1

SEMANTICS
AND COGNITIVE RESEARCH
Franois RASTIER
2006
2
Semantics and cognitive research
Translation, by Larry Marks, from Smantique et recherches
cognitives, 2e dition corrige et augmente, Presses Universitaires
de France, octobre 2001, 272 p.
Franois Rastier.
Larry Marks (translator).
3
TABLE OF O!TE!T"
#ntro$%&tion ............................................................................................. '. (
F#R"T "ET#O!) *#"TOR+ A!, E-#"TEMOLO.+
/a'ter #) o0niti1e resear&/ .................................................................. '. 11
1. "o2e 'reli2inaries ..................................................................... '. 11
2. T/e .eo0ra'/y o3 o0niti1e Resear&/ ...................................... '. 12
3. T/e *istorio0ra'/y o3 o0niti1e Resear&/ .................................. '. 16
4. T/e -ost%lates o3 o0niti1e Resear&/ ........................................ '. 22
(. T/e T5o -ara$i02s .................................................................... '. 2(
/a'ter ##) "takes 3or Lin0%isti&s ............................................................. '. 3(
/a'ter ###) Fro2 &on&e't to si0ni3ie$ ...................................................... '. 66
"EO!, "ET#O!) "EMA!T#" A!, ART#F##AL #!TELL#.E!E
/a'ter #7) "e2anti&s o3 net5orks ........................................................... '. 66
/a'ter 7) #A8s 3or2alis2s an$ re'resentation o3 t/e le9i&al si0ni3ie$ ...... '. 66
/a'ter 7#) ,ialo0%e 2an:2a&/ine an$ re'resentation o3 t/e interlo&%tor '. 66
T*#R, "ET#O!) FROM -"+*OLO.+ TO !E;RO"#E!E"
/a'ter 7##) ate0ori<ation, ty'i&ality an$ Le9i&olo0y ............................... '. 66
/a'ter 7###) "e2anti& 'er&e'tion ............................................................. '. 66
/a'ter #6) Anato2i&al s%=strates o3 &%lt%res an$ o3 lan0%a0es ................ '. 66
E'ilo0%e .................................................................................................... '. 66
A''en$i9 to t/e se&on$ e$ition) T/e F%n&tionalis2 an$ en$
o3 >'ara$i02s? ........................................................................................... '. 66
.lossary .................................................................................................... '. 66
"y2=ols an$ a==re1iations ........................................................................ '. 66
Re3eren&es ................................................................................................ '. 66
4
(
#!TRO,;T#O!
1. T/e state o3 &o0niti1e resear&/ /as e1ol1e$ &onsi$era=ly o1er t/e 3i1e year 'erio$
$%rin0 5/i&/ t/is =ook 5as 5ritten. #n Fran&e, as else5/ere in E%ro'e, &o0niti1e resear&/
/as =een instit%tionali<e$ to a &onsi$era=le e9tent in resear&/ an$ in tea&/in0 'ro0ra2s as
5ell. #n$ee$ a 0oo$ n%2=er o3 resear&/ers, in or$er to o=tain 3%n$in0, /a1e 3o%n$
t/e2sel1es o=li0e$ to &lai2 so2e alle0ian&e to its $o2inant t/e2es an$ orientations.
,es'ite t/is ra'i$ 'ro0ress o%r initial 0oal /as not &/an0e$) to e9'lore 5/at &o0niti1e
resear&/ &an =rin0 to t/e so&ial s&ien&es, es'e&ially to lin0%isti&s, an$ to e1al%ate &o0niti1e
resear&/ 3ro2 t/e 'oint o3 1ie5 o3 lin0%isti&s. T/is $o%=le 'ers'e&ti1e /as ena=le$ %s to
or0ani<e a 1ast s%=@e&t 2atter, to%&/in0 %'on a n%2=er o3 $is&i'lines, in s%&/ a 5ay as to
'resent t/e 2ost i2'ortant t/e2es 5it/o%t ne&essarily o33erin0 an e9/a%sti1e treat2ent o3
e1eryt/in0 t/at is at stake.
T/e relations =et5een t/e 1ario%s $is&i'lines en0a0e$ in &o0niti1e resear&/ /a1e
also e1ol1e$ o1er t/e last 3i1e years. T/e rise o3 t/e &onne&tionist 'ro=le2ati& (&3. &/a'. ##)
/as =een 2arke$ =y a stron0 intera&tion 5it/ t/e ne%ros&ien&es an$ 5it/ net5ork '/ysi&s.
#n$ee$ t/ese $is&i'lines /a1e 2a$e $e&isi1e 'ro0ress. Ait/in t/e ne%ros&ien&es, t/ese
a$1an&es are 'artially $%e to 'ro0ress in =io&/e2istry on t/e one /an$ an$ in &ere=ral
i2a0ery on t/e ot/er. #n net5ork '/ysi&s, 'ro0ress /as =een 2a$e =y t/e a''li&ation o3
statisti&al 2e&/ani&s
1
an$ in '/ysi&s =y t/e $e1elo'2ent o3 s'in 0lass t/eory.
T/ese 3iel$s o3 enB%iry are e1ol1in0 1ery ra'i$ly an$ &o%l$ 5ell lea$ to i2'ortant
$is&o1eries. .Crar$ To%lo%se 3or e9a2'le /as ela=orate$ a rat/er 'ro2isin0 'arallel) @%st
as &lassi&al 2e&/ani&s, $e1elo'e$ in or$er to re'la&e /%2an an$ ani2al 3or&e, 0a1e rise
%ne9'e&te$ly to B%ant%2 2e&/ani&s, so too 2i0/t net5ork '/ysi&s, $e1elo'e$ in or$er to
assist /%2an intelli0en&e
2
, lea$ to t/eoreti&al %'/ea1als o3 t/e sa2e 2a0nit%$e.
2. "e2anti&s itsel3 /o5e1er is not $ire&tly a33e&te$ =y t/ese $e1elo'2ents. O%r ai2
reB%ires %s to re2ain 5it/in t/is 3ine layer o3 Bein0 t/at is t/e sy2=oli& (&3. infra, &/a'. #, 3
an$ t/e e'ilo0%e). #t is =y re&o0ni<in0 t/e relati1e a%tono2y o3 t/e sy2=oli& t/at 5e are
a=le to se'arate 5or$s 3ro2 t/in0s an$ $es&ri=e t/e s'e&i3i&ity o3 s'ee&/ an$ o3 lan0%a0es
5it/o%t =e&o2in0 e2=roile$ in re$%&tionist enter'rises 5/i&/ 5o%l$ sit%ate lin0%isti&s 5it/in
a 'sy&/olo0y, a =iolo0y, or e1en a '/ysi&s
3
.
Ait/in t/e sy2=oli& s'/ere, lin0%isti&s nei0/=ors 5it/ 'sy&/olo0y as 5ell as t/at
=ran&/ o3 A# 5/i&/ 'ro&esses lin0%isti& sy2=ols. T/is is 5/y 5e 'ro'ose to $e1ote t/e last
1
For an intro$%&tion see MC<ar$ an$ !a$al (1DD0), Me%nier (1DD0).
2
onne&tionnist net5orks o3 &o%rse ser1e t/e o=@e&ti1es o3 Arti3i&ial #ntelli0en&e (/en&e3ort/ A#).
!
A &ase in 'oint is RenC T/o28s semiophysics as $e1elo'e$ =y E. -etitot (1DFD, '. 21F))
G&onsi$ere$ as t/e 2at/e2ati&al s&ien&e o3 nat%ral lan0%a0es, t/eoreti&al lin0%isti&s is a nat%ral
s&ien&e, 2ore a '/ysi&s t/an a lo0i&G. T/e e9'ression natural languages t/at -etitot %ses $oes
not o=literate t/eir &%lt%ral nat%re.
6
t5o se&tions to t/ese s&ien&es e1en i3 5e also 'er2it o%rsel1es in&%rsions into ot/er
$is&i'lines.
3. T/e &on&e't o3 inter$is&i'linarity t/at 5e are 0oin0 to '%t 3ort/ $i33ers 3ro2 one
$is&i'line to t/e ne9t. #n t/e &ase o3 a te&/nolo0y s%&/ as A#, 5e 5ill atte2't to st%$y 3irstly
/o5 its &/ara&teristi& 3or2ali<ations an$ 'ro&e$%res &an =e %se$ in se2anti&s, an$
se&on$ly, 5/at se2anti&s &an &ontri=%te to t/e a%to2ati& lan0%a0e 'ro&essin. #n t/e &ase
o3 s&ien&es s%&/ as 'sy&/olo0y an$ ne%rolo0y 5e 5ill in1esti0ate t/e &orrelates o3
se2anti& '/eno2ena t/at 2i0/t ser1e to &orro=orate or i2'air o%r /y'ot/eses, 5it/o%t
ne&essarily e9'e&tin0 o%r 3in$in0s to 1ali$ate or $is2iss t/e2. A/ate1er 2ay =e sai$ o3
3%sional &on&e'tions o3 inter$is&i'linarity, no s&ien&e &an in itsel3 1ali$ate anot/er, sin&e
e1en i3 t/ey s/are t/e sa2e e2'iri&al o=@e&t (s%&/ as lin0%isti&s, 'sy&/olin0%isti&s, an$
ne%rolin0%isti&s), t/ey $o not /a1e t/e sa2e e'iste2olo0i&al o=@e&ti1es an$
'res%''ositions.
T/ere 2ay =e so2e interest in e1okin0 t/e i2a0e o3 a kin$ o3 3ree tra$e =et5een t/e
s&ien&es i3 only t/eir =or$ers to%&/e$. B%t t/ese =or$ers are &onstantly 2o$i3ie$ =y
s&ienti3i& 'ra&ti&e an$ in s%&/ a 5ay t/at &onta&t =et5een nei0/=orin0 $is&i'lines is not
ne&essarily 2a$e sin&e ea&/ $is&i'line $e3ines its o=@e&t in a 'arti&%lar 5ay an$
&ir&%2s&ri=es 3or it a $istin&t le1el o3 reality. T5o s&ien&es &an o&&%'y t/e sa2e terrain::or,
in *%sserlian ter2s, $es&ri=e t/e sa2e layer o3 Bein0::=%t not t/e sa2e $o2ain.
Trans$is&i'linary t/eoreti&al 3or2%lations are in t/e =est o3 &ases re0ional ontolo0ies or in
any e1ent '/iloso'/ies an$ not s&ien&es.
