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Abstract
The time variations of the water temperatures at the midpoint of the heat storage tank and at the outlet of the collector in a conventional
open-loop passive solar water-heating system combined with sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate-phase change material (PCM) were
experimentally investigated during November and then enhancement of solar thermal energy storage performance of the system by
comparing with those of conventional system including no PCM was observed. It was observed that the water temperature at the midpoint of
the storage tank decreased regularly by day until the phase-change temperature of PCM after the intensity of solar radiation decreased and
then it was a constant value of 45 8C in a time period of approximately 10 h during the night until the sun shines because no hot water is used.
Heat storage performances of the same solar water-heating system combined with the other salt hydrates-PCMs such as zinc nitrate
hexahydrate, disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate, calcium chloride hexahydrate and sodium sulfate decahydrate (Glauber’s salt)
were examined theoretically by using meteorological data and thermophysical properties of PCMs with some assumptions. It was obtained
that the storage time of hot water, the produced hot water mass and total heat accumulated in the solar water-heating system having the heat
storage tank combined with PCM were approximately 2.59–3.45 times of that in the conventional solar water-heating system. It was also
found that the hydrated salts of the highest solar thermal energy storage performance in PCMs used in theoretical investigation were disodium
hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate and sodium sulfate decahydrate.
# 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solar energy; Latent-heat storage; Phase-change material; Enhancement of heat energy storage
0378-7788/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.06.016
236 S. Canbazoğlu et al. / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 235–242
facility of the Sadia Laboratories at Alburquerque, New The effects of various thermal and geometric parameters on
Mexico, USA [7]. Thermal storage medium was anhydrous the whole PCM melting time for different PCMs and tank
sodium hydroxide with 8% sodium nitrate. The program configurations were theoretically studied [19]. The config-
produced data on the dynamic response of the system to urations were those of a tank with PCM packed in cylinders
repeated cycles of charging and discharging simulating and the heat transfer fluid flows parallel to it; the second is a
those of the test facility. Data was correlated with a math- tank where pipes containing the fluid are embedded in the
ematical model, which was then used in the design of the PCM.
full-scale system. In solar energy applications, sensible heat storage is more
The various heat transfer enhancement methods for latent common, but there is active research in improved latent
heat thermal storage systems were discussed and the findings storage materials. Unfortunately, few inorganic or organic
of this experimental study carried out to augment heat materials such as Glauber’s salt (sodium sulfate decahy-
transfer were reported [8]. Solar storage systems having drate), calcium chloride hexahydrate and some paraffins
direct contact with heat exchanger using sodium sulfate have yet been brought to a stage of practical application
decahydrate-PCM were theoretically and experimentally [20]. Although these compounds are fairly inexpensive, the
examined [9]. The time variations of heat transfer coefficient packaging and processing necessary to get consistent and
according to the volume of PCM were also investigated. The reliable performance from them is complicated and costly.
melting and solidification times of paraffin in the solar In the present study, sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate being
storage system having an annular pipe type storage tank one of the hydrated salts was selected as a PCM due to some
whose annular section was filled with paraffin-PCM were advantages such as the low cost, the easy obtaining, the
investigated theoretically and experimentally [10]. An air- proper phase change temperature of 48.5 8C for solar heat
based solar heating system including a storage tank with storage applications and high latent heat storage capacity.
paraffin-PCM was used to heat a greenhouse and it was seen The primary objective of the present study is to experimen-
that most of the heat requirements of the greenhouse pro- tally investigate unsteady thermal performance of an open-
vided with heat storage tank after the intensity of solar loop passive solar water-heating system, which is also called
radiation decreased [11]. A numerically solved theoretical as a system with natural circulation and but whose the hot
model was applied on an integrated solar collector storage water is not used, by measuring the water temperatures at the
system based on a salt hydrate-PCM and validated against midpoint of the storage tank and at the outlet of the collector,
experimental data [12]. The results of parametric studies on and the enhancement of solar thermal energy storage per-
the effect of the transition temperature and of the thickness formance using sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate-PCM in the
layer of the salt hydrate-PCM on the thermal performance of heat storage tank of the same solar water-heating system
the charging process were also presented. In another theo- during November. The second objective is to theoretically
retical study, the performance of a solar assisted cylindrical estimate the enhancement of solar thermal energy storage
energy storage tank including PCM was investigated and performance of the system in case of the use of the different
defined that PCM, cylinder radius, mass flow rate and inlet salt hydrates-PCMs in the heat storage tank of the actual
temperature of heat transfer fluid must be chosen carefully in conventional passive solar water-heating system used in the
order to optimize the performance of the tank [13]. The present experimental study.
