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GLE 594: An introduction to

applied geophysics
Magnetic Methods
Fall 2004
Magnetic Methods:
Concepts and rock properties
Readings from textbook
Today : pages 65-75
Next Lecture: pages 75-86
History of the magnetic method
Oldest Branch of Geophysics
Chinese first to use north-seeking properties of lodestone
1600 William Gilbert publishes De Magnete: the whole
earth is a magnet
Prospecting
Began in Sweden for iron ore in 1640s
Thalen and Tiberg (1870) measured Earths magnetic fields
A. Schmidt (1915) developed a balance magnetometer
During WWII instruments became smaller and easier to use
Now, magnetic tools are one of the most cheaply and
easiest to acquire geophysical data sets
Applications
Shallow (Engineering and Environmental):
contaminants, toxic waste, pipes, cables and metal
inclusions
Military: location of UXOs
Archeology: buried walls, old fire pits
Mining: iron sulfide deposits
Oil and groundwater: depth to magnetic basement in
basins, detection of faults
Geotectonics: major player in discovery of, and current
analysis of tectonic processes.
Definitions: Magnetic potential
Remember that the potential is defined as the
potential to do work.
Magnetic Potential:
where
o
=4 10
-7
[H/m] is the magnetic permeability of free space
and p [A/m] is magnetic pole strength
Gravitational Potential:

o
/4 is equivalent to G
p is equivalent to m

=
m
Wb
r
p
c
r
p
4
W
o
r
m
G U =
Definition: Vector quantity defining the magnetic
flux/unit area; i.e., the density of the magnetic field lines.
Thus often called Flux Density
Mathematical Definitions:
Air:
Magnetic materials:
is the magnetic permeability of the material

r
is the relative magnetic permeability of the material
is a unit vector pointing from the magnetic pole to the
measurement point.
Definitions: Magnetic field
or flux density

= =

= = Tesla
m
Wb
r

r
p
c r

r
p
4
W B
2 2 2
o
r

r
p
c r

r
p
4
r

r
p
4
W B
2
r
2
0 r
2
=

= =
Definitions: Magnetic field
strength or intensity
Biot-Savarts law definition:
for a loop of wire of radius r that is
carrying a current I, H at center is
given as:
H=nI/2r [A/m]
where n is a unit vector normal to the
plane of the loop.
The magnetic field strength H is
related to the magnetic field B as:
B = H =

r
H[A/m]
I
H n
Dipole nature of magnetic materials
Bar Magnet
N+
S-
Although, no magnetic monopoles
exist in nature, they are useful for
theory: magnetic monopoles of same
sign repel, opposite signs attract.
Dipole created by two poles of
opposite sign and separated by
distance l.
If you are close to one of the poles,
the field can be though of as
originating from a monopole.
Magnetic body can be though
of as composed of a bunch of
little magnets, or dipoles.
A measure of the pole strength/unit area along one
of the ends of magnetic material:
J=(p/A) n [A/m]
Magnetization or magnetic polarization
Magnetic moment
Strength of a magnetic field generator
M=J V = p l [A m
2
]
For a loop of current: M=(Ir
2
) n
Units
Quantity Symbol SI Units cgs units
Magnetic Pole Strength p A m -
Permeability

o,

H/m -
Relative permeability

r

unitless unitless
Magnetic Flux Density B Wb/m
2
=Tesla Gauss/gamma
Magnetic Intensity H A/m oersteds
Magnetic Polarization J A/m
Magnetic Moment M A/m
2

Basic comparison of magnetic and
gravitational potential
A gravity perturbation can always be thought of as
being caused by one or a series of monopoles.
That is field lines either point toward or away from
the perturbation.
A magnetic perturbation, or magnetic field in
general, is always produced by a dipole. Thus
direction of field depends on relative position to
one or the other ends of the magnetized body.
Earth dipolar field
Gravitational Potential:
r
m
G P U = ) (
Magnetic Potential and Fields:
[Wb/m]
[T=Wb/m
2
]
[T=Wb/m
2
]
Total force, inclination and declination
Earths Dipole not aligned perfectly with rotational axis.
Earth dipolar field
Dipole that best fits earths field (origin outer core):
Moment of 810
22
[A m
2]
Axis inclined 11.5
o
to the geographical pole.
Not a perfect dipole.
60,000 nT
25,000 nT
Geomagnetic reference field
What we want is the magnetic anomaly: T=B
obs
-B
ref
.
Thus need to define Reference.
Inclination
Declination
Geomagnetic reference field (cont.)
Secular variation: Slow changes in polar
location
Southern Pole
Wandering
Northern Pole
Wandering
Induced magnetization (J
I
) and
magnetic susceptibility
A magnetizable body acquires magnetization when H
field is applied
Disappears when field is removed
Field induces magnetization in material
The induced magnetization is parallel and
proportional to H: J
I
=H (due to the earth: J
I
=F/
o
)
k = susceptibility
k =
r
-1
Dimensionless, however, k
SI
=4k
cgs
Cause of magnetic susceptibility
At the atomic level, materials have a net magnetic
moment due to:
Rotation of electrons in various shells around nucleus
The spin of the electrons
Number of electrons in each shell
i.e., its a quantum effect
All of above result that each atomic nucleus can be
though of as a small magnetic dipole with its own
moment
Classifications of magnetic materials
Diamagnetic
All electron shells are full, thus there is no net moment.
In the presence of an external field, the net moment opposes
the external field, i.e., slightly negative susceptibility.
Paramagnetic
Materials contain unpaired electrons in incomplete electron
shells.
However magnetic moment of each atom is uncoupled from
others so they all behave independently.
Results in weakly magnetic materials, i.e. small susceptibility
Classifications of magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic
Materials contain unpaired electrons in incomplete
electron shells.
Magnetic moment of each atom is coupled to others
in surrounding domain such they all become
parallel.
Caused by overlapping electron orbits.
Gives rise to a spontaneous magnetization even in
absence of an external field.
Magnets are ferromagnetic.
Examples: Cobalt, iron and nickel.
Classifications of magnetic materials
Anti-ferromagnetic
Almost identical to ferromagnetic except that the
moments of neighboring sublattices are aligned
opposite to each other and cancel out
Thus no net magnetization is measured
Example: Hematite
Ferrimagnetic
Sublattices exhibit ferromagnetically but then
couple antiferromagnetically between each other
Example: Magnetite and ilmenite
Magnetic properties
Concept of hysteresis
Complex relationship between
B and H that occurs in
ferromagnetic materials.
B flattens off with increasing H
at saturation
When H is decreased, B does not
follow same curve
Will have remanent B value at
zero H
Remanent magnetization (RM)
Permanent magnetization
of rock installed during its
formation (J
R
).
Ferromagnetic materials
exhibit this creating
spontaneous magnetization.
Direction of remnant may
differ radically from
induced field.
Total magnetization
Total magnetization:
J=J
i
+J
r
Effective or apparent k:
k
e
or k
a
=(J
i
+J
r
)/(F/
0
)
Note: a J that is not fully aligned
with the natural H field at a site
will cause a perturbation in H,
and thus H local will have a
slightly different direction and
strength then the natural field.
Magnetic properties of materials
of interest
Basement: tends to be igneous or metamorphic, thus
greater magnetic properties.
Soils and other weathered products: because
magnetic minerals tend to weather rather rapidly
compared to quartz, will get reduction of magnetic
materials with weathering.
Man-made objects: iron and steel
Ore deposits: many economic ores are either
magnetic, or associated with magnetic minerals.

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