#n s/ort, t/e 3irst se&tion o3 t/is 5ork 5ill &on&ern e'iste2olo0y in or$er to $eal 5it/ a
n%2=er o3 &on1er0ent B%estions)
(i) o0niti1e resear&/ is inter$is&i'linaryH 5/at are t/e 3or2s o3 t/is
inter$is&i'linarity I
(ii) o0niti1e resear&/ takes kno5le$0e as its o=@e&t, one o3 t/e tra$itional o=@e&ts o3
'/iloso'/y. an a 0noseolo0y =e s&ienti3i&I
(iii) A/at is t/e role o3 lan0%a0e in kno5le$0e I ,oes t/is B%estion, in&i$entally,
&on&ern lin0%isti&s I
(i1) "in&e t/e 'ro=le2 o3 2eanin0 /as lon0 'reo&&%'ie$ '/iloso'/y, an$ to a
&onsi$era=le e9tent still $oes, 5/at &on$itions are ne&essary in or$er 3or se2anti&s to
&onstit%te itsel3 as a s&ienti3i& $is&i'line I
4. Ans5erin0 t/ese B%estions reB%ires 3irst o3 all so2e re3le&tion on t/e e1ol%tion o3
&o0niti1e resear&/. #n or$er to %n$erstan$ t/is e1ol%tion, one /as to e1al%ate re&ent
a$1an&es in t/e 3iel$ in li0/t o3 t/e 1ario%s 'ro=le2ati&s t/at /a1e &ontri=%te$ to t/e2 an$
in relation to t/ose 'ro=le2ati&s t/at t/is sa2e resear&/ /as ren$ere$ o%t$ate$. T/is
%n$erstan$in0 &annot =e li2ite$ to an e9a2ination o3 resear&/ &on$%&te$ t/ro%0/o%t t/e
F0s, nor e1en to t/e /al3 &ent%ry $%rin0 5/i&/ 2o$ern &o0niti1is2 $e1elo'e$, sin&e in
2any res'e&ts, &o0niti1e resear&/ to$ay is '%rs%in0, or &/allen0in0, an an&ient '/iloso'/i&
tra$ition.
Ae 5ill &onseB%ently 2ake 3reB%ent re3eren&e to t/e /istory o3 i$eas. ertainly t/e
/istory o3 lin0%isti& se2anti&s is still =rie3 an$ &o0niti1e resear&/ is 'ossi=ly e1en yo%n0er
sin&e it 5illin0ly &lai2s not to /a1e any /istory at all or at least 'reten$s to /a1e
ina%0%rate$ a ne5 era in resear&/. #n o%r 1ie5 it is 'ro3ita=le to sit%ate t/e B%estions t/is
resear&/ e1okes in a /istori&al 'ers'e&ti1e. As 5ell, t/e /istory o3 t/e s&ien&es, 3ar 3ro2
J
li2itin0 itsel3 to intra:t/eoreti&al 2atters, also takes into a&&o%nt so&iolo0i&al 3a&tors an$
i$eolo0i&al 'ers'e&ti1es t/at 5e 5ill re3er to an$ $is&%ss 5/en nee$ =e.
Asi$e 3ro2 e'iste2olo0y 5e 5ill a1oi$ in&%rsions into 0eneral '/iloso'/y, alt/o%0/
5e /a1e a'tly 'resente$ '/iloso'/y as t/e 3irst o3 t/e &o0niti1e $is&i'lines. Ae 5ill also =e
'er/a's %n@%stly reser1e$ in o%r $is&%ssion a=o%t t/e '/iloso'/y t/at $e1elo'e$ s%$$enly
3ro2 &o0niti1e resear&/ an$ 5/i&/ is kno5n 0enerally as t/e Philosophy of Mind ) o3ten
'ers'i&a&io%s an$ s'e&%lati1e, =%t la&kin0 a re3le9i1e $i2ension, t/is '/iloso'/y, 5/i&/
3reB%ently $etails e9'erien&es o3 3ree t/o%0/t (Gedankenexperiment ), /as in/erite$ 2ore
t/an a 3e5 o3 analyti&al '/iloso'/y8s 'e&&a$illoes. As a &onseB%en&e 5e are resi0ne$ to
2ake only a 3e5 all%sions to it.
(. E1en 5it/ t/ese restri&tions in 2in$ o%r s%=@e&t 2atter re2ains lar0e an$ $i1erse.
Ae 'ro'ose to or0ani<e it alon0 t5o lines.
First o3 all, 5e $o not 'ro'ose to treat t/e entire 3iel$ o3 &o0niti1e resear&/ in an
e9/a%sti1e nor e1en an eB%ita=le 2anner. An$ 5e 5ill not atte2't to ri1al t/e 3ine
intro$%&tions t/at /a1e alrea$y e9'o%n$e$ on t/e $is&i'lines %n$er $is&%ssion
4
. Ae 're3er
to sele&t an$ 3o&%s on s'e&i3i& t/e2es t/at /a1e an e9'lanatory 1al%e in or$er to
in1esti0ate t/e &o2'le9 relations =et5een lin0%isti& se2anti&s an$ relate$ $is&i'lines, an
a''roa&/ t/at 5e 3eel &on3or2s to o%r &on&e't o3 inter$is&i'linarity.
Beyon$ t/is, t/e &/oi&e an$ treat2ent o3 t/ese t/e2es ill%strate 3o%r 'arallel t/eses
t/at in3or2 t/is entire st%$y an$ t/at 5e /o'e 5ill %ni3y it as a 5/ole.
(i) Lin0%isti&s (an$ t/e se2anti&s 5/i&/ is a 'art o3 it) is a $es&ri'ti1e an$ 'artially
're$i&ti1e $is&i'line. T/is &/ara&teristi& $e'en$s on t/e nat%re o3 its o=@e&t
(
. As 5it/ all t/e
so&ial s&ien&es, lin0%isti&s &an s%rely a1ail itsel3 o3 2at/e2ati&s an$ lo0i& =%t it &annot ai2
to =e a9io2ati& (no 2ore so t/an t/e '/ysi&al an$ nat%ral s&ien&es). onte2'orary
en$ea1ors in t/is $ire&tion /a1e lea$ to a 'roli3eration, interestin0 no $o%=t, o3 'artial
2o$els =%t 5it/o%t =ein0 a=le to satis3y t/e o3ten re'eate$ nee$ 3or a %ni3ie$ $es&ri'ti1e
t/eory
6
.
(ii) #3 one a0rees 5it/ t/e 're&ee$in0 re2arks, it 3ollo5s t/at an e2'iri&al rationalis2
is t/e '/iloso'/i& 'osition =est s%ite$ to t/e lin0%ist8s t/eoreti&al a&ti1ity
J
. #t is a 'osition
t/at =est ena=les t/e lin0%ist to &on3ront an$ treat t/e $i1ersity o3 3a&tors in/erent in any
&%lt%ral sit%ation or &onte9t, lin0%isti& e9&/an0es t/e2sel1es =ein0 t/e 'ri2ary e9a2'le. #n
t/e &ase o3 $o02ati& rationalis2, its en1ia=le $esire 3or t/e a=sol%te /as i2'elle$ it to
seek, i3 not to i2'ose, t/e 2ost $i1erse ar&/ety'es an$ %ni1ersals. ;ltra:no2inalis2 =y
&ontrast, 5/i&/ alone in o%r o'inion /as 'er2itte$ se2anti&s to e2an&i'ate itsel3 3ro2
2eta'/ysi&s, lea$s %s ne1ert/eless to see in its a''roa&/ only 2et/o$olo0i&al %ni1ersals,
si2'le in1entions on t/e 'art o3 t/eoreti&ians 5/o rei3y t/e2 an$ 5/o t/erea3ter &ontent
t/e2sel1es 5it/ t/eir $is&o1ery. O%r s&e'ti&is2 is 'er/a's 2ore sy2'at/eti& 5it/ t/e
4
As 3or t/e a%to2ati& treat2ent o3 lan0%a0e, see "a=a/ (1DFD:D0) 3or t/e A# 'oint o3 1ie5H see
aron (1DFD) 3or t/e 'sy&/olin0%isti& 'ers'e&ti1e.
"
.ra22ar, a $is&i'line as an&ient as 5ritin0 itsel3, /as al5ays =een $es&ri'ti1e. T/e /istori&al
an$ &o2'arati1e 0ra22ar t/at late ei0/teent/ &ent%ry .er2an s&/olars na2e$ Linguistik 5as
&ertainly not a s'ontaneo%s in1ention on t/eir 'art. #t is t/e =ene3i&iary o3 a lon0 tra$ition o3
lin0%isti& t/o%0/t, e1en i3 its o=@e&t o3 kno5le$0e &ontin%es to =e s/are$ to t/e 'resent $ay.
6
For a $is&%ssion o3 relate$ 'ro'ositions =earin0 %'on se2anti&s, see Rastier 1DFJ a an$ 1DFD
a an$ =.
J
"ee A%ro%9 1DFD, an$ Rastier 1DFD =.
F
e2'iri&al tra$ition t/at /as al5ays stresse$ t/e tentati1e an$ relati1e &/ara&ter o3
kno5le$0e (5/ereas $o02ati& rationalis2 /ol$s 2at/e2ati&al tr%t/s as 'ara0on::an$ =y
e9tension analyti&al tr%t/s as 5ell t/at in 3a&t are ta%tolo0ies::an$ &on&l%$es t/at it &an
%n&o1er a=sol%te tr%t/s on t/e =asis o3 t/eir e'iste2olo0i&ally ne&essary &/ara&ter).
(iii) #t 2i0/t 5ell =e 'ossi=le to %n&o1er a nat%ral 3o%n$ation (in t/e =rain, t/en in
0eneti& &o$es) 3or lin0%isti& re0%larities, =%t t/e s&ienti3i& 'ro=le2 an$ interest rest no less::
or no 2ore::5it/ t/e %nity o3 lan0%a0es an$ t/eir se2anti&s t/an 5it/ t/eir $i1ersity. Asi$e
3ro2 t/is one /as to &onsi$er t/e i22ense $i1ersity o3 t/ose e2'iri&al o=@e&ts kno5n as
te9ts, an$ $o%=t t/at t/ey &an e1er =e re$%&e$ to %ni1ersals.
F%rt/er2ore, t/e lin0%isti& an$ non:lin0%isti& &onte9t (es'e&ially in se2anti&s) is,
inso3ar as it 3i0%res as t/e inter'retant, &onstit%ti1e o3 t/e G2essa0eG. One /as to &on&%r at
least t/at, in a 0lo=al as 5ell as 2ore i22anent sense, t/e te9t is $eter2ine$ an$ 2arke$
=y t/e &onte9t in a 2%ltit%$e o3 5ays. #n s/ort, lin0%isti& 'er3or2an&e &onsists o3 a &ontin%al
a$a'tation to a 1ariety o3 sit%ations 5/ose 'ara2eters =etray any 3a&ile an$ /an$y
&al&%lations
F
. "%&/ &al&%lation is ine1ita=ly 3r%strate$ =y a 3al&%lty o3 a$a'tation (i.e.,
sele&tion o3 0en$er, o3 tone, et&.) t/at in 3a&t =elon0s to lin0%isti& &o2'eten&e or is so
in$isso&ia=le 3ro2 it t/at one &o%l$ not i2a0ina=ly 'ro$%&e any G'%reG lin0%isti& a&t 5/i&/ is
3ree 3ro2 its in3l%en&e
D
.
