Workforce Development &

Apprenticeship
Construction contractors generally lack the resources
or incentives to invest in comprehensive worker
training on their own. Given the transient nature of
employment in the industry, individual employers face
the possibility that investing in training for current
employees might benet their competitors in the future
when their current employees go to work elsewhere.
But another pathway to training does exist. Through
the collective bargaining process, employers agree
to invest in joint labor-management administered
apprenticeship programs that oer intensive skills
training. This apprenticeship system represents the most
eective construction training mechanism in the United
States, with 15,000 certied instructors, 1,500 state-of-
the-art training facilities, and hundreds of millions of
dollars of private capital.
18
The investment also pays o
over the career of the individual participant, as these
training programs include career skill enhancement
opportunities after apprenticeship. Employers benet
from an established workforce development system
that ensures quality production and work output, while
workers can count on the most advanced training
available. Table 4 shows that employer contributions,
including in basic hourly wages, benets, and training
that all add up to the prevailing wage rate.
About 70% of apprenticeship programs are joint
labor-management ventures. This means that workers
(unions) and employers (management) jointly design
the apprenticeship training curriculum and processes.
19

In California, 82%, of registered apprenticeship
programs are joint labor-management apprenticeships,
but these programs produce about 92% of the states
registered apprenticeship graduates.
20
As determined by
local collective bargaining agreements, a few cents for
every hour that a worker works goes toward a fund to
train apprentices and to provide ongoing skill-building
trainings for journey-level workers. Because these
apprenticeship programs collect their workforce
Table 3
Table 4
Source: California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Apprenticeship Standards, Public Works Apprentice Wage Sheets.
Wage levels increase as apprentices advance in their training. Wage levels vary by craft. Graphic Modied From: Construction Apprenticeship
Programs: Career Training for Californias Recovery, by Corinne Wilson, Center on Policy Initiatives, 2009.
Total hourly wages include health, pension and training dollars, which create a healthy, well-trained workforce over time. Q1 2009.
Source: California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Apprenticeship Standards, Public Works Apprentice Wage Sheets.
Graphic Modied From: Construction Apprenticeship Programs: Career Training for Californias Recovery, by Corinne Wilson, Center on Policy
Initiatives, 2009. **Los Angeles and Orange counties
Apprenticeship Basic Hourly Wage Increase Schedule, San Diego County, California, Q1 2009*
Wage increases dependent upon successful completion of training segments
Years in Program Part of year (1/2) Electrician, Inside Wireman Plumber, Pipetter, Steamtter
Wage level per 800 on-the-job training hours Wage level per 1,600 on-the-job training hours
1
1st $14.54
$16.65
2nd $15.99
2
1st $17.45
$19.97
2nd $18.90
3
1st $20.36
$23.30
2nd $21.81
4
1st $23.99
$26.63
2nd $25.45
5
1st $28.35
$29.96
2nd $29.81
Prevailing Wage: Hourly Wage & Employer Contributions for Selected San Diego County Apprentices
Wage Year Two of Program
Basic Hourly
Wage
Employer Contributions
Total Hourly
Wages
Health &
Welfare
Pension
Vacation/
Holiday
Training Other
Electrician, Inside Wireman $18.90 $5.12 $2.83 -0- $0.56 $0.16 $27.57
Plumber/Pipetter/Steamtter $19.97 $6.02 $0.31 $1.79 $0.32 $0.39 $28.80
Operating Engineer $28.55 $7.95 $2.63 $2.82 $0.56 $0.17 $45.19
Sheet Metal $19.33 $3.42 $2.63 - 0 - $0.68 $0.46 $26.52
Laborer $19.01 $4.26 $0.39 $2.62 $0.64 $0.30 $27.22
Painter $14.21 $4.60 $0.15 $0.30 $0.34 $0.67 $20.27
Roofer $16.02 $4.76 $1.62 -0- $0.10 $0.20 $22.70
Heating, Ventilation & Air
Conditioning**
$19.62 $6.38 $1.13 -0- $0.70 $0.25 $28.08
Carpet $20.01 $6.00 $0.94 $0.23 $0.45 $0.15 $27.78
62
development funding from a broad base of contractors
and workers, these costs are nominal and have a high
return on investment in productivity and eciency.
Economist Peter Phillips found that doubling the rate of
unionization equals a 10-20% increase in productivity.