performance characteristics of combination of solar collec-
tor and stearic acid-PCM in one unit were studied theore-
tically and experimentally [14]. The phase change and heat 2. Experimental system
transfer characteristics of a eutectic mixture of palmitic and
stearic acids as PCM during the melting and solidification The experiments were performed during November in
processes were determined experimentally in a vertical two Malatya, Turkey where a cold and dry climate (latitude:
concentric pipes energy storage system [15]. 388200 1600 N; longitude: 388130 0300 E; altitude 964 m) is
Thermal energy storage in general, and phase change generally seen. The intensity level of average incident solar
materials in particular, have been a main topic in research for radiation at a horizontal plane is at a relatively small value of
the last 20 years, but although the information was quanti- 8.469 MJ/m2 per day for November, which is equal to
tatively enormous, it was also spread widely in the literature, approximately one-third of that in July. The experimental
and difficult to find. A review paper focusing on materials, open-loop conventional passive solar energy system with
heat transfer and applications has been carried out of the natural circulation, which is generally used to provide
history of the thermal energy storage with solid–liquid phase domestic hot water requirements in buildings, consists of
change [16]. This paper lists over 230 references and con- solar collectors, hot water and cold water tanks, measure-
tains listed over 150 materials used in research as PCMs, and ment and data logger systems and its general appearance is
about 45 commercially available PCMs. It was also studied given in Fig. 1 [21]. Flat parallel aluminum solar collectors
that the possibility of including a PCM-module at the top of with fixed-plate of 1.94 m 0.94 m 0.10 m have single
a stratified water tank and the results stated increase of cover glass and black-painted absorber plate. Solar collec-
energy storage and a better performance of the tank [17,18]. tors faced to the south also have the net absorption area of
238 S. Canbazoğlu et al. / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 235–242
Fig. 1. Side view of the experimental open-loop passive solar water-heating system.
1.65 m2 for each one and the tilt angle of 308 with horizontal volume of bottles used in the heat storage tank was selected
plane. Insulated cold water feeding tank has the volume of as the relatively small value of 0.44 l to minimize various
18 l. It has a buoyancy ball to prevent inlet of cold water by problems detected during the melting and solidification of
controlling maximum water level in the heat storage tank PCM. Many bottles mean the larger heat transfer surface for
when tank filled. All of the pipes and fittings used in the PCM. The volumes of PCM and water in the heat storage
experimental system were also insulated. tank are equal to 107.8 and 82.2 l, respectively. The total
A computer aided electronic measurement system was mass of PCM used in the heat storage tank was found
installed to measure the temperatures and to accumulate the approximately as 180 kg using the density in the solid state
data. The measurement system consists of a PC computer, an of PCM of 1666 kg/m3. The bottles do not let the water flow
external analog/digital converter card and an internal input/ in horizontal direction due to their close location. Therefore,
output card. The water temperatures at the midpoint of the the heat storage tank has cavities in the upper and lower parts
heat storage tank and at the outlet of the collector, and the to obtain a more homogenous heat distribution horizontally
ambient temperature were presented in the present study in the heat storage tank due to the water flow through the
although the temperature measurements were carried out on vertical cavities between the bottles although it is known that
the total 8 points given in Fig. 1 by using the temperature the upper part of the heat storage tank had a thermal
sensors. The other temperatures measured are the water stratification of the higher level [17,18].
temperatures at the upper point in the heat storage tank,
at the lower point in the heat storage tank, at the inlet of the
collector, at the midpoint in the cold-water tank and at the
outlet of the heat storage tank, respectively. It was found that
the water temperatures at the midpoint of the heat storage
tank were approximately equal to the average of the tem-
perature values measured at the upper and lower points of the
heat storage tank. The time variations of the water tempera-
tures at the upper point in the heat storage tank, at the lower
point in the heat storage tank, at the inlet of the collector, at
the midpoint in the cold-water tank and at the outlet of the
heat storage tank were not presented herein in order to
observe the effects on the average temperature of water
mass in the heat storage tank of PCM. The temperature
sensors had a sensitivity of 0.1 8C. They were calibrated
with a water–ice mixture before the experiments.
