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COMPUTER GAMES AS PARTICIPATORY MEDIA CULTURE
Joost Raessens
As the reader can see in the other chapters of this book, of participatory media culture from a political-ideologi-
many authors refer to concepts such as ‘‘interactivity’’ cal perspective.
and ‘‘participation’’ to characterize the distinctiveness
of computer games and the media culture that has R e m e d i a t i o n a n d S p e ci fi c i t y
developed around them. In this book, as well as else- Participatory media culture is not limited to cultural
where, these terms are used in various and sometimes forms such as computer games (think for example of
contradictory ways, a situation that leads to confusion. peer-to-peer technology such as based networks such
When we look closely, there appear to be what I call as Napster, KaZaA and Gnutella; see Oram, 2001) nor
three domains of participation: interpretation, reconfi- to the digital so-called ‘‘new’’ media: computer games
guration, and construction. Therefore, in this chapter, are re-mediating the participatory culture that has
I systematically discuss and challenge these concepts, formed around media such as film and television. In
and describe these three domains to characterize com- this process of remediation computer games do ‘‘exactly
puter games as a form of participatory media culture.1 what their predecessors have done: presenting them-
Taking the theoretical framework of a young branch of selves as refashioned and improved versions of other
philosophy, namely the philosophy of information and media. Digital visual media can best be understood
communication technology, as my starting point, I through the ways in which they honor, rival, and revise
focus on the interpretation and evaluation of the onto- linear-perspective painting, photography, film, televi-
logical and political-ideological presuppositions and sion, and print’’ (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, pp. 14–15).
implications of computer games.2 The ontological di- One of the advantages of the concept of remediation is
mension refers to the specificity of computer games in that it allows us to break with the modernistic novelty
relation to film and television, for example, and the myth from which angle researchers often approach dig-
political-ideological dimension refers to the tension be- ital media in general, and computer games specifically.
tween the dominant and the critical, social and cultural Computer games have to be defined based on specific
practices in the realm of computer games. combinations of technical, social, cultural and economic
I start this chapter with a discussion of the specific- characteristics and not on exclusive, essential ones.3
ity of computer games in order to determine in which The view that participation is a new, exclusive, and es-
way they, as opposed to film and television, are able sential characteristic of computer games ignores the
to form a specific type of participatory media culture. fact that radio, film and television, for example, each
Next I analyze the phenomenon of ‘‘interpretation.’’ have their own versions of this concept. As far back as
Even though the interpretation of computer games is 1932–1934, Bertolt Brecht and Walter Benjamin
not distinctly different from the interpretation of, say, argued in favor of transforming radio from a distribu-
films and television shows, this is nevertheless part of tion into a communication device that would make a
what I call participation. After this I focus on the phe- listener not only a consumer but also a producer of in-
nomenon of ‘‘deconstruction’’ as a specific form of formation.4 Also devices such as Xerox machines and
interpretation that seems characteristic for computer audio/video recorders allow users not only to copy,
games. I continue by further defining the concept of but also to edit other people’s material. We see such
participation as the active ‘‘reconfiguration’’ of existing activities in participatory cultures that take shape in fan
game elements and the creative ‘‘construction’’ of new communities surrounding science fiction films and tele-
game elements. I finish this chapter with a discussion vision shows such as Star Trek (see Jenkins, 1992;
Jenkins & Tulloch, 1995).
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Nevertheless, this approach has one pitfall. When (interpretation, in particular deconstruction), and
Joost Raessens
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the surrounding and influential top-down expressions other groups and achieve a kind of ascendancy in both
self-conscious lifestyle could make it easier for young imperialism’’ (p. 134). Therefore, he does not agree
Joost Raessens
women to position themselves as such (a ‘‘postfeminist with the critics who claim that these simulations give
icon’’ who ‘‘at no point has any orientation toward players the illusion that ‘‘they have encountered not
domesticity’’). The oppositional reading of Lara Croft just one version of the way the world works, but the
condemns her as an object of lust, made by and for one and only ‘objective’ version’’ (p. 143). The ‘‘base-
men, a stereotypical portrayal of femininity (‘‘the over- line ideological assumptions that determine which strat-
fulfillment of female proportions that are designed for egies will win and which will lose’’ (p. 144) will become
the male gaze’’ makes her ‘‘female enemy number apparent while actually playing the game. That is why
one’’).16 Everett demonstrates that in computer games, Friedman claims that ‘‘to win . . . you have to figure
‘‘blackness’’ is present, but almost always in stereotypi- out what will work within the rules of the game’’ (p.