21

Depending on the trade classication and technical
requirements, apprenticeship programs run from three
to ve years (See table 5). From the onset, apprentices
receive hands-on jobsite experience, coupled with
technical in-class and laboratory-based instruction. Joint
labor-management apprenticeship programs provide
a career ladder to journey-level responsibilities and
wages. Apprentices can also earn wages and benets
with their on-the-job work even as they undergo
training. This provides opportunities for workers,
especially disadvantaged workers, to receive education
and training to enter middle-class construction careers
while still earning wages to pay their bills and support
their families. The apprentice starts with a portion of
journey-level wages in his or her rst year, usually in
the range of $12-$20 an hour, depending on the craft
and on conditions in the local job market. As he or she
reaches certain milestones in on-the-job hours and
in-class instruction, the apprentice receives a series of
wage increases until he or she graduates as a journey-
level worker (See table 3).
The apprenticeship-based career ladder, particularly in
joint labor-management apprenticeship partnerships,
helps contractors compete based on value, quality,
and eciency. Labor-management apprenticeship
programs help reduce crew composition costs
through incorporating apprenticeships into the project
workforce. Since apprentices work at lower wage
rates than journey-level workers in exchange for job
training, deploying apprentices to the job site can help
contractors reduce overall labor costs.
Labor-management apprenticeships also provide
contractors with workers well-versed in the most
up-to-date construction technology. Accomplishing
complicated construction tasks on tight deadlines
through the use of highly skilled workers also gives
employers an advantage that allows them to bid
projects with condence, knowing that their employees
can meet or exceed expectations. Apprenticeships also
give contractors the opportunity to create goodwill
in the communities where they work by hiring
workers specically from local zip codes and/or from
disadvantaged backgrounds.
Therefore, contractors who utilize workers who have
completed joint labor-management apprenticeships
achieve a strong competitive advantage, particularly
for large-scale industrial, commercial or municipal
construction projects . The benets of the ability to
deliver quality and safe workmanship at a rapid pace far
outweigh the perceived nancial advantage of using
lower-skilled workers who may be less costly, but whose
skill sets are inadequate to keep the job site safe and
productive. The track record of on-time and on-budget
project delivery and quality work performance has been
key to helping the Building and Construction Trades and
their signatory contractors to successfully compete for
and complete large, complex building projects.
Apprenticeship program requirements for selected crafts. Crafts require varying skills and therefore apprenticeship requirements dier across
trades.
Source: California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Apprenticeship Standards, Public Works Apprentice Wage Sheets.
Graphic Modied From: Construction Apprenticeship Programs: Career Training for Californias Recovery, by Corinne Wilson, Center on Policy
Initiatives, 2009.
Table 5
Apprenticeship Wage increases dependent upon successful completion of training segments
Top 10 crafts sorted by total number of apprentices graduated from programs
Crafts Years On-the-job-hours Classroom hours/year
Electrician, Residential 3 4,800 160
Commercial/Industrial 5 8,000 160
Plumbing 4 7,200 200
Operating Engineer 4 6,000 144
Sheetmetal 4 6,500 160
Laborer 2 3,000 216
Painting & Decoration 3.5 7,000 114
Roofers 3.5 4,000 144
Plumbing 4 7,200 200
Air conditioning & refrigeration 5 7,500 216
Carpet, Linoleum & Soft Tile 4 6,400 160
63
Increasing Access to
Construction Jobs
New workers modes of entry into the construction
industry vary. Traditionally, skills of the construction
trade were passed down from family member to family
member. Today, however, a variety of pathways exist
to move new workers into the industry. One pathway
is connected to community colleges, trade schools,
and high school technical career training programs
that partner with regional contractors to create work
opportunities for their graduates. But these programs
provide limited in-class training and even more limited
on-the-job training and job placement opportunities
that are critical for successful long-term construction
employment. Typically, these programs provide up to
one to two years of introductory in-class skills training,
with the expectation that the worker will move into a
construction career by learning on-the-job skills as a
trainee or helper on projects.
However, without support after graduating from these
various programs, there is no guarantee the worker will
actually nd and retain employment over time. This
is especially true in the construction industry with its
cyclical nature and temporary work structure. Informal
job pathways also exist, mainly in the residential and
light commercial sectors. In these pathways workers,
usually with general maintenance or labor skills, move
into jobs through formal and informal referrals such
as unemployment oces, worker centers, or word of
mouth.