By =earin0 t/is 3a&%lty o3 a$a'tation in 2in$ 5e are 'la&in0 o%rsel1es in a $e&i$e$ly
e&olo0i&al 'ers'e&ti1e (in .i=son8s sense) 2oreso t/an in a lo0i&al one. A 0ro5in0 n%2=er
o3 resear&/ers en0a0e$ in &o0niti1e resear&/, nota=ly in er0ono2i&s an$ in ant/ro'olo0y
($is&i'lines 3or 5/i&/ &onte9t is not a si2'le 1aria=le), /a1e ar0%e$ 3or an$ a$o'te$ t/is
1ery 'ers'e&ti1e
10
.
(i1) T/e '/ylo0enesis o3 lan0%a0es, to0et/er 5it/ t/eir atten$ant si0ni3i&ations, $oes
not 're1ent t/e2 3ro2 =ein0 &onsi$ere$ as /istori&al 3or2ations (@%st as so&ial
'/ylo0enesis $oes not ann%l t/e /istori&ity o3 so&ieties). T/is 'oint in 3a&t 'er2its t/e
inte0ration o3 a /istori&al lin0%isti&s in or$er to 0o =eyon$ it in t/e 3or2 o3 a 'an&/roni&
lin0%isti&s.
6. "&ienti3i& resear&/ in t/is &ent%ry /as =een 2arke$ =y a 0eneral fundamentalism
o3 5/i&/ &lassi&al &o0niti1is2 is @%st one e9'ression. As e9a2'les o3 t/is tren$ one 5o%l$
/a1e to &ite R%ssell an$ A/ite/ea$8s Principia Mathematica an$ *il=ert8s Foundations of
Geometry, in t/e 3iel$ o3 2at/e2ati&s #n '/ysi&s, one &o%l$ re3er to t/e ;ni3ie$ Fiel$
T/eory. T/ese 3%n$a2entalist 2o1e2ents in t/e /ar$ s&ien&es /a1e B%ite 'ossi=ly
in3l%en&e$ ot/er $is&i'lines.
A/ate1er t/e &ase 2ay =e, i3 5e &onsi$er t/e li3e s&ien&es one noti&es 3or e9a2'le a
re2arka=le e9'ansion o3 t/e 3iel$ o3 2ole&%lar =iolo0y an$ t/e relati1e $is&re$itin0 o3
&la$isti&s an$ 3or on0oin0 e33orts in t/e area o3 5/at re2ains t/e %n3inis/e$ re'ertory o3 t/e
#
Monta0%e $eser1es &re$it 3or /a1in0 in1ente$ t/e notion o3 index in or$er to a&&o%nt 3or t/is
1ery 3a&t. T/e ter2 re3ers to a seB%en&e o3 1aria=les s%&/ as place, time, speaker, listener,
deictic moves, possible worlds . ,. Le5is an$ "talnaker /a1e enlar0e$ t/is list. O3 &o%rse it is not
s%33i&ient to =e a=le to re&o0ni<e t/e e9isten&e o3 t/ese 1aria=les in or$er to 'ro$%&e an$ 5itness
t/eir e33e&ts...
D
Es'e&ially in t/e &ase o3 lin0%isti&s.
10
For an ant/ro'olo0i&al 'ers'e&ti1e, see "%&/2an (1DFJ)H 3or t/e i2'li&ations o3 "%&/2an8s
t/eory, see 7isetti (1DFD). T/is 'ers'e&ti1e /as no ne&essary link 5it/ 'ra02ati&s sin&e t/ere
e9ists s%&/ a t/in0 as %ni1ersalist 'ra02ati&sH in a si2ilar sense, one &o%l$ 2ention t/e
et/no&entris2 o3 .ri&e, an$ o3 resear&/ers like "'er=er an$ Ailson 5/o 3ollo5 /i2 an$ 5/o
5rite ) GAll /%2an =ein0s li1e in t/e sa2e '/ysi&al 5orl$G (1DFD, '. 64).
D
s'e&ies
11
. One 2i0/t e1en attri=%te t/is 'arti&%lar e1ol%tion to e&ono2i& 3a&tors) a 2ole&%le
&an =e 'atente$. One also /as to re2e2=er t/at t/e n%2=er o3 li1in0 s'e&ies is $i2inis/in0
ra'i$ly.
E1en t/e $i1ersity t/at &/ara&teri<es o%r o5n s'e&ies is %n$er0oin0 a &o2'ara=le
e1ol%tion) one @%st /as to t/ink o3 t/e 0ro5in0 %ni3or2i<ation o3 so&ial an$ &%lt%ral 'ra&ti&es
'atterne$ on an in&reasin0ly li2ite$ n%2=er o3 2o$els, an$ t/e $isa''earan&e ea&/ year o3
a &on$i$era=le n%2=er o3 lan0%a0es an$ $iale&ts.
F%n$a2ental resear&/ is &ertainly a $esira=le t/in0. F%n$a2entalis2 /o5e1er
e1i$ently 3a1ors t/eoreti&al re$%&tionis2 (5/i&/, %nlike 2et/o$olo0i&al re$%&tionis2, is
5it/o%t @%sti3i&ation). Finally, it re3le&ts an$ e1en anti&i'ates a 5orl$ 5/ose B%alitati1e
ri&/ness is =ein0 $il%te$.
+et t/e real &/allen0e 3or t/e s&ien&es (an$ es'e&ially 3or t/e so&ial s&ien&es) /as to
=e0in 5it/ not =ein0 satis3ie$ 5it/ t/e notion o3 t/e G%ni1ersalG::5/i&/ is 're&isely 5/ere
Aristotelian t/inkin0 5o%l$ /a1e t/e2 sit%ate$::=%t instea$ seekin0 to a&&o%nt 3or $i1ersity.
J. O3 all t/e =ran&/es o3 lin0%isti&s, se2anti&s is 5it/o%t a $o%=t t/e one 5/ere t/e
'ro=le2 o3 $i1ersity is t/e 2ost &r%&ial an$ t/e least easily $is&erne$. Broa$ly s'eakin0
lin0%ists /a1e 0eneral or %ni1ersal se2anti& t/eories, =%t t/ere e9ists no se2anti&s s'e&i3i&
to 'arti&%lar lan0%a0es, 2%&/ less 'arti&%lar $is&o%rses or 0enres. !e1ert/eless 5/oe1er
/as $one translations /as /a$ to &ontent /i2sel3 5it/ less t/an eB%i1alent ter2s. An$
5/oe1er /as en0a0e$ in te9t analysis &annot =%t =e str%&k =y t/e %n're$i&ta=le an$
in$e3inite 1aria=ility o3 se2anti& relations 5it/in s'e&i3i& &onte9ts.
Ae /a1e a$o'te$ a se2anti& a''roa&/ t/at 5e &onsi$er to =e t/e 2ost sensiti1e to
$i1ersity) $i33erential se2anti&s (&3. &/a'. ###). ,e1elo'e$ 5it/in t/e "a%ss%rian tra$ition,
$i33erential se2anti&s /as inte0rate$ so2e as'e&ts o3 t/e &o2'onential se2anti&s
12
&%rrent
$%rin0 t/e 60s =%t /as 0one =eyon$ it in o%r 1ie5 're&isely =y &/allen0in0 its 'retensions to
%ni1ersalis2
13
, in t/e ai2 o3 =ein0 =etter a=le to a&&o%nt 3or &onte9t%al an$ te9t%al
&o2'le9ity.
+et 5it/in t/e ran0e o3 'ro=le2ati&s t/at se2anti&s en&o2'asses t/is last /as s%rely
re&ei1e$ t/e least attention =y t/e &o0niti1e s&ien&es, e1en t/o%0/ re&ent $e=ates a=o%t
t/e subsymbolic /a1e sit%ate$ a n%2=er o3 its t/e2es, 3or e9a2'le &onte9t%al 1ariation an$
t/e non:&o2'ositionality o3 2eanin0, at t/e le1el o3 2ental re'resentations.
T/is 'ara$o9i&al sit%ation 5ill ena=le %s to esta=lis/ a link 5it/ 're1io%s $e=ates an$
to 3or2%late B%estions t/at are not or$inarily raise$ in t/is $o2ain. Most i2'ortantly, o%r
interest 5ill =e to $is&%ss t/e re$%&tion o3 t/e se2anti& to t/e 2ental, as 5ell as t/e
relations =et5een lin0%isti& si0ni3ie$s an$ &on&e'ts on t/e one /an$ an$ 2ental i2a0es on
t/e ot/er. By intro$%&in0 or 2aintainin0 t/ese 3%n$a2ental $istin&tions 5e 5ill =e a=le to
$e3ine t/e relati1e a%tono2y o3 t/e sy2=oli&. T/is en$ea1or e9&ee$s t/e &on3ines o3
se2anti&s stri&tly s'eakin0 an$ interests se2ioti&s as a 5/ole.
11
An i$ea t/at is s%22ari<e$ 'er3e&tly =y a 2a9i2 attri=%te$ to Ea&B%es Mono$ ) GA/at is tr%e
3or =a&teria is tr%e 3or ele'/antsG.
12
T/is e9'ression is a 'artial 2isno2er) &o2'onential se2anti&s /as ne1er =een G%ni3ie$G. On
t/e &ontrary, it rele&ts all t/e &ontra$i&tions =et5een t/e &o2'etin0 'ro=le2ati&s o3 t/e 'erio$.
13
T/e $e=ate 5as lar0ely 3o&%se$ on t/e stat%s o3 se2anti& 3eat%res. ,o%=t 5as &ast on 2any
&o22on ass%2'tions &on&ernin0 t/eir nat%re, in 'arti&%lar 5/et/er t/ey 5ere 3e5 in n%2=er,
5/et/er t/ey &onstit%te$ 2ini2al or in$i1isi=le %nits, an$ o3 &o%rse, 5/et/er t/ey 5ere
%ni1ersals (see Rastier, 1DFJ a, &/a'. #).
10
"e2ioti&s a''ears to =e t/e 'ri1ile0e$ $o2ain 5/ere t/e intera&tion =et5een
&o0niti1e resear&/ an$ lin0%isti&s as a so&ial s&ien&e is 2ost &learly 'laye$ o%t. #n$ee$ t/is
relations/i' 2ay 5ell &/ara&teri<e t/e 3%t%re o3 t/e so&ial s&ien&es as a 5/ole an$ also o3
&o0niti1e resear&/ itsel3.
Ae 5ill also =e le$ in se1eral 'la&es to 3or2%late a n%2=er o3 &ritiB%es &on&ernin0
t/e 'ost%lates o3 ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2, an$ e1en t/ose o3 &o0niti1e resear&/ 2ore
0enerally, 'arti&%larly in res'e&t to t/eir tri'le ne0le&t o3 lan0%a0es, o3 &on&rete sit%ations o3
intera&tion an$ in t/e en$ o3 &%lt%res. T/is ne0le&t /as not 'er2itte$ t/ese $is&i'lines to
3ree t/e2sel1es 3ro2 2eta'/ysi&al tra$itions.