cal characters (as is the case with ‘‘whiteness’’) who are 136). The reason for this is for a large part found in
situated in a lower hierarchical position. Gamers who the fact that a computer game, as opposed to, for exam-
readily recognize themselves in such a position may ple, a film, is played over and over again until the mo-
consciously or unconsciously accept this dominant ide- ment that all the game’s secrets have been discovered.
ology, and, in Hall’s terms, give a dominant reading of In my view, we can describe this process of demys-
such computer games. Other groups will take up a tification as ‘‘deconstruction,’’ the translation of the
more negotiated reading and search for nonracist role French word déconstruction (detachment, dissolution).
models they can identify with. In oppositional readings, This term, a central notion in the work of the French
finally, the dominant ideology (the ‘‘unbearable white- philosopher Jacques Derrida, refers to the method of
ness of being,’’ as Everett calls it) will be unmasked as interpretation that aims to bring to the foreground
racist. In any case, these authors make clear that the those elements that operate under the surface, but
meaning of the representation of, for example, gender break through cracks in the text to disrupt its superficial
and ethnicity in computer games—as well as the co- functioning.
construction between them and other axes of significa- Not only Friedman, but also Turkle refers to this
tion, such as class and nationality—is under continuous practice I describe as deconstruction. However, thanks
discussion. Representations are thus not only reflec- to the development of computer games, this decon-
tions of society; they also play an active role in shap- struction is no longer self-evident, as Friedman seems
ing it. to suggest. That is, Turkle notices a shift from ‘‘calcu-
lation and rules’’ to ‘‘simulation, navigation, and inter-
D e c o n st r u c t i o n action’’ (1996, p. 19): ‘‘When video games were very
Following the terminology of British cultural studies, new, I found that the holding power of their screens
authors like Ted Friedman and Sherry Turkle empha- often went along with a fantasy of a meeting of minds
size the political-ideological importance of computer between the player and the program behind the game.
games: ‘‘Computer programs, like all texts, will always Today, the program has disappeared; one enters the
be ideological constructions . . . learning and winning screen world as Alice stepped through the looking
. . . a computer game is a process of demystification: glass’’ (p. 31).17 Brenda Laurel notices this transition
One succeeds by discovering how the software is put and accordingly refers to the specificity of computers
together. The player molds his or her strategy through by describing them as ‘‘machine[s] naturally suited for
trial-and-error experimentation to see ‘what works’— representing things that you could see, control, and
which actions are rewarded and which are punished’’ play with. Its interesting potential lays not in its ability
(Friedman, 1995, pp. 81–82). to perform calculations but in its capacity to represent
Friedman’s position is special in that he believes action in which humans could participate’’ (1997, p. 1).
that the process of playing computer games as such Let us take a closer look at Turkle’s argument. She
reveals this ideological construction. Whereas other discusses this transition in the section ‘‘The Games
kinds of texts mask their ideologically colored con- People Play: Simulation and Its Discontents’’ (pp. 66–
structedness, Friedman believes that ‘‘computer games 73). According to Turkle, the development of the com-
reveal their own constructedness to a much greater puter game lead to the ‘‘socialization into the culture of
extent than more traditional texts’’ (Friedman, 1995, simulation’’ (p. 67). Because in the early days of com-
p. 82): for Sim City this is ‘‘the political and economic puter games (she refers to games such as Space Invaders,
premises it rests on’’ (Friedman, 1999, p. 133), and for 1978, Asteroids, 1980 and Pac-Man, 1981) the rules were
Civilization II ‘‘the familiar ground of nationalism and simpler and more easy to grasp, this meant that for the
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players ‘‘getting to know a game required you to deci- ‘‘deconstruction’’ films of the 1960s (De Mul, 2002a,
not willing to give up the ‘‘lust premium’’ that is transition from interactivity to participation and finish
Joost Raessens
attached to a fictional film, and they do not enjoy the with a further elaboration of the concepts of participa-
‘‘intellectual-sadism’’ related to ‘‘deconstruction mecha- tion and ‘‘participatory media culture.’’
