Mars

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars.
It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance.
[11]

Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of
the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. Mars rotational period and seasonal
cycles are likewise similar to those of Earth. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the
Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere
covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature. Unlike Earth, Mars is now geologically and tectonically
inactive.
Until the first flyby of Mars occurred in 1965, by Mariner 4, many speculated about the presence of liquid water on
the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the
polar latitudes, which appeared to be seas and continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation
channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions, yet of all the planets
in the Solar System other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water, and thus to harbor life.
Geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its
surface, while small geyser-like water flows may have occurred during the past decade.

In 2005, radar data revealed
the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles, and at mid-latitudes.

The Phoenix Lander directly sampled
water ice in shallow martian soil on July 31, 2008.
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids,
similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft:
Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the two Mars Exploration
Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix
Lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA's now-defunct Mars Global Surveyor
show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.
Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches 2.91,a brightness surpassed
only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, and the Sun. Mars has an average opposition distance of 78 million km but can
come as close as 55.7 million km during a close approach, such as occurred in 2003.
Physical characteristics
Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth. It is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and
11% of the mass. Its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.
[5]
While Mars is larger
and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in the two planets having a nearly
identical gravitational pull at the surfaceMars's is stronger by less than 1%. Mars is also roughly intermediate in
size, mass, and surface gravity between Earth and Earth's Moon (the Moon is about half the diameter of Mars,
whereas Earth is twice; the Earth is about nine times more massive than Mars, and the Moon one-ninth as massive).
The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite,
or rust.
Geology
Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection, the surface of Mars appears
to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich
than typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth; however, these observations may also be
explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust.
Although Mars has no evidence of a current structured global magnetic field,
[24]
observations show that parts of the
planet's crust have been magnetized, and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the
past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating
bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the
help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago,
before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and caused the planet's magnetic field to fade away. Current models
of the planet's interior imply a core region about 1480 km in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 1417%
sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at
Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on
the planet, but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, with a
maximum thickness of 125 km. Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only one third as thick as Mars crust, relative to
the sizes of the two planets.
During the Solar system formation, Mars was created out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun as the result
of a stochastic process of run-away accretion. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in
the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points such as chlorine, phosphorus and sulphur are
much more common on Mars than Earth; these elements were probably removed from areas closer to the Sun by the
young Sun's powerful solar wind. This same effect is thought to have originally provided Mars with more oxygen
than the Earth had; reactions between iron and the excess oxygen may be the reason Mars has much more
[vague]
iron
in its crust and mantle than does the Earth.
[citation needed]

After the formation of the planets, all were subjected to the "Late Heavy Bombardment". About 60% of the surface
of Mars shows an impact record from that era. Much of the rest of the surface of Mars is probably underlain by
immense impact basins that date from this timethere is evidence of an enormous impact basin in Mars's northern
hemisphere, spanning 10600 km by 8500 km, or roughly four times larger than the Moon's South Pole-Aitken basin,
the largest impact basin yet discovered. This theory suggests that Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four
billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth
Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.
The geological history of Mars can be split into many epochs, but the following are the three primary epochs:

Noachian epoch (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 billion years
ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a
volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the
epoch.
Hesperian epoch (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 1.8 billion years ago. The
Hesperian epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.
Amazonian epoch (named after Amazonis Planitia): 1.8 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions
have few meteorite impact craters, but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this
period, along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.
Some geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows up to
about 200 Mya. Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya, indicating equally
recent volcanic intrusions. On February 19, 2008, images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence
of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff.
Soil
In June 2008, the Phoenix Lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing vital
nutrients such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride, all of which are necessary for living organisms to
grow. Scientists compared the soil near Mars's north pole to that of backyard gardens on Earth, and concluded that it
could be suitable for growth of plants such as asparagus. However, in August 2008, the Phoenix Lander conducted
simple chemistry experiments, mixing water from Earth with Martian soil in an attempt to test its pH, and
discovered traces of the salt perchlorate, while also confirming many scientists' theories that the Martian surface is
considerably basic, measuring at 8.3. The presence of the perchlorate, if confirmed, would make Martian soil more
exotic than previously believed. Further testing is necessary to eliminate the possibility of the perchlorate readings
being caused by terrestrial sources, which may have migrated from the spacecraft either into samples or the
instrumentation.
The inset photo of Tharsis Tholus shows an example of a dark streak. Such streaks are common across Mars and
new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get
lighter with age. Sometimes the streaks start in a tiny area which then spreads out for hundreds of metres. They have
also been seen to travel around boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly accepted theories include
that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils.