#n e33e&t 5e are 'la&in0 o%rsel1es in a $i33erent an$ so2eti2es $istan&e$ 'ers'e&ti1e
) 5e /a1e a$o'te$ t/e 'oint o3 1ie5 o3 a se2ioti&s o3 &%lt%res (an$ /ere t/e se2anti&s o3
lan0%a0es 'lays a 'i1otal role) t/at /as yet to =e &onstit%te$ as an a%tono2o%s $is&i'line
an$ in$ee$ re2ains to =e $e1elo'e$. #n =ot/ t/eir 'ra&ti&al an$ t/eoreti&al 3or2s, its =asi&
&onstit%ents still re2ain $is'arate in 2ost o3 t/e so&ial s&ien&es. #n or$er to sket&/ its
'ara2eters, one 5o%l$ /a1e to ret%rn to ant/ro'olo0y an$ t/e 5orks o3 LC1i:"tra%ss an$
Mars/all "a/lins, to t/e 5orks o3 assirer in '/iloso'/y, to t/e &o2'arati1e 2yt/olo0y o3
,%2C<il an$ /ara&/i$<C, in /istory to t/e 5orks o3 arlo .ins=%r0, o3 -ano3sky, "a9l, an$
.o2=ri&/ in i&onolo0y, to "e0re in '/ilolo0y, an$ to t/e se2ioti& resear&/ o3 Lot2an an$
;s'ensky.
For t/e 2o2ent 5e 5ill &ontent o%rsel1es 5it/ 2entionin0 t/at &o0niti1e resear&/ as
a 5/ole 5o%l$ $o%=tless 'ro3it 3ro2 a 0reater &onsi$eration o3 &%lt%ral 3a&tors, e1en i3 only
to ena=le it to =etter a&&o%nt 3or t/e s'e&i3i&ities o3 /%2an &o0nitionH an$ also t/at a
se2ioti&s o3 &%lt%res s/o%l$ a''roa&/ t/e notion o3 t/e human mind 5it/ 'r%$en&e.
onseB%ently, o%r 5is/ is to initiate a $e=ate =et5een &o0niti1e resear&/ an$ a se2ioti&s
o3 &%lt%res, not in or$er to o'en a 'ole2i& =%t in t/e ai2 o3 stren0t/enin0 t/e relations
=et5een t/e t5o $is&i'lines. O%r &on&l%sions a=o%t t/e anato2i&al s%=strata o3 &%lt%res
ten$ 're&isely in t/is $ire&tion. #n t/e en$, it is really a B%estion o3 &o2in0 to ter2s 5it/ t/e
o''ositions =et5een nat%re an$ &%lt%re, a&B%ire$ an$ innate, 're&isely in or$er to
o1er&o2e t/e2. #t s/o%l$ =e &lear t/at t/is e9&l%$es /asty &lassi3i&ations, B%arrels =et5een
$i33erent Gs&/oolsG, an$ so'/o2ori& &on3li&ts =et5een 'ara$i02s. Ae 2%st 'ro&ee$ in t/e
s'irit o3 resear&/, in t/e /o'e o3 e9ten$in0 t/e &ir&le o3 o%r i0noran&e.
"e1eral 'arts o3 t/e 'resent 5ork /a1e alrea$y a''eare$ in $i1erse '%=li&ations, 3or
t/e 2ost 'art in s'e&ial iss%es o3 a n%2=er o3 @o%rnals) Langages, FJ, an$ Histoire
pistmologie langage, 6#, 1. To t/e t/anks # o5e t/e e$itors o3 t/ese @o%rnals # a$$ ot/ers,
'arti&%larly to L!information grammaticale, "ntellectica, t/e #uaderni di semantica, t/e
$ulletin de la section de linguisti%ue de la facult des lettres de Lausanne& Finally &/a'ter
7# is 'artially re'rinte$ 3ro2 2y &ontri=%tion to t/e &olle&te$ 1ol%2e 'changes sur la
conversation, e$ite$ =y E. osnier an$ . Ker=rat.
#t is a 'leas%re to =e a=le to t/ank 2y 3rien$s an$ &ollea0%es o3 t/e La=oratoire
$8in3or2atiB%e 'o%r la 2C&aniB%e et les s&ien&es $e l8in0Cnie%r, o3 t/e #nstit%t $es s&ien&es
$e la &o0nition et $e la &o22%ni&ation, o3 t/e La=oratoire $8er0ono2ie '/ysiolo0iB%e et
&o0niti1e, o3 t/e E&ole nationale s%'Crie%re $es tClC&o22%ni&ations, o3 t/e Asso&iation
'o%r la re&/er&/e &o0niti1e, an$ o3 t/e "o&iCtC $8/istoire et $8C'istC2olo0ie $es s&ien&es
$% lan0a0e. Ait/o%t t/e2 # 5o%l$ ne1er /a1e =een a=le to reali<e t/is inter$is&i'linary::an$
so2eti2es %n$is&i'line$::st%$y. #n 'arti&%lar # 5o%l$ like to %n$erline 2y 0ratit%$e to +1es:
Marie 7isetti.
An e9&ellent &%sto2 e9ists 5/i&/ allo5s t/e a%t/or to a$2ire t/e 'atien&e o3 /is 5i3eH
in 2y &ase one s/o%l$ also s'eak o3 a =ene1olent in$%l0en&e t/at =or$ers on 2a0nani2ity.
11
Chapter I
COGNITIVE RESEARCH
1. SOME PRELIMINARIES
a) ,oes t/ere e9ist a &o0niti1e s&ien&e I T/is is t/e i2'ression le3t =y a 3e5
A2eri&an so%r&es (t/e @o%rnal (ognitive )cience, t/e title o3 .ar$ner8s 5ork) *he Mind!s
+ew )cience, 1DF( ). Or a$$itionaly, =y t/is $e3inition o3 t/e science of cognition (Le
Moi0ne, 1DF6 = ) 23D)) Ga $is&i'linary 3iel$ $e3ine$ (sin&e 1DJJ) as a%tono2o%s =y 1irt%e o3
its o=@e&t an$ =y its 2o$e o3 &onstit%tion an$ in1ol1in0 t/e st%$y o3 &o0niti1e 'ro&esses in
0eneral, nat%ral or arti3i&ialH it is also &/ara&teri<e$ =y t/e intera&tion o3 a &ertain n%2=er o3
$is&i'lines ai2in0 to %n$erstan$ &o0niti1e 'ro&esses ($is&i'lines not only in t/e G/ar$G
s&ien&es =%t t/e Gso3tG s&ien&es as 5ell) ) &o2'%tational an$ &o2'%ter s&ien&es, lo0i&,
lin0%isti&s, 'sy&/olin0%isti&s, &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y, ne%ro'sy&/olo0y an$ t/e
ne%ros&ien&es, so&ial 'sy&/olo0ies Lsi&M, &o22%ni&ation s&ien&es, so&io:ant/ro'olo0y,
e&ono2i&s, syste2i&s, e'iste2olo0y. o0nition, t/e a&t o3 kno5in0, is $e3ine$ =y t/e entire
ran0e, nat%ral or arti3i&ial, o3 o=ser1a=le &o0niti1e 'ro&esses. o0nition &annot =e re$%&e$
to kno5le$0e (t/e latter re'resentin0 t/e res%ltin0 'ro$%&t o3 a &o0niti1e 'ro&ess)G. T/is
a2=i0%o%s $e3inition &alls 3or se1eral re2arks an$ &lari3i&ations.
(i) An inter$is&i'linary 3iel$ s/o%l$ not =e &on3%se$ 5it/ a s&ien&e. T/e re&ent /istory
o3 t/e so&ial s&ien&es 5o%l$ s%00est t/at t/eir 'ro0ress /as =een /a2'ere$ =y t/eir
a$/eren&e to 5/at 2ay =e ter2e$ a fusional conception o3 inter$is&i'linarity. #n$ee$ t/e
entire /istory o3 t/e s&ien&es $e2onstrates t/at t/ey e1ol1e 2ore =y 3ission an$
$i33erentiation t/an =y 3%sion. An$ in t/e en$ 5e 5o%l$ =e =etter o33 to a1oi$ t/is rat/er la9
%se o3 t/e 5or$ scienceH 5e =elie1e it is 2ore 'r%$ent, an$ a&&%rate, to %se t/e e9'ression
cognitive research 5/i&/ &o2'rises all t/e $is&i'lines st%$yin0 &o0nition.
(ii) T/e list o3 $is&i'lines 2entione$ =y Le Moi0ne is to say t/e least /etero0eneo%s
an$ raises a n%2=er o3 B%estions &on&ernin0 t/eir interrelations. Are syste2i&s an$
e'iste2olo0y s&ien&es or =ran&/es o3 '/iloso'/y I A/at is t/e &o0niti1e 3%n&tion o3
e&ono2i&s I ,oes lin0%isti&s not =elon0 to t/e &o22%ni&ation s&ien&esI
(iii) T/e insistan&e on natural and artificial &o0nition, 3reB%ent eno%0/ in t/e &onte9t
o3 &o0niti1e resear&/, o3ten lea$s to t/e s%''osition t/at ani2ate =ein0s an$ 2a&/ines
2i0/t =e a=le to t/ink an$ %n$erstan$ in a &o2'ara=le 5ay. T/is 'ost%late, sai$ to
=efunctionalist, /as =een &alle$ to 'lay a 3o%n$ational role) it is t/e only 'osition t/at is
t/o%0/t &a'a=le o3 esta=lis/in0 any %nity 5it/in an inter$is&i'linary 3iel$. As s%&/ it
'res%''oses 5/at is in 3a&t a 2a9i2alist &on&e'tion o3 si2%lation ) 5/at 0oes on in an
ani2ate =ein0, an$ 5it/in t/e 2a&/ine t/at si2%lates it, are sai$ to =elon0 to t/e sa2e
or$er o3 reality.
=) #3 t/ere $oes not e9ist a sin0le &o0niti1e s&ien&e, let %s t%rn o%r attention to the
&o0niti1e s&ien&es. #n t/e list @%st &ite$, $oes t/ere e9ist a &o0niti1e s&ien&e in t/e sense o3
takin0 &o0nition to =e its s'e&i3i& an$ e9&l%si1e o=@e&tI !o s%&/ &ase e9ists. o0nition
re2ains an o=@e&t t/at no s&ien&e /as yet =een a=le to $is'ossess o3 its %s%al '/iloso'/i&
3ra2e5ork. Ae nee$ 3irst o3 all to s'e&i3y 5/at t/e &o0niti1e &/ara&ter o3 t/ose &entral
12
$is&i'lines 2ost o3ten &ite$ (&o2'%ter s&ien&e, &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y, lin0%isti&s) a&t%ally
&onsists o3.
T/e &o0niti1e as'e&ts (in Le Moi0ne8s =roa$ sense) o3 computer science &on&ern
only one o3 its asso&iate$ te&/nolo0ies, na2ely Arti3i&ial #ntelli0en&e
14
. o0niti1e
'sy&/olo0y is a =ran&/ o3 'sy&/olo0y an$ not an a%tono2o%s $is&i'line. #n 'ra&ti&e it $oes
not st%$y all as'e&ts o3 &o0nition (3or e9a2'le t/e ne%rolo0i&al le1el is =eyon$ its s&o'e).