Fig. 2 shows detailed cross-sectional view of well-insu-
lated cylindrical galvanized steel heat storage tank having a
volume of 190 l and combined with PCM. The insulation
material is glass wool. As shown in Fig. 2, the polyethylene
bottles of 0.44 l each of which contains PCM mass of Fig. 2. Detailed cross-sectional view of the cylindrical heat storage tank
0.7347 kg, were filled into the tank as three rows. The combined with PCM.
S. Canbazoğlu et al. / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 235–242 239
3. Results and discussion water produced to use m, by using the values of m_w and tw in
the equation m ¼ m_w tw , was obtained as 161 kg.
The thermal performances of hydrated salt-PCMs such as Sensible, latent and total heats for the cylindrical heat
sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate (Na2S2O35H2O), zinc storage tank combined with PCM can be defined with Eqs.
nitrate hexahydrate (Zn(NO3)26H2O), disodium hydrogen (3)–(5),
phosphate dodecahydrate (Na2HPO412H2O), calcium
chloride hexahydrate (CaCl26H2O) and sodium sulfate QS ¼ mw cp;w DT þ mPCM ðcp;PCML DT1
decahydrate (Na2SO410H2O) called as Glauber’s salt were þ cp;PCMS DT2 Þ (3)
examined theoretically using the mean values of meteoro-
logical data during November in Malatya, Turkey where a
QL ¼ mPCM hSL (4)
cold and dry climate is generally seen.
The heat stored per unit time in the conventional heat and;
storage tank including no PCM can be calculated using Eq.
QPCM ¼ QS þ QL (5)
(1),
The storage time of hot water tPCM and the mass of hot
Q_w ¼ m_w cp;w ðTr Tg Þ ¼ ð0:1Þð4:1868Þð45 15:5Þ water produced to use in the heat storage tank including
¼ 12:351 kW (1) PCM can be calculated by using the equations tPCM ¼
QPCM =Q_w and mw ¼ m_w tPCM , respectively. In the Eqs.
Where m_w , cp,w, Tr and Tg are the mass flow rate of the hot (2)–(5); mw, cp,w, DT, mPCM, cp,PCM-L, DT1, cp,PCM-S, DT2,
water required to use (0.1 kg/s), the specific heat of water hSL and QPCM are the water mass of 82.2 kg in the heat
(4.1868 kJ/kg8C), the temperature of domestic hot water storage tank including PCM, specific heat of water, the
required to use (45 8C) and the cold feeding water tempera- temperature difference given in the Eq. (2) for the water
ture in the pipe network of city (15.5 8C) or the minimum mass (=25 8C) or the temperature difference required to heat
ground temperature at a depth of 1 m obtained by using the the water mass in the heat storage tank including PCM, the
monthly meteorological data, respectively. The required hot mass of PCM, the specific heat of PCM in the liquid state,
water temperature, when the sensible heat is being stored in the difference between the maximum temperature of hot
the heat storage tank, was not constant during the experi- water in the heat storage tank and the melting temperature of
ments and its mean value was assumed as 45 8C. PCM, the specific heat of PCM in the solid state, the
The sensible or total heat stored in the water mass (mt) of difference between the temperature of hot water taken from
190 kg in the heat storage tank of 190 l including no PCM the tank and the melting temperature of PCM, the specific
can be calculated using Eq. (2), due to the fact that the melting latent heat of PCM during the phase change and
maximum water temperature at the midpoint of the conven- total heat stored in the PCM, respectively. The latent heat
tional heat storage tank is equal to 70 8C during the experi- stored in the PCM is balanced with the total heat losses of the
ments. tank since the hot water in the heat storage tank is not
consumed.