However, several
ideas have been put forward to explain them, some of which involve water or even the growth of organisms.
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to its low atmospheric pressure, except at the lowest elevations
for short periods. Water ice is in no short supply however, with two polar ice caps that appear to be made largely of
water. In March 2007, NASA announced that the volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be
sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m. Additionally, a permafrost mantle stretches from
the pole to latitudes of about 60.
Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped underneath Mars's thick cryosphere. Radar data from Mars
Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice both at the
poles (July 2005) and at mid-latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix Mars Lander directly sampled water ice in
shallow martian soil on July 31, 2008.
A large release of liquid water is thought to have occurred when the Valles Marineris formed early in Mars's history,
forming massive outflow channels. A smaller but more recent outflow may have occurred when the Cerberus Fossae
chasm opened about 5 million years ago, leaving a supposed sea of frozen ice still visible today on the Elysium
Planitia, centered at Cerberus Palus. However, the morphology of this region may correspond to the pooling of lava
flows, causing a superficial morphology similar to ice flows, which probably draped the terrain established by
earlier massive floods of Athabasca Valles. The rough surface texture at decimeter (dm) scales, a thermal inertia
comparable to that of the Gusev plains, and the presence of hydrovolcanic cones, are consistent with the lava flow
hypothesis. Furthermore, the stoichiometric mass fraction of water in this area, to tens of centimeter depths, is only
about 4%,
[51]
which is easily attributable to hydrated minerals, and inconsistent with the presence of near-surface ice.
The high resolution Mars Orbiter Camera on the Mars Global Surveyor has taken pictures which give much more
detail about the history of liquid water on the surface of Mars. Despite the many giant flood channels and associated
tree-like network of tributaries found on Mars, there are no smaller scale structures that would indicate the origin of
the flood waters. Weathering processes may have denuded these, indicating that the river valleys are old features.
These high resolution observations, from spacecraft such as Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter, have also revealed thousands of features along crater and canyon walls that appear similar to terrestrial
gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator; all are poleward
of 30 latitude. The researchers found no partially degraded gullies formed by weathering and no superimposed
impact craters, indicating that these are very young features.
Two photographs, taken six years apart, show a gully on Mars with what appears to be new deposits of sediment.
Michael Meyer, the lead scientist for NASA's Mars Exploration Program, argues that only the flow of material with
a high liquid water content could produce such a debris pattern and colouring. Whether the water results from
precipitation, underground or another source remains an open question. However, alternative scenarios have been
suggested, including the possibility of the deposits being caused by carbon dioxide frost or by the movement of dust
on the Martian surface.
Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals
such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. Some of the evidence
believed to indicate ancient water basins and flows has been negated by higher resolution studies taken at resolution
about 30 cm by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. However, in 2004, Opportunity detected the presence of the
mineral jarosite on "El Capitan", a rock on the outcrop of Opportunity Ledge. Jarosite forms only in the presence of
acidic water, and the presence of jarosite is seen as proof that water once existed on Mars.
Polar caps
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface
and causing 2530% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO
2
ice (dry ice). When the poles are
again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO
2
sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as
400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and
large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.
The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a thin layer about
one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only, while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover
about eight metres thick. The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1,000 kilometres during the northern Mars
summer, and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres of ice, which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2
kilometres thick.(This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres for the Greenland ice sheet.) The
southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km. The total volume of ice in the south polar cap
plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic kilometres. Both polar caps show
spiral troughs, which are believed to form as a result of differential solar heating, coupled with the sublimation of ice
and condensation of water vapor.
The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels
carved on 1 meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO
2
and probably waterincrease pressure in their
interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud. This process is
rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology
especially for Mars.