Be3ore &onsi$erin0 %n$er 5/at &on$itions linguistics 2i0/t =e 'la&e$ on t/e list o3 t/e
&o0niti1e s&ien&es 5e 2%st 3irst &onsi$er t/e role o3 lan0%a0e in &o0nition.
. THE GEOGRAPH! OF COGNITIVE RESEARCH
.eo0ra'/y, one &o%l$ say, $eter2ines /istory. Ae &an =e0in =y s/o5in0 /o5 t/e
relations/i's =et5een t/ose $is&i'lines t/at are %s%ally in&l%$e$ %n$er t/e /ea$in0 o3
&o0niti1e resear&/ are re'resente$ to$ay. T/e st%$y s'onsore$ =y t/e "loan 3o%n$ation in
1DJF on t/e state o3 art 'ro'ose$ t/e 3ollo5in0 $ia0ra2 )
NNNNNN ) stron0 inter$is&i'linary link
:::::::::: ) 5eak inter$is&i'linary link
Dia"ra# 1
14
A# is a3ter all not @%st one te&/nolo0y a2on0 ot/ers. T/e t/eoreti&al a2=itions o3 its 3o%n$ers, @%st
as t/e '/iloso'/i&al $e=ates 5/i&/ s%rro%n$ A# to$ay, attri=%te a %niB%e 'la&e to it, $istin&t 3ro2
ot/ers $is&i'lines.
13
!at%rally t/is /ar2onio%s G&o0niti1e /e9a0onG 'ose$ 2ore 'ro=le2s t/an it resol1e$.
*o5e1er, in &o22entin0 on t/e $ia0ra2, t/e a%t/ors e1oke$ a 5i$es'rea$ o'inion ) >A/at
/as =ro%0/t t/e 3iel$ into e9isten&e is a &o22on resear&/ o=@e&ti1e) to $is&o1er t/e
re'resentational an$ &o2'%tational &a'a&ities o3 t/e 2in$ an$ t/eir str%&t%ral an$
3%n&tional re'resentation in t/e =rain? (1DJF) F, a&&or$in0 to .ar$ner, 1DF() 36).
Le Moi0ne /as o%tline$ a ne5er 1ersion, 2ore $etaile$ an$ &onsi$era=ly $i33erent
3ro2 t/e /e9a0on o3 $ia0ra2 1 (&3. 1DF6a) (1).
(a) y=erneti&s
(=) !e%rolin0%isti&s
(&) !e%ro'sy&/olo0y
($) o2'%tational lin0%isti&s
(e) -sy&/olin0%isti&s
Dia"ra#
,ia0ra2 2 &alls 3or t/e 3ollo5in0 o=ser1ations.
(i) 'pistemology /as Gre'la&e$G '/iloso'/y, a 2o1e t/at $oes not =etter esta=lis/ its
s&ienti3i& stat%s. A/ate1er t/e &ase, e'iste2olo0y is sit%ate$ at a $i33erent le1el t/an t/e
ot/er $is&i'lines.
(ii) A/ereas so&io:lin0%isti&s (not re'resente$ /ere) s/o%l$ =e sit%ate$ %n$er t/e
/ea$in0 o3 lin0%isti&s, psycho,linguistics is sit%ate$ 5it/in 'sy&/olo0y.
(iii) Lastly an$ 2ost si0ni3i&antly, lin0%isti&s is not &o%nte$ a2on0 t/e so&ial s&ien&es.
T/is is a 2ost tellin0 o2ission.
14
T/ese /e9a0ons asi$e, it 2i0/t =e %se3%l to 'resent a 'ris2 o3 o%r o5n $esi0n
a&kno5le0in0 o3 &o%rse t/at no $ia0ra2 &an 3%lly re'resent t/e &o2'le9ity o3 s%&/ a 3iel$
o3 resear&/. #t is inten$e$ to ill%strate &%rrent inter$is&i'linary relations/i's in$e'en$ently o3
5/at t/ese $is&i'lines 2i0/t or s/o%l$ =e.


Dia"ra# $
T/e 3ollo5in0 &lari3i&ations are in or$er)
(1) T/e area &o1ere$ =y si0nals an$ sy2=ols is $istin0%is/e$ =y 2eans o3 a se2ioti&
o''osition ) a symbol (a lin0%isti& si0n 3or e9a2'le) is a %nit &o2'ose$ o3 a si0ni3ier an$ a
si0ni3ie$H a signal is a '/ysi&al entity t/at &an =e inter'rete$ =%t to 5/i&/ no s'e&i3i&
si0ni3ie$ &an =e asso&iate$. #n lin0%isti&s, t/e sy2=oli& le1el &onstit%tes t/e 3irst arti&%lation
1(
o3 lan0%a0eH t/e le1el o3 si0nals &onstit%tes t/e se&on$ arti&%lation
1(
. T/is $istin&tion 2ay
ser1e to &lari3y so2e5/at t/e ri1alry 5/i&/ o''oses t/e $o2inant 'ara$i02s in &o0niti1e
resear&/ to$ay (&3. infra O () ) &o0niti1is2 s/o5s a 're$ile&tion 3or t/e 'ro&essin0 o3
sy2=olsH &onne&tionis2 &on1ersely still /as $i33i&%lty analy<in0 sy2=ols an$ /as =een
2ore s%&&ess3%l in t/e a%to2ati& 'er&e'tion o3 si0nals
16
. A/ate1er t/e &ase, lin0%isti&s
en&o2'asses =ot/ t/ese le1els) t/e sy2=oli& an$ t/e Gs%=sy2=oli&G. T/e relations
=et5een sy2=oli& entities s%''ose$ly &onstit%te kno5le$0e. #t is 5it/in t/is s'a&e t/at
re'resentations are sit%ate$ as 5ell as t/e reasonin0 'ro&esses 5/i&/ o'erate on t/ese
re'resentationsH sit%ate$ 5it/in t/is s'a&e as 5ell is t/e 'ro=le2 o3 t/e re'resentation o3
kno5le$0e. T/e 'ro&ess t/at lea$s 3ro2 si0nals to sy2=ols is a &o0niti1e one ) it is in t/is
sense t/at &o0nition is o3 interest to lin0%isti&s
2) A# 'resents all t/e &/ara&teristi&s o3 a te&/nolo0y. T/is is t/e 'rin&i'al reason 5/y
&o2'%ter s&ien&e, &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y an$ lin0%isti&s are a=le assist in t/e reali<ation o3
its 'ro@e&ts. T/e 'ro&essin0 an$ analysis o3 si0nals see2s to o&&%'y an anala0o%s 'osition
5it/in t/e s'a&e $elineate$ =elo5 t/e sy2=oli&.
3) "e1eral s%=:$is&i'lines in1ol1e$ 5it/ lan0%a0e &o%l$ =e sit%ate$ on o%r $ia0ra2.
a) -sy&/olin0%isti&s, a =ran&/ o3 'sy&/olo0y.
=) Lin0%isti&:assiste$ &o2'%ter s&ien&e, a =ran&/ o3 lin0%isti&s, %ses &o2'%ter
te&/nolo0y in or$er to &arry o%t its resear&/.
&) o2'%tational lin0%isti&s, a =ran&/ o3 &o2'%ter s&ien&e, %ses lin0%isti&s in or$er
to &arry o%t its resear&/. T/is relation is not a $ire&t one an$ is esta=lis/e$ 5it/in t/e
3ra2e5ork o3 A#.
$) !e%rolin0%isti&s, a =ran&/ o3 t/e ne%ros&ien&es, st%$ies lin0%isti& a&ti1ity.
e) -/oneti&s an$ 0ra'/e2i&s are intereste$ in t/e ne%ro'/ysiolo0y o3 'er&e'tion
1J
.
"tri&tly s'eakin0, t/ese s%=:$is&i'lines $o not /a1e t/e stat%s o3 inter2e$iary
$is&i'lines, $e1elo'in0 alon0 si$e t/e ot/er $is&i'lines. T/ey o5e t/eir s&ienti3i& stat%s
(t/eir o=@e&t, t/eir 2et/o$olo0y, t/eir 'rin&i'les o3 1ali$ation) to t/e $is&i'lines 3ro2 5/i&/
t/ey $eri1e
1F
.
+ote ) "o as not to en&%2=er o%r $ia0ra2 5e /a1e not re'resente$ on it a n%2=er o3
$is&i'lines 2entione$ =y t/e a%t/ors alrea$y &ite$.
(i) E'iste2olo0y, 5/i&/ is a '/iloso'/i& $is&i'line, /as no 'ri1ile0e$ relation to &o0niti1e
resear&/.
(ii) -/iloso'/y8s a''roa&/ to &o0nition is ty'i&ally s'e&%lati1e (5/ereas &o0niti1e
resear&/ 5ants to 2ake o3 &o0nition a s&ien&e an$ so %nseat '/iloso'/y8s tra$itional &lai2 on
t/e 'ro=le2
1D
).
1"
On t/e $o%=le arti&%lation o3 lan0%a0e, see Martinet, 'lments de linguisti%ue gnrale, -aris,
Ar2an$ olin, 1D60, ''. 1J:1D. "i0nals &an =e 0ro%'e$ syste2ati&ally in or$er to 3or2 sy2=oli&
si0ni3iers (t/e si0nals o3 t/e Morse &o$e are a 'er3e&t e9a2'le).
16
T/e Gs%=:sy2=oli& le1elG t/at "2olensky (1DFF) asso&iates 5it/ &onne&tionis2 see2s to
&orres'on$ in 'art 5it/ t/at o3 si0nals.
1J
Ae lea1e it %' to t/e rea$er to sit%ate t/e s%=:$is&i'lines t/at $o not /a1e a $ire&t relations/i'
5it/ lin0%isti&s (ne%ro'sy&/olo0y, 'sy&/o'/ysiolo0y, et&.)
1#
G#nter$is&i'linaryG $is&i'lines t/at are $e1elo'e$ 5it/in t/eir =or$ers $o not e9istH one &annot
si2'ly 3or2 a $is&i'line 5it/ /y'/ens ('sy&/:so&io:so2et/in0). One B%estion re2ains o'en /o5e1er
) &an a 'arti&%lar relation t/at e9ists =et5een $is&i'lines itsel3 take root an$ =e&o2e a ne5
$is&i'line::one t/at 5o%l$ /a1e a new o=@e&t I
1$
#n t/is &onne&tion 5e s/o%l$ $istin0%is/ t/e s&ienti3i& e9'eri2ents &arrie$ o%t in 'sy&/olo0y 3ro2
t/e so:&alle$ Gedankenexperimente &on$%&te$ in ne%ros&ien&e =y 'eo'le s%&/ as "earle an$
16
(iii) Lo0i& ser1es as a kin$ o3 2aster 'ara$i02 3or a n%2=er o3 t/e $is&'lines 2entione$
=%t &annot =e 're&isely sit%ate$.