nisms,’’ ‘‘disassembly,’’ and ‘‘intellectual self-control’’:
‘‘The joy of a toy has to be converted into the enjoy- Interactivity
ment of tearing that toy apart’’ (Metz, 1980a, p. 19). Interactivity refers to ‘‘a distinctive mode of relating to
The second reason why the film failed was that it audiovisual representations or fictions. The player is
fell short of Resnais’ ambitions to make the viewers provided with a way of directly taking a leading role in
actual co-creators of the film. Because Marienbad is a what occurs, given the means to control—at least in
film, the plot is fixed and the enjoyment that can be part—what will unfold within the scene on the screen’’
derived from playing computer games is out of reach. (Darley, 2000, p. 156).
This despite the gamelike structure of Marienbad: This somewhat abstract relation of the player to
‘‘The whole structure of Marienbad is a play with logic, the game, can be concretized as the possibility for the
space, and time which does not offer us a single, com- player to take up the role of narrator and influence the
plete story as a prize for winning this ‘game’ ’’ (Bord- course of events and actions, possibly as a character in
well & Thompson, 1986, p. 308). the plot.20 In this way computer gamers can make Lara
To me, computer games are possibly more able Croft (Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation, Eidos, 1999),
than avant garde films to make this deconstruction hap- Mario (Super Mario 64, Nintendo, 1996), Indiana Jones
pen, and thereby more able to realize the emancipating (Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, Activision,
functioning that is connected to it in an aesthetic and 1999), Link (The Legend of Zelda), and Niobe and Ghost
political sense. In the light of the foregoing description (Enter the Matrix, 2002) move and carry out certain
of British cultural studies, one could consider this the actions using keyboard, mouse, controller, or joystick.
ultimate revenge of low culture computer games against Even more specific are the games in which the player
high culture avant garde films. Looking through and can play the role of an actual character, think of games
exposing the hidden, naturalized, ideologically presup- such as Doom, Quake, Half-Life, Soldier of Fortune, and
posed rules of the medium is in my opinion a form No One Lives Forever.
of participatory media culture. This does not imply, Along the lines of Metz’ research on the specific-
however, that we do not need to distinguish between ity of film, we can consider this role as typical for the
different readings and genres of computer games. This computer game. According to Metz, film viewers can
kind of deconstruction is possible and commonplace in be characterized by a perceptive, affective, and cognitive
readings of computer games that are aimed at acquiring participation, but with bodily activation absent or lim-
knowledge (for example, by hackers and hobbyists), and ited to physically commenting on the film.21 The im-
in specific genres (such as simulation games). There- mobile and predominantly silent film viewer behaves
fore it is probably no coincidence that both Friedman ‘‘like a viewer, not like an actor. The actors have their
and Turkle focus on a rather specific group and genre designated spot, which is elsewhere: at the other side
for their studies. In everyday practice, however, such of the film’’ (Metz, 1975, p. 118). If we, on the other
deconstruction will regularly be overshadowed by the hand, look at the history of computer games, it is re-
different forms of enjoyment that users may experience markable that with increasing frequency we find our-
while playing computer games. Not only film viewers, selves in three-dimensional virtual worlds in which we
but also computer game players, seem to me, more su- not only stay close to the POV of the main character,
perficial than Friedman and Turkle maintain, at least if but in which we are able to fulfill the role of main char-
we define superficiality as staying at the surface of the acter due to this POV structure (see Rushkoff, 1997,
fiction, the story and the game, as opposed to the previ- pp. 177–178).