Qw ¼ mt cp;w DT ¼ 190ð4:1868Þð70 45Þ If some hydrated salts filled into the total 245 bottles in
¼ 19; 887:3 kJ (2) the same storage tank are used to store heat in the heat
storage tank, the storage latent, sensible and total heats, the
The storage time of hot water in the conventional heat storage time of hot water and the mass of hot water produced
storage tank including no PCM, t was found as tw = 1610 s or to use by using the Eqs. (1)–(5) are predicted as given in
26.83 min using the ratio Qw =Q_w . Finally, the mass of hot Table 1. The storage time of hot water, the mass of hot water
Table 1
Thermophysical properties of hydrated salts used, latent, sensible and total heats, the storage time of hot water and the mass of hot water produced to use for the
solar thermal energy storage tank combined with some hydrated salt-PCMs used in the present study
Salt hydrates Metlting Melting Specific Density Mass Latent Sensible Total Timea Produced Mass
point (8C) latent heat heat cp (kg/m3) [kg] heat heat heat (min.) hot water ratiob
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK) (kJ) (kJ) (kJ) mass (kg)
Solid Liquid Solid Liquid
Zinc nitrate hexahydrate 36.1 146.95 1.34 2.26 1954 211 31007 – 16166 55777 75.26 452 2.81
Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate 48.5 208,80 1.46 2.38 1666 180 37584 920 9211 56319 76.00 456 2.83
Disodium hydrogen 35.0 278.84 1.55 2.51 1522 164 45730 – 14407 68741 92.76 557 3.45
phosphate-dodecahydrate
Calcium chloride hexahydrate 29.7 169.98 1.46 2.13 1560 168 28557 – 14421 51582 69.60 418 2.59
Sodium sulfate decahydrate 32.4 254.00 1.76 3.31 1458 157 39878 – 19540 68022 91.79 551 3.42
a
The storage time of the produced hot water.
b
The ratio of hot water mass produced in the heat storage tank combined with PCM to that in the conventional heat storage tank.
240 S. Canbazoğlu et al. / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 235–242
Fig. 3. The daily time variations of time-averaged ambient, tank midpoint and collector outlet temperatures for the heat storage tank including PCM during the
first 10 days of November.
produced to use and total heat accumulated in the heat storage tank decreased regularly by day until the phase-change
storage tank combined with some hydrated salts used in temperature of PCM after the intensity of absorbed solar
the present study are approximately 2.59–3.45 times grater radiation decreased and then it was a constant value of
than that of conventional solar energy system. The hydrated 45 8C in a time period of approximately 10 h during the night
salts of the highest solar thermal energy storage performance until the rising time of the sun because of no hot water
in PCMs used in theoretical investigation are disodium consumption. Hot water produced was not consumed due to
hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate and sodium sulfate dec- the fact that the intensity of monthly average solar radiation
ahydrate as expected because of their high latent heat was at a relatively lower value during November as mentioned
capacities. This result means the use of smaller tank volume, before. It is obvious that the values of water temperatures at the
less insulation material and therefore lower cost when these midpoint of the storage tank and at the outlet of the collector,
hydrated salts are used in the solar water-heating system. and the storage time of hot water of 10 h decrease to the
Fig. 3 shows the daily time variations of time-averaged smaller values when hot water is consumed. It can be said that
water temperatures at the midpoint of the storage tank, at the the temperature at the outlet of the collector had a time-
outlet of the collector and the ambient temperature during the averaged value of approximately 32 8C at the same time period
first 10 days of November for the experimental solar thermal due to the hot water circulation between the heat storage tank
energy storage system including sodium thiosulfate pentahy- and the collectors but the decrease and increase in the setting
drate-PCM. In this case, large part of total energy in the solar and rising times of the sun.
energy storage tank is latent heat as given in Table 1. It was also Fig. 4 shows the daily time variations of time-averaged
observed that the water temperature at the midpoint of the water temperatures at the midpoint of the storage tank and
Fig. 4. The daily time variations of time-averaged ambient, tank midpoint and collector outlet temperatures for the heat storage tank including no PCM during
the second 10 days of November.
S. Canbazoğlu et al. / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 235–242 241
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