(i1) y=erneti&s an$ syste2i&s /a1e yet to $e2onstrate t/e2sel1es as s&ien&es.
(1) Finally, t/e links esta=lis/e$ %' %ntil no5 =et5een ant/ro'olo0y, e&ono2i&s an$
&o0niti1e resear&/ /a1e =een 1ery ten%o%s.
#n 3a&t, 5/at nee$s to =e 2a$e 2ore 're&ise is t/e stat%s o3 all t/e so&ial s&ien&es in
relation to &o0niti1e resear&/. T/e &ase o3 lin0%isti&s, 5/i&/ is t/e only so&ial s&ien&e a2on0
t/e &entral $is&i'lines t/at st%$y &o0nition, s/o%l$ =e 'arti&%larly enli0/tenin0 in t/is re0ar$.
$. THE HISTORIOGRAPH! OF COGNITIVE RESEARCH
;' %ntil no5 &o0niti1e resear&/ /as o&&asione$ 1ery little /istorio0ra'/i&al re3le&tion.
#n 3a&t,1ery little 5ork /as =een $e1ote$ to retra&in0 its /istory ) one =ook len0t/ st%$y
(.ar$ner, 1DF() an$ a /an$3%l o3 arti&les. As interestin0 as t/ese st%$ies 2ay =e, t/ey are
not t/e 'ro$%&t o3 s'e&ialists in t/e *istory o3 #$eas an$ o1erall re3le&t a lar0ely $es%ltory
/istorio0ra'/i&al 'ra&ti&e . T/is /as not =een &onstr%e$ as a 5eakness sin&e t/e s&ienti3i&
&o22%nity t/at is en0a0e$ in &o0niti1e resear&/ ten$s to li1e in t/e 'resent i3 not in t/e
3%t%re an$ /as =een 0enerally satis3ie$ 5it/ a sket&/ o3 re&ent orientations an$
$e1elo'2ents an$ in e33e&t is not %nlikely to $ee2 /istori&al resear&/ as 0rat%ito%s
er%$ition. Resear&/ers are intereste$ B%ite ri0/tly in res%lts an$ t/e 2o2ent a t/eory is
@%$0e$ o%t$ate$ one si2'ly 3or0ets a=o%t it
20
.
3.1 *he birth of a problematic
T/ere is a &onsens%s t/at t/e &onte2'orary ori0ins o3 &o0niti1e resear&/ &an =e
sit%ate$ =et5een 1D3( an$ 1D(0. Let %s re&all t/ree $e&isi1e ste's.
(i) #n t/e s%22er o3 1D3( t/e yo%n0 2at/e2ati&ian Alan T%rin0 3in$s an ans5er to
t/e 'ro=le2 o3 $e&ision a$1an&e$ =y *il=ert in 1D2F. T%rin08s arti&le, -n (omputable
+umbers, with an .ppplication to the 'ntscheidungsproblem, a''eare$ in 1D36. T/ese
n%2=ers &o%l$ =e &al&%late$ =y a 2a&/ine &a'a=le o3 s&annin0 an$ 5ritin0 sy2=ols on an
in3inite ta'e t/at is $i1i$e$ into sB%ares, ea&/ o3 5/i&/ is eit/er =lank or /as 'rinte$ on it
one o3 a 3inite n%2=er o3 sy2=olsH t/e 2a&/ine &an t/en rea$ t/ese sy2=ols as an
instr%&tion to alter t/e &on$ition o3 t/e s&anne$ sB%are, 2o1e t/e ta'e or &/an0e to anot/er
sB%are. T%rin0 &on&l%$e$ t/at is 5as no5 'ossi=le to &onstr%&t a &al&%latin0 2a&/ine.
(ii) #n 1D3J, . "/annon, a st%$ent at M#T, 'ro'oses to re'resent Gt/e Boolean la5s
o3 t/o%0/tG =y 2eans o3 ele&troni& &ir&%itryH t/e &on&l%sions o3 /is t/esis 5ere '%=lis/e$
t/e 3ollo5in0 year in an arti&le entitle$ . symbolic analysis of relays and switching circuits.
T/e i$ea t/at t/e la5s o3 lo0i& &an =e i$enti3ie$ 5it/ t/e la5s o3 t/o%0/t is as ol$ as Lo0i&
itsel3H Boole8s ai2 o3 3or2%latin0 t/e la5s o3 t/o%0/t is $e&lare$ in t/e title o3 /is 2a@or
5ork .n investigation of the laws of thought on which mathematical theories of logic and
probability are founded (1F(4). T/e i$ea o3 %sin0 a 2a&/ine to re'resent Boolean
&al&%lations 5as not ne5 ) /arles Ba==a0e /a$ 3or2%late$ a si2ilar 'ro'osal $%rin0 t/e
,ennett.
20
,i$n8t Mar1in Minsky say ) GA $yna2i& s&ien&e $oesn8t 3ret o1er its 'ast::it &/ar0es 3or5ar$G (in
res'onse to F. Fo0el2an:"o%liC, &ite$ in ,%'%y, 1DF()10 ) I One easily $ete&ts t/is 2o$ern a2nesia
in t/e =i=lio0ra'/ies ) only t/e last t5o n%2=ers o3 any 0i1en year are 2entione$. #t t/%s a''ears
%ni2a0ina=le t/at 5orks 3ro2 're1io%s &ent%ries &o%l$ =e &ite$. #n lin0%isti&s::5/ere t/eories are not
really G3alsi3ia=leG:: t/eories t/at are 2erely o%t o3 style are B%i&kly $e&lare$ o%t$ate$ or o=solete.
1J
sa2e 'erio$. T%rin0 an$ "/annon8s $is&o1eries 5ere 2ateriali<e$ $%rin0 t/e 5ar 5it/ t/e
&onstr%&tion o3 t/e 3irst &o2'%ters.
(iii) #n 1D43 t/e ne%ro'/ysiolo0ist an$ 'sy&/iatrist Aarren M&%llo&/ &oa%t/ore$ an
arti&le 5it/ t/e yo%n0 2at/e2ati&ian A. -itts entitle$ . Logical (alculus of the "deas
"mmanent in +ervous .ctivity. #n it t/ey $e3ine$ formal neurons (&onstit%te$ =y ele2entary
$%al state ele&troni& &ir&%its) or0ani<e$ into networks &a'a=le o3 'ro$%&in0 Boolean
&al&%lations an$ a=le to re'ro$%&e::so t/e a%t/ors t/o%0/t::t/e a&ti1ity o3 t/e =rain.
A/y are t/ese t/ree te9ts still &ite$ I T/e ans5er is t/at t/ey o%tline a 'ro=le2ati&
t/at re2ains &%rrent to t/is $ay. O3 &o%rse &o0niti1e resear&/ /as =een in1ol1e$ in
inn%2era=le t/eoreti&al $e=ates o1er t/e last 3i3ty years =%t t/ese $e=ates /a1e al5ays
re1ol1e$ aro%n$ t/e sa2e 'ro=le2ati& %'on 5/i&/ t/e 'ara$i02s t/at $i1i$e resear&/ers
to$ay still $e'en$. T/e 3ollo5in0 $ia0ra2 re'resents t/e 2a@or 'oles o3 t/is 'ro=le2ati& )
Dia"ra# %
(i) T/e mind is eB%ate$ 5it/ rational t/o%0/t, an$ rational t/o%0/t is &on3ine$ to
lo0i&al t/inkin0H t/e lo0i& in B%estion is i$enti3ie$ 5it/ Boolean lo0i&. A&&or$in0 to t/is
restri&te$ rationalis2 t/e la5s o3 t/o%0/t are re$%&e$ to t/e 'rin&i'les o3 i$entity, non:
&ontra$i&tion an$ o3 t/e e9&l%$e$ 2i$$le.
(ii) T/e *uring machine is a Gt/eoreti&alG a=stra&t a%to2aton $e3ine$ in$e'en$ently
o3 any 2aterial i2'le2entation. #ts %nli2ite$ ta'e re1eals only a strin0 o3 eit/er e2'ty
sB%ares or sB%ares 2arke$ =y a slas/.
(iii) T/e a&ti1ity o3 t/e electronic circuits (relays an$ s5it&/in0 &ir&%its) is restri&te$ to
a &o2=ination o3 t5o 3%n$a2ental states) eit/er t/e &%rrent is trans2itte$ or it is not.
(i1) T/e a&ti1ity o3 t/e brain is li2ite$ to a sin0le &onsi$eration) only ne%rons are
treate$ an$ a0ain in ter2s o3 Gall or not/in0G (t/ere is or is not a ne%ral $is&/ar0e).
+ote ) T/e %''er area o3 t/is $ia0ra2 &orres'on$s to sy2=olsH t/e lo5er area
&orres'on$s to si0nals.
#t a''ears to %s t/at t/e 3o%r entities re'resente$ in t/is $ia0ra2 are =ase$ on
relations =et5een t5o (an$ only t5o) 3%n$a2ental states 5/i&/ 'er2it t/e 3ollo5in0
/o2olo0ation )
1F
1. T/o%0/t (lo0i&al) true false
2. T%rin0 2a&/ine slas/ blank
3. Ele&troni& &ir&%it transmission non,transmission
of current of current
4. Brain activation inhibition
T/e 'ro=le2ati& 5e /a1e @%st o%tline$ is o=1io%sly o3 a '/iloso'/i& nat%re. #t a''ears
to e9/i=it a 2aterialist &/ara&ter to t/e e9tent t/at t/e $istin&tion =et5een 2in$ an$ =rain is
re$%&e$ to t/e 'oint o3 $isa''earin0
21
. B%t its $o2inant &/ara&teristi& is 2e&/anisti& ) i3 t/e
o'erations o3 t/e 2in$ an$Por =rain &an =e re'ro$%&e$ =y 2eans o3 a 2a&/ine it is
=e&a%se t/ese entities are t/e2sel1es nat%ral 2a&/ines or at t/e 1ery least =e&a%se t/ere
is not/in0 essential se'aratin0 t/e =iolo0i& 3ro2 t/e arti3i&ial.
T/is t/esis s%=ten$s t/e &y=erneti& 'ro@e&t. #n 1D43, Rosen=l%et/, Aiener an$
Bi0elo5 'ro'ose$ a $es&ri'tion o3 2essa0es t/at 5as %ni3or2 to t/e e9tent t/at it $i$ not
$i33erentiate =et5een 2eans o3 trans2ission =e t/ey ele&troni&, 2e&/ani&al or 1ia t/e
ner1o%s syste2. Aiener '%=lis/e$ /is rat/er &on3%sin0 st%$y in 1D4F %n$er t/e title
(ybernetics, or (ontrol and (ommunication in the .nimal and the Machine& T/e =rain 5as
&onsi$ere$ an a$eB%ate 2o$el 3or 2a&/ines. #n /esign for a $rain (1D(2 ) 1), As/=y
$e&lare$ ) GMy ai2 is si2'ly to &o'y t/e li1in0 =rainG.