ous in-depth deconstruction. In making the player a character in the plot, com-
puter games accomplish what has only been themed or
R e c o n fi g u r a t i o n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n tried in vain in film or other media. Both in the music
The concept of ‘‘participation’’ is often considered an- video Take On Me (A-ha, 1985) and the film The Purple
other term for what some call ‘‘interactivity.’’ In order Rose of Cairo (Allen, 1985) a female character respec-
to establish the relationship between both terms more tively walks into a comic book and a film to experience
clearly, I will first describe the concept of ‘‘interactiv- all kinds of adventures, while the film Lady in the Lake
ity’’ and a criticism of it after which I will discuss the (Montgomery, 1946) goes even a step further by
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maneuvering its own audience into the position of to human input. Ascribing magical ability to a piece of
Table 24.2
Domains of participation
Domains of
Hall Friedman Turkle Aarseth Ryan participation
|
Thus, reconfiguration enables the player ‘‘to con- referred to in relation to digital culture: ‘‘the hacker
(Wolf, 1999) or ‘‘experience economy’’ (Pine & Gil- tational. Culture jammers want to ‘‘jam’’ the dominant
Joost Raessens
more, 1999), which is characterized by the sheer media, while poachers want to appropriate their content,
economic importance of cultural expression—it is be- imagining a more democratic, responsive, and diverse style
coming increasingly important also to give a political- of popular culture. Jammers want to destroy media
ideological reading of computer games as participatory power, while poachers want a share of it. ( Jenkins, 2002,
media culture. p. 167).23
It seems to me that this reading should consist of at
least four elements, which I want to deal with in this fi- We see these bottom-up cultures both where
nal section. First of all, the question of who will have or independent games are being developed and spread—
get access to the media culture, the influence of which like Waco Resurrection (2003) and Under Ash (2003)—
reaches all of us (top-down versus bottom-up). Second, and where existing game-elements and game-engines
a question concerning the results of this access to the are modified and used for own, for example, political
practices of the media culture (homogenization versus purposes, like Velvet-Strike (2002), Diplomatic Arena
heterogenization). Third, the matter of the status of (2003) and Civilization IV—Age of Empire (2003). These
the different forms of media culture that we should re- games could be played during the ‘‘Exploding Cinema:
late to (the real versus the possible). Fourth, these three Power: Play’’ program of the International Film Festi-
elements combine to make it possible to distinguish be- val Rotterdam 2004:
tween different levels of participation: culture participa-
tion versus participatory culture. A new genre of critical games . . . is emerging. People can be
informed about economic exploitation or political migration
Top-Down versus Bottom-Up via games . . . Why remain a passive consumer when there
The question of who can participate in our culture can is just as much fun to be had in adopting games to our own
be further elaborated on by asking whether we face sets of rules . . . One thing all the selected games . . . within
or will face a top-down culture in which a small num- Power: Play have in common is the notion of empowerment,
ber of computer game developers and publishers run speaking out, looking critically, taking the initiative ourselves
the show all by themselves (Microsoft, Electronic Arts, (Carels, 2004).
Atari, Eidos and others), or whether we face or will face
a multitude of bottom-up cultures, in which computer As the reader can see in Anne-Marie Schleiner’s chap-
gamers can (continue to) participate, one way or ter of this book, we encounter these bottom-up cultures
another. What is at stake here is the possibility for where gamers use sharing and open-source techniques
players to exert their fair-use rights on copyrighted to recycle existing products of the mainstream practices
material. As I described above, even in cases in which of the cultural industries.
users have no control over the production of culture,
they can still control its ‘‘consumption,’’ described as Homogenization versus Heterogenization
‘‘the art of using those imposed on it’’: ‘‘characterized In spite of the fact that within mass media processes of
by its ruses, its fragmentation . . . its poaching, its clan- homogenization seem to prevail at first sight, there are
destine nature, its tireless but quiet activity’’ (De Cer- still possibilities for processes of heterogenization (see
teau, 1988, p. 31). Raessens, 1998, pp. 109–111; 2001; 2002, pp. 129–
In line with Henry Jenkins’ criticism of Mark Dery 131). Relevant here is the critique of the Italian phi-
(1993), I would rather plead for an open, negotiating losopher Gianni Vattimo on the work of Horkheimer
relation with producers from the computer game indus- and Adorno. According to Vattimo, Horkheimer and
try than for an attitude of refusal, or, as Jenkins formu- Adorno (1951, 1986) are of the opinion that the mass
lates it, for the development ‘‘from jammers to media would produce ‘‘a general homogenization of
bloggers’’: society’’ in which ‘‘the diffusion of slogans, propaganda
(commercial as well as political) and stereotypical
Culture jammers want to opt out of media consumption and worldviews’’ would dominate (Vattimo, 1992, p. 5).
