
area where collisions can occur. Heterogeneous catalysts make a surface where reacting particles
can make and break bonds.
What is activation enthalpy? - The activation enthalpy is the minimum kinetic energy required by a
pair of colliding or molecules before a reaction will occur.
How do catalysts work? - Catalysts work by providing an alternate reaction pathway for the breaking
and making of bonds, that has a lower activation enthalpy than the uncatalysed pathway.
What is a heterogeneous catalyst? - Heterogeneous catalysts provide a surface on which a reaction
may take place, thus lowering the energy needed for a successful collision: this lower the activation
enthalpy. The catalyst and reactants are in different physical states.
What is a homogeneous catalysts? - Homogeneous catalysts work by forming an intermediate
compound with the reactants. In the first step, the activation enthalpy barrier is overcome and an
intermediate is formed. In the second step, the intermediate break down to give a product and
reform the catalyst. The catalyst and reactants are in the same physical state.