T/e 3a=ri&ation o3 t/e 3irst &o2'%ters $%rin0 t/e "e&on$ Aorl$ Aar res%lte$ in a
si2'li3i&ation o3 t/e 'ro=le2ati& t/at 5e s&/e2ati<e$ a=o1e ) ele&troni& &ir&%its ena=le$ t/e
&onstr%&tion o3 a T%rin0 2a&/ine. T/e $esi0n &/osen 5as sai$ to =e t/at o3 von +eumann
an$ &alle$ a stored program machine
22
.
T/e &reation o3 t/e 3irst &o2'%ters ina%0%rate$ a ne5, less s'e&%lati1e, '/ase 3or
&o0niti1e resear&/ =y 'ro1i$in0 it 5it/ a ne5 &a'a&ity 3or e9'eri2entation. #n 3a&t,
e9'eri2entation s%''oses a relation to e2'iri&al reality t/at en0a0es only a
2et/o$olo0i&ally $eri1e$ 3ra&tion o3 t/e o=@e&t to =e $es&ri=e$. *o5e1er 3or la&k o3 a
$e3ine$ o=@e&t it is really a B%estion /ere o3 simulation ) &o0niti1e resear&/ is =ase$ on t/e
$esire to si2%late 2ental an$Por &ere=ral 'ro&esses in t/e &o2'%ter (as 3ar as t/ese
'ro&esses are %n$erstoo$)
#3 t/is link 5ere not le0iti2ate 5/y t/en 5o%l$ 5e /a1e a0ree$ on t/e 1D408s as t/e
3o%n$in0 years 3or &o0niti1e resear&/ I #n$ee$ t/e &o2'%ter 3i0%res as t/e sin0le 2ost
$e&isi1e 3a&tor. #n 3a&t it is in relation to t/e &o2'%ter t/at one is a=le to $istin0%is/ t/e
3o%n$ers (like T%rin0, "/annon, Aiener, 1on !e%2ann) 3ro2 t/e 're&%rsors s%&/ as
Ba==a0e an$ Lo1ela&e) t/e 2a&/ines o3 t/e 3or2er 0ro%' 5ere o'erati1e 5/ile t/ose o3 t/e
latter 0ro%' 5ere not
23
.
"in&e t/is ina%0%ral 'erio$ in &o0niti1e s&ien&e t/e 2a@or interest /as =een 3o&%se$
aro%n$ t/ree 'oles ) t/e &o2'%ter, t/e 2in$ an$ t/e =rain. Ea&/ o3 t/ese 'oles is
asso&iate$ to an atten$ant $is&i'line, res'e&ti1ely, &o2'%ter s&ien&e, lo0i&, an$
ne%ro'/ysiolo0y. Lin0%isti&s (an$ 'sy&/olo0y as 5ell) /as in 3a&t =een e9&l%$e$ 3ro2 t/is
'ri2or$ial tri'artition.
21
onsi$er t/e title o3 a 'a'er 'resente$ =y M&%llo&/ at t/e *i9on sy2'osi%2 ("e'te2=er 1D4F) ) GA/y
t/e Min$ is in t/e *ea$G.
22
One only =e0ins to see &o2'etin0 $esi0n 'ro@e&ts =e0innin0 in t/e early 1DF0s.
23
#n t/e area o3 &o0niti1e resera&/ t/e only 'ro@e&ts t/at ten$e$ to /ol$ anyone8s attention 3or lon0 5ere
t/ose &a'a=le o3 a &o2'%ter i2'le2entation.
1D

Dia"ra# &
T/ese t/ree 'oles are 'aire$ into t5o $istin&t an$ interrelate$ 'ara$i02s.
T/e 3irst 'ri1ile0es t/e relations =et5een t/e 2in$ an$ t/e &o2'%terH t/is allian&e 5as
t/e 3o%n$ation o3 &lassi&al A# an$ o3 its '/iloso'/i&al &orrelate t/at 5e &o%l$ &all orthodox
cognitivism
24
(re'resente$ to$ay 2ost nota=ly =y /o2sky, Fo$or, -ylys/yn).
T/e o''osin0 'ara$i02 'ri1ile0es t/e relations =et5een t/e =rain an$ t/e &o2'%ter.
T/e latter is s%''ose$ to 2i2i& t/e o'erations o3 t/e 3or2er =y 2eans o3 'ro0ra2s an$
e1en in its 1ery $esi0n. #n t/is 'ara$i02, 5/i&/ to$ay is &alle$ connectionism, t/e =rain is
t/e $o2inant 'ole (&3. infra, &/a'. ##).
3.2 Periodi0ation
#t is 0enerally a0ree$ t/at 3ollo5in0 t/e /eroi& 'erio$ o3 t/e Fo%n$ers o3 &o0niti1e
resear&/ an$ o3 t/e &onstr%&tion o3 t/e 3irst &o2'%ters (1D3J:1D4() at least t/ree ot/er
relati1ely $istin&t 'erio$s &an =e i$enti3ie$.
(i) (ybernetics
2(
(1D46:1D(4) re&r%te$ all kin$s o3 t/eories o3 &o22%ni&ation an$ o3
in3or2ation, as 5ell as t/eories o3 re0%lation in nat%ral an$ arti3i&ial syste2s. On t/e
instit%tional le1el, &y=erneti&s 3o%n$ an a%$ien&e in t/e ;nite$ "tates $%rin0 t/e ten Ma&y
&on3eren&es (1D46:1D(4), as 5ell as t/e *i9on sy2'osi%2 (1D4F). #n 1D4D, t/e 1atio (lub
5as 3o%n$e$ in En0lan$. T/e 3ollo5in0 year sa5 t/e 3or2ation in -aris o3 t/e (ercle
d!tudes cybernti%ues. T/e ter2 cybernetics is no lon0er %se$ e9&e't in so2e B%arters o3
t/e ne%ros&ien&es =%t its t/eoreti&al interests /a1e to so2e e9tent =een 'rolon0e$ =y
syste2i&s.
(ii) A'art 3ro2 syste2i&s, t/e &y=erneti& 'ro@e&t 5as in 'art &arrrie$ on 5it/in A#::
5/i&/ ren$ere$ it, a&&or$in0 to so2e, o%t:o3:$ate i3 not totally in1ali$. ,%rin0 a se2inar at
,art2o%t/ (s%22er, 1D(6) Mar1in Minsky 'resente$ a 'a'er later '%=lis/e$ %n$er t/e title
)teps towards an .rtificial "ntelligence
26
H A. !e5ell an$ *. "i2on 0a1e a $e2onstration o3
t/e 3irst s%''ose$ly intelli0ent 'ro0ra2 &alle$ LT (3or Logic *heorist ) &a'a=le o3 an
a%to2ati& $e2onstration o3 1ario%s t/eore2s.
T/e resear&/ in A# t/at 5as &arrie$ o%t $%rin0 t/is early 'erio$ (5/en t/e relations
5it/ &y=erneti&s 5ere 2ore e1i$ent) a''eare$ to =e in3or2e$ =y t/ree 2ain &on&erns ) to
=e&o2e less s'e&%lati1e an$ 2ore &on&rete =y $e1otin0 itsel3 to t/e 5ritin0 o3 'ro0ra2s::
2%
T/is ter2 =ein0 ins'ire$ =y an e9'ression o3 ,ennett8s (high,church computationalism).
2"
A ter2 no $o%=t &oine$ =y !. Aiener an$ t/e title o3 /is 5ork (ybernetics (1D4F).
26
T/e a%t/ors/i' o3 t/is slo0an is &onteste$ =%t it is 'ro=a=ly attri=%ta=le to Eo/n M&art/y 5/o
&reate$ L#"- (A#8s 3irst 'ro0ra22in0 lan0%a0e) an$ 5/o 3o%n$e$ A# la=oratories at M#T (1D(J) an$ at
"tan3or$ (1D63).
20
'ro0ra2s t/at 5ere t/o%0/t &a'a=le o3 sol1in0 t/eoreti&al 'ro=le2sH to atte2't to st%$y t/e
2ani'%lation o3 sy2=ols in a 0reater n%2=er o3 &onte9ts, an$ not si2'ly 5it/ res'e&t to
n%2eri&al &al&%lationH to e9ten$ t/e &a'a&ities o3 &o2'%ters, es'e&ially t/ro%0/ t/e
&reation o3 'ro0ra22in0 lan0%a0es.
#n Fran&e, t/e 3irst Fren&/:lan0%a0e arti&le to in1oke A# 5as '%=lis/e$ in 1D62. #n
1D66 its a%t/or, Ea&B%es -itrat, $e3en$e$ t/e 3irst t/esis in A# e1er %n$ertaken in Fran&e
an$ t/e 3ollo5in0 year /e 3o%n$e$ t/e 3irst resear&/ 0ro%' in t/e $o2ain.
(iii) T/e 3irst '%=lis/e$ o&&%ren&e o3 t/e ter2 Gcognitive science G see2s to $ate 3ro2
1DJ( (as t/e s%=title o3 a &olle&tion o3 'a'ers e$ite$ =y ,. Bo=ro5 an$ A. ollins
2J
) )tudies
in (ognitive )cience ). T5o years later a n%2=er o3 &o2'%ter s&ientists (R. "/ank a2on0
t/e2), lin0%ists an$ 'sy&/olo0ists starte$ %' t/e @o%rnal (ognitive )cience. #n 1DJF a re'ort
=earin0 t/e sa2e title 5as s'onsore$ an$ '%=lis/e$ =y t/e "loan Fo%n$ation. #n 1DJD t/e
o0niti1e "&ien&e Asso&iation /el$ its 3irst 2eetin0 5it/ &onsi$era=le 3an3are. T/e
.ssociation pour la 1echerche (ognitive 5as &reate$ in Fran&e in 1DF1 'rin&i'ally on t/e
initiati1e o3 ,. Kayser, E.:F. Le !y, an$ A. Lentin.
#t al2ost see2s a &%sto2ary 'leas%re to sal%te s&ienti3i& re1ol%tions on&e e1ery 3i1e
years. #nitially t/e 'ro2otion o3 a s&ien&e o3 &o0nition si2'ly re3le&te$ an in&reasin0 interest
3or resear&/ into Arti3i&ial #ntelli0en&e, 5/i&/ re2ains t/e 'ri1ile0e$ $o2ain an$ 3o&%s o3
&olla=oration 3or t/e 2any $is&i'lines en0a0e$ in &o0niti1e resear&/. ,o%=tless t/e
e9'ression (ognitive )cience , alon0 5it/ .rtificial "ntelligence, s/o%l$ =e %n$erstoo$ as a
3e$eratin0 slo0an. "o2e 5o%l$ say ) 5/at $i33eren&e $oes it 2ake i3 it8s a slo0an as lon0 as
it is 3e$eratin0.