promote a purely negative and reactive conception of popular Vattimo, on the other hand, is much more opti-
culture. Fans, on the other hand, see unrealized potentials in mistic about the role of the mass media. According
popular culture and want to broaden audience participation. to him, they have played a crucial role in ‘‘a general
Fan culture is dialogic rather than disruptive, affective more explosion and proliferation of ‘Weltanschauungen,’
than ideological, and collaborative rather than confron- of worldviews’’ (Vattimo, 1992, p. 5). All kinds of
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minorities and subcultures have seized the opportunity people as inconceivable and therefore frightening, the
business strategy for maximizing profit, but always also wide piracy is estimated to have cost the US en-
Joost Raessens
a battlefield where the possibility to realize specific, tertainment software industry over $3.0 billion
bottom-up, heterogeneous forms of participatory media in 2001, robbing game developers and the game
culture is at stake. industry of revenue that could be used to under-
write the creation and marketing of an even
Acknowledgments wider array of game titles.’’ See: www.theesa.
I thank Chiel Kattenbelt, Jos de Mul and Mirko Schäfer com/piracy.html.
for their comments on an earlier version of this chapter, 7. Janet Murray describes interactivity as the
and Joep Damen for help with the translation. merger of agency (‘‘the satisfying power to
take meaningful action and see the results of
Notes our decisions and choices’’) and transformation
1. Whereas the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze (‘‘Computers offer us countless ways of shape-
defines philosophy as the creation of concepts shifting’’), see Murray, 1997, pp. 126 and 154.
(Deleuze & Guattari, 1991, pp. 8, 11), the A film viewer is passive in the sense that while
philosophical method I will use in this chapter watching a film there is no such thing as recon-
also involves analyzing and criticizing existing figuration or construction, in my sense of the
concepts. word. For an analysis of ‘‘The Viewer’s Activ-
2. Deleuze formulates this method as follows: ity’’ while watching a film, see Bordwell, 1985,
‘‘introducing the concepts of ‘meaning’ and pp. 29–47.
‘value’ to philosophy’’ (1962, p. 1). This allows 8. These Internet-constructed collaborative fan
us to interpret the forces that are articulated in communities are typical for participatory media
computer games, for example, as homogeneous culture; think also of peer-to-peer networks,
or heterogeneous, and to evaluate them, for ex- collaborative and reader edited news networks
ample, as desirable or undesirable. (e.g., Slashdot, News for Nerds, Stuff that
3. The view that the development of interactive Matters), open-source based activities of pro-
technologies as such is sufficient for the real- grammers and users to develop software for
ization of a new participatory culture has to be general use, nonprofit activities (Linux) and the
rejected as a form of radical ‘‘technological de- activities of bloggers. For further elaboration
terminism.’’ Also the social-constructivist view, on these examples, especially concerning their
which claims that mainly nontechnological fac- implications on the practice of citizenship, see
tors matter, has to be considered: ‘‘Rather than Uricchio, 2003.
talking about interactive technologies, we should 9. British cultural studies for the most part came
document the interactions that occur among into existence in the 1970s at the Birmingham
media consumers, between media consumers Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
and media texts and between media consumers (CCCS, established in 1964) under the super-
and media producers’’ ( Jenkins, 2002, p. 157). vision of director Stuart Hall (see Turner,