Still, the ideal way to enter the construction industry
is through a registered joint labor-management
apprenticeship program. This is an apprenticeship
program that is registered with the Department of
Labor and meets the minimum federal requirements.
The apprenticeship program is funded and managed
by both labor unions and contractors, meaning that
apprentices gain experiences that meet both their
educational needs and contractors needs. These
programs provide high quality, comprehensive technical
in-class training in a particular trade, and include
extensive on-the-job training in which apprentices
receive pay and benets while they build skills and
experience. Figure 27 ilustrates an ideal pathway to
green jobs. Figure 28 compares an apprenticeship-
based training program and a non-apprenticeship-
based program.
Apprentices typically complete their training in three
to ve years, depending on the requirements of the
specic trade. They then attain certied journeyworker
status and can expect that the union hiring hall will
dispatch them to continuous work opportunities. To
maintain updated certications, graduates of registered
apprenticeship programs must regularly return to
receive new training in the newest construction
practices and the latest tools and technologies,
like those focused on green and energy ecient
construction. Through this process of training and
re-training workers on the most advanced technologies
and construction processes, registered apprenticeship
and journey-worker training programs provide some
of the best ways to create a well-trained and adaptable
workforce as construction continues to adopt more
energy ecient practices.
Historically, there has been limited access to registered
joint-labor apprenticeship programs for minority
workers and women. Though recent positive changes
have increased diversity in the unionized construction
workforce, the numbers show that limited access
persists. This is reected in relatively lower levels of
representation of women, African American workers,
Asian American workers, and other minorities in these
training programs.
Increasing diversity requires a two-pronged approach.
The work opportunities in the industry need to be
increased overall. It then becomes easier to create
targeted hiring and support mechanisms to identify,
train, place, and retain minority construction workers in
skilled construction crafts.
The current economic downturn and the
disproportionately negative impact on the
construction industry has translated into diminishing
work opportunities for all workers. This has caused
apprenticeship programs generally to restrict the
number of apprentices they take. Access to training
in the construction industry, then, remains tied to
the performance of the broader economy and the
availability of work opportunities.
The mobile nature of the construction workforce
is another factor that aects access to jobs for new
workers, especially in tough economic times. For
example, when a large scale project promises the
creation of several thousand jobs, the bulk of those jobs
will be performed by workers already in the industry
who are unemployed or under-employed. Since
construction workers move from project to project and
employers try to hire the most experienced and best
trained workers, even large scale projects only provide
a limited number of opportunities for new workers.
For example, on an air conditioning system installation
project, a work crew may include six to ten journey-
level air conditioning mechanics along with two to
four apprentices--of which one or two may be new
apprentices.
It is important to recognize this structure allows this
system to be truly equitable over the long-term. Rather
than continuously trying to increase the numbers of
cheaper entry-level workers, it creates sustainable work
opportunities for existing workers in the industry over
their lifetimes and sustainably incoprates new workers.
Finally, collective bargaining agreements set general
guidelines for contractors to organize their work crews.
An employer might like to hire one journeyworker
and twelve apprentices, which is a more cost eective
arrangement for employers considering wage rates of
apprentices are lower than those of journeyworkers.
However, the reality is that this arrangement can
potentially result in inadequate supervision and
skill levels at work sites, leading to unsafe working
64
Recruitment &
Case Management
- 0rlver llcense
- 0aycare
- Jransportatlon
Pre-apprentlceshlp
- Applled Vath
- Applled Readlng
- lndustry Awarness
- Jherapy
- louslng
- lntervlew Skllls
- Safety Awarness
Reglstered
Apprentlceshlp
- Related Jechnlcal
lnstructlon
- ln-class lnstructlon
- 0n-the-Job
Jralnlng
lnergy
lmclency Projects
- Placement on energy emclency projects
- Pathways to mlddle class careers
- Career optlons ln multlple constructlon
sectors
Recruitment Training Placement Start Job Increase Skills & Wages
- un-pald tralnlng
- 0nly 40-200 hours
- No certlhcatlon
- 510-512/lr
- No enehts
- No job guarantees
- No pathway out of poverty
Non-Apprenticeship-Based Training: A Broken Pipeline
- Pre-apprentlceshlps provlde
job readiness skills, GED,
math & support services
- Cet pald whlle learnlng durlng
apprenticeship
- 0n the job plus classroom
training
- Placement through hlrlng halls - lncreased wages 8 benehts
after certain training and
experience requirements are met
- Contlnous opportunltles to return
for training
- Posslbllltles for promotlon,
increased salaries & certications
Registered Apprenticeship Pipeline: A Pathway to Better Opportunities
Figure 28: Comparing Construction Workforce Pipelines
Recruitment Training Placement Start Job Increase Skills & Wages
Figure 27: Pathway to Green Jobs
65
Foreman
Leads construction teams on site.