4. See Brecht, 1932–1933, p. 553: ‘‘den Zuhörer 1996).
nicht nur hören, sondern auch sprechen zu 10. The introduction of new, audiovisual technolo-
machen’’; and Benjamin, 1934, p. 110: ‘‘Und gies is often linked to the fear that the ever
zwar ist dieser Apparat um so besser, je mehr er so tempting images and sounds will impair the
Konsumenten der Produktion zuführt, kurz aus reflexivity of the printing culture (Birkerts,
Lesern oder aus Zuschauern Mitwirkende zu 1996). Think of the novels by Aldous Huxley
machen imstande ist.’’ (Brave new world, 1932) and Ray Bradbury
5. The term ‘‘multimediality’’ refers to the multi- (Fahrenheit 451, 1953), in which, respectively,
tude of means of expression (‘‘matières de l’ex- the film theatre from the 1930s and the rise of
pression’’) see Metz, 1977, pp. 10, 17–18, 25, television in the 1950s is characterized as mis-
and 130–131. leading. Since the 1970s, this fear is formulated
6. Both the Dutch Association of Producers and with respect to computer games, which, by com-
Importers of Audio-visual Materials (NVPI) bining moving images, sound, and interactivity,
and the Entertainment Software Association supposedly only provide immediate satisfaction
(ESA) refer to the problem of piracy: ‘‘World- through stimulation of the senses.
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11. A more current version of this position is visi- personal computers began to present themselves
with the Frankfurt School, ‘‘celebrate their own Birkerts, S. (1996). The Gutenberg elegies: The fate of
Joost Raessens
freedom from media control even as they see the reading in an electronic Age. London: Ballantine Books.
‘masses’ as still subjected to manipulation . . .
Bolter, J., & Grusin, R. (1999). Remediation: Under-
media consumers are largely blinded to their
standing new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
own interests, distracted by ‘bread and circuses’
entertainment.’’ According to me, participatory Bordwell, D. (1985). Narration in the fiction film. Madi-
media culture is more widespread than avant son: University of Wisconsin Press.
gardist criticism (Dery) and less widespread
Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (1986). Film art: An in-
than the focus on fan cultures promoting do-it-
troduction. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
yourself media production suggests.
24. Children of chaos: Surviving the end of the world as Brecht, B. (1992). Der Rundfunk als Kommunika-
we know it, was published in 1996 under the tionsapparat. Rede über die Funktion des Rundfunks
more descriptive title of Playing the future: How (1932–1933). In Bertolt Brecht. Werke, Schriften 1.
kids’ culture can teach us to thrive in an age of chaos Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.
(HarperCollins). Cameron, A. (1995). Dissimulations. The Illusion of
25. For example, George Bush’s appropriation of Interactivity. Millennium Film Journal, 28, 32–47. See:
the American myth of the Western to legitimize mfj-online.org/journalpages/MFJ28/Dissimulations.
the war on terror. See Faludi (2003) and Raes- html.
sens (2003).
26. Deleuze and Vattimo call this process ‘‘fabuliza- Carels, E. (2004). The state of play. In E. Houtenbrink
tion,’’ referring to Nietzsche’s text ‘‘Wie die (Ed.), Catalogue 33 rd International Film Festival Rotter-
«wahre Welt» endlich zur Fabel wurde’’ (1989, dam. Amsterdam: Publish Amsterdam.
pp. 80–81): ‘‘It may be that in the world of Certeau, M. de. (1988). The practice of everyday life.
the mass media a ‘prophecy’ of Nietzsche’s is Berkeley: University of California Press.
fulfilled: in the end the true world becomes a fa-
ble’’ (Vattimo, 1992, p. 7). For an extensive dis- Darley, A. (2000). Visual digital culture: Surface play and
cussion of this process in relation to the films spectacle in new media genres. London and New York:
eXistenZ (Cronenberg, 1999) and The Matrix Routledge.
(Wachowski, 1999), see Raessens, 2001, pp. Deleuze, G. (1962). Nietzsche et la philosophie. Paris:
252–262. Presses Universitaires de France.
27. When we consider participation from the per-
Deleuze, G. (1990). Post-scriptum sur les sociétés de
spective of the rules of the game, we can define
contrôle. In Pourparlers. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit,
it as ‘‘re/de/construction’’: in the reconstructive
pp. 240–247.
mode, the player plays according to the rules of
the game; in the deconstructive mode, he or she Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1991). Qu’est-ce que la phi-
penetrates the rules; and in the constructive losophie? Paris: Minuit.
mode, he or she plays a kind of meta-game in
Dery, M. (1993). Culture jamming: Hacking, slashing
which the rules themselves are played with and
and sniping in the empire of signs. See: www.levity.
adapted.
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