Increased salaries and certication.
Develops leadership skills.
Contractor
Owner of construction company.
Receives support from Union contractor
associations.
Journeyman
State-licensed.
Can work in various types of construction
including Industrial, Commercial
and Residential.
Apprentice (3-5 Years)
Works under direct supervision of Master or
Journey level worker.
Pre-Apprenticeship
Gains soft and hard skills to prepare for
union apprenticeship.
conditions and poor construction. Moreover, the
outnumbered journey- level workers would have to
devote more time to training new apprentices and less
to performing actual construction work themselves,
thereby slowing the construction process. Thus,
collective bargaining agreements usually dictate the
ratio of journey- to apprentice-level workers allowed
on work crews so as to achieve the best balance on the
worksite.
The best way to address the challenges of increasing
workers access to good construction jobs is by creating
a consistent stream of construction work opportunities.
The industrys new focus on green construction and
retrotting the existing building stock to improve
energy eciency represents such an opportunity.
As we discussed in Chapter Two, taking a deep green
approach to building retrots will maximize the
creation of good jobs in the construction industry. Deep
green also means connecting job training programs
to career pathways in the joint labor-management
apprenticeship training system. The challenge the
energy eciency market faces is to avoid creating
short-term jobs that provide a limited scope of training
and work opportunities. Through a basic weatherization
program, a worker might receive training just to convert
T8 uorescent to LED lighting. By contrast, an electrical
apprentice can learn how to change light xtures, pull
wires, set circuit breakers and terminate connections.
This opens up a lifelong career for him or her to perform
work on the entire electrical system of a building and to
build a comprehensive set of skills. If energy eciency
retrots work becomes scarce, a temporary, short-term
worker will be left with few transferable skills to nd
other jobs. Meanwhile, the apprenticeship-trained
electrician will access many other job opportunities
throughout his or her career, including journey-level
worker, foreman, and contractor (See gure 29). This
kind of long-range view of the sector is needed to mend
our current economic situation, instead of short-term
thinking that could push the economy into another
crisis when temporary work fades away.
Conclusion
Understanding construction industry dynamics is
critical to building an environmentally ecient/
green construction market that takes the high road
with respect to creating careers and building a strong
workforce. How investors, governments, developers,
and contractors make decisions in response to market
dynamics greatly determines the type and number of
jobs this emerging market will create. Policy tools such
as Project Labor Agreements and Community Workforce
Agreements exist so that as new jobs emerge, the
focus stays on ensuring that these are good, green
careers that are accessible to everyone. These policy
tools provide a template to set standards in the new,
emerging energy eciency market. PLAs and CWAs
work best when coupled with committed leadership
and robust compliance mechanisms.
The existing joint labor-management apprenticeship
training infrastructure, which workers and contractors
work together to design, is an invaluable tool for the
emerging energy eciency industry. It provides rigorous
and eective training for workers who need to be up-
to-date on the latest developments in new technology
and green construction practices, and brings important
advantages to contractors. Robust existing infrastructure
in the construction industry, like these apprenticeships,
can provide a foundation from which to grow the
energy eciency market.
With these construction industry practices in mind,
the next two chapters will delve into constructing a
deep green energy eciency program and explore
lessons from specic examples. Chapter Five combines
information about the construction industry with
innovative tools to support an ideal energy eciency
retrot program. Chapter Six explores themes from
real, innovative projects in energy eciency. Together
these chapters oer insight into building a program that
considers the unique characteristics of the construction
industry and can bring energy eciency to scale in the
face of the current global economic crisis.
Figure 29: Occupational Hierarchy
66