(i1) T/ese last years /a1e seen a rene5e$ $e=ate 5it/in &o0niti1e resear&/ =et5een
&o0niti1is2 an$ &onne&tionis2. T/e s%=stan&e o3 t/is $e=ate 5ill =e $is&%ssse$ 3%rt/er on
(&3. infra O ( )H s%33i&e it to say t/at ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 /as $e3en$e$ t/e 'ost%lates o3
&lassi&al A#, 5/ereas t/ese /a1e =een t/e o=@e&t o3 &riti&is2 3ro2 '/iloso'/ers =elon0in0 to
t/e &onne&tionist s&/ool.
T/e 'ro'onents o3 t/ese t5o 'ara$i02s are o''ose$ at e1ery le1elH as a
&onseB%en&e 5e are le$ to sti'%late t/e e9isten&e o3 t5o $i1er0ent /istories. T/e
&onne&tionists /a1e atte2'te$ to re/a=ilitate &y=erneti&s, 5/i&/ a''arently /a$ =een
%n@%stly o&&l%$e$ =y t/e $e1elo'2ent o3 A#. As E.:-. ,%'%y /as 5ritten) GT/ere is a $ee'er
@%sti&e. Ae /a1e seen A# an$ t/e &o0niti1e s&ien&es tire o%t in re&ent years, only to 0i1e
=irt/ to a ne5 =ran&/, $%ly =a'ti<e$ 8neo:&onne&tionis28 5/i&/ is not/in0 ot/er t/an a
re3or2%lation o3 0oo$ ol$ &y=erneti&s
2F
G (1DF() 14).
By &ontrast, t/e so:&alle$ ort/o$o9 &o0niti1ists /a1e B%ite $eli=erately =y'asse$
&y=erneti&s. .eor0e Miller 3or e9a2'le /as &lai2e$ t/at G&o0niti1e s&ien&eG 5as =orn on
"e'te2=er 11 1D(6 $%rin0 an M#T sy2'osi%2 on in3or2ation t/eory.
T/ese /istorio0ra'/i&al $i33eren&es per se are se&on$ary to o%r interests an$ 5e 5ill
not $5ell on t/e2H as 5ell, e1en an a&&%rate 'erio$i<ation &annot 'reten$ to =e an /istory.
2. !e1ert/eless 5/at 5e /a1e @%st o%tline$ s/o%l$ ena=le %s to see 2ore &learly /o5
lan0%a0e /as =e&o2e 'ro0ressi1ely one o3 t/e &entres o3 interest 3or &o0niti1e resear&/.
Lan0%a0e 5as lar0ely i0nore$ $%rin0 t/e 'erio$ o3 &y=erneti& resear&/H &o2'%ter
s&ientists e33e&ti1ely li2ite$ t/e2sel1es to n%2eri&al &al&%lations. O3 &o%rse so2e lin0%ists
s%&/ as Ro2an Eako=son::'erennial a1ant:0ar$ist::'arti&i'ate$ $%rin0 t/e Ma&y
2J
Ait/ res'e&t to its =asi& 'rin&i'les, it8s not ne5::as 5itnesse$ =y t/e o''osition =et5een T%rin0
an$ M&%llo&/ in t/e 1D40s.
2F
"ee also -. Li1et, 1DF(.
21
&on3eren&es an$ in e33e&t Eako=son la=ore$ 5it/ t/e %s%al in0en%ity in t/e /o'es o3 linkin0
t/e 2at/e2ati&al t/eory o3 in3or2ation to lin0%isti& &o22%ni&ation. B%t, alas, in 1ain
2D
.
A/ile not =ein0 Glin0%isti&sG , lan0%a0e 5as ne1ert/eless t/e &entral 3o&%s o3 an
arti&le '%=lis/e$ =y T%rin0 in 1D(0 ) (omputing Machinery and "ntelligence. #n or$er to
ans5er t/e B%estion, Gare 2a&/ines &a'a=le o3 t/inkin0IG, T%rin0 $e1ise$ a 0a2e o3
i2itation, a ty'e o3 1er=al test 0enerally kno5n as t/e *uring test, a&&or$in0 to 5/i&/ t/e
&a'a&ity 3or t/o%0/t 5ill =e re&o0ni<e$ in any 2a&/ine t/at /as learne$ to i2itate a /%2an
$ialo0%e 'er3e&tly (&3. in3ra, &/a'. 7#).
As an o%t&o2e o3 resear&/ in A#, lin0%isti&s =e0an to ass%2e an in&reasin0ly
i2'ortant role in &o0niti1e resear&/ $%rin0 t/e $e&a$e 3ro2 1D(( to 1D6(. T/is is so not
only =e&a%se G/o2skyis2G o&&%'ie$ a $o2inant 'osition $%rin0 t/e 'erio$ (/is 5ork
re'resents, in t/e stri&test sense, t/e 3irst &o0niti1ist lin0%isti& t/eory), =%t is also $%e to t/e
3or2ation o3 t5o s%=:$is&i'lines asso&iate$ 5it/ lin0%isti&s.
T/e 3irst o3 t/ese is &o2'%tational lin0%isti&s 5/i&/ is a =ran&/ o3 &o2'%ter s&ien&e
t/at s'e&iali<es in t/e a%to2ati& 'ro&essin0 o3 lan0%a0e. #ts t/ree 'rin&i'le $o2ains in&l%$e
t/e analysis an$ synt/esis o3 s'ee&/, t/e 2an:2a&/ine $ialo0%e an$ a%to2ati&
translation
30
.
T/e se&on$ is 'sy&/olin0%isti&s 5/ose 3irst ai2 5as to %se e9'eri2ental 2et/o$s to
test t/e 1ali$ity o3 lin0%isti& t/eories =%t 5/i&/ later e9ten$e$ its 3iel$ o3 in1esti0ation to
in&l%$e all 'sy&/olo0i&al 3or2s relate$ to t/e a&B%isition, %se, an$ loss o3 lan0%a0e.
O1er t/e last ten years t/e $e=ates 5it/in &o0niti1e resear&/ /a1e =een 'olari<e$
aro%n$ t/e B%estion o3 lan0%a0e. An$ 5/ile t/ese $e=ates so2eti2es 2is&onstr%e or
2is/an$le lin0%isti&s, t/ey /a1e =e&o2e o3 in&reasin0 interest to lin0%ists.
#n t/is &onne&tion it is 'er/a's s%'er3l%o%s to re&all t/e 3a2o%s -ia0et:/o2sky
$e=ate 5/i&/ en$e$ %' le0iti2i<in0 /o2sky an$ Fo$or8s &o0niti1ist t/eses a=o%t
lan0%a0e
31
. T/irteen years later it is still on t/e 3iel$ o3 lan0%a0e t/at t/e &o0niti1ists /a1e
&/osen to 2o%nt t/eir o33ensi1e a0ainst &onne&tionis2 (&3. Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn, 1DFF,
1ers%s M&lellan$ an$ R%2el/art, 1DF6).
3. Ae nee$ to 5it/$ra5 3or a 2o2ent 3ro2 t/e /istorio0ra'/ies as 5e &an 2es%re
t/e2 &%rrently in &o0niti1e resear&/. T/ese 'ara$i02s ri1al ea&/ ot/er o3 &o%rse =%t
nonet/eless re2ain i2'li&itly in a0ree2ent on t/ree essential 'oints 5it/ 5/i&/ 5e $o not
entirely &on&%r.
(i) T/at t/ere e9ists a &o0niti1e s&ien&e an$ t/at lin0%isti&s &onstit%tes ones o3 its
'arts. +et, as 5e /a1e alrea$y state$, &o0niti1e resear&/ is a 2%lti$is&i'linary 3iel$. "%rely
lin0%isti&s 'arti&i'ates in it::to an e9tent yet to =e $eter2ine$::=%t nat%rally 2aintains its
o5n a%tono2y as 5ell as its o5n s'e&i3i& /istory.
2D
"ee /is arti&le GLin0%istiB%e et t/Corie $e la &o22%ni&ationG. Eako=son 5rites t/at 3or !or=ert
Aiener t/ere e9ists Gno 3%n$a2ental o''osition =et5een t/e 'ro=le2s 5/i&/ en0ineers en&o%nter
5it/ re0ar$ to &o22%ni&ation an$ t/ose en&o%ntere$ =y '/ilolo0istsG an$ /e 0oes on to re2ark t/at
t/ere e9ist strikin0 si2ilarities an$ &on1er0en&es =et5een re&ent 5ork in lin0%isti& analysis an$ t/e
a''roa&/ to lan0%a0e t/at is &/ara&teri<e$ =y &o22%ni&ation t/eory (1D63) FJ).
30
T/e 3irst syste2 $esi0ne$ 3or t/e a%to2ati& treat2ent o3 s'ee&/ $ates 3ro2 1D(2 (&a'a=le o3
re&o0ni<in0 ten &o%nt no%ns %ttere$ =y a sin0le s'eaker). T/e 3irst $ialo0%e syste2 $ates 3ro2 1D60
(it res'on$e$ to B%estions a=o%t =ase=all s&ores).
31
"ee Massi2o -iatelli:-al2inari, C$., 1DJD.
22
(ii) T/e 3o%n$ations o3 &o0niti1e s&ien&e 0o =a&k to t/e 1D408s
32
. +et resear&/ into
&o0nition /as at t/e 1ery least =een se&%lar::&ertainly as 3ar as t/e s&ien&es are
&on&erne$H an$ 3ro2 a '/iloso'/i&al 'ers'e&ti1e enB%iries into &o0nition are an&ient. T/e
/istori&al 'ri1ile0e 0rante$ to t/e 1D408s is only @%sti3ie$ i3 5e sele&t t/e &o2'%ter as t/e
t%telary 3i0%re o3 all resear&/ into &o0nition.
(iii) A so2e5/at /asty /istorio0ra'/y o3 &o0niti1e resear&/ /as 0rante$ an e9/or=itant
stat%s to /o2sky, ot/er lin0%isti& t/eories =ein0 rele0ate$ to t/e rank o3 're&%rsors (t/e
&ase o3 t/e neo:0ra22arians a&&or$in0 to .ar$ner
33
), i3 not to t/e $istant =a&k0ro%n$
(A2eri&an Gstr%&t%ralistG lin0%isti&s). .ar$ner s%22ari<es a 0eneral o'inion in &o22entin0
t/at ) G#n a nontri1ial sense, t/e /istory o3 2o$ern lin0%isti&s is t/e /istory o3 /o2sky8s
i$eas an$ o3 t/e $i1erse rea&tions to t/e2 on t/e 'art o3 t/e &o22%nityG (1DF( ) 1F(). T/is
'ri1ile0e is e9'laine$ 5/en 5e re&o0ni<e t/at /o2skyis2 is e9'li&itly an$ entirely sit%ate$
5it/in t/e 3iel$ o3 &o0niti1e resear&/. +et it is not @%sti3ie$ sin&e lin0%isti&s is only &on&erne$
5it/ &ertain as'e&ts o3 &o0niti1e resear&/.
To0et/er 5it/ t/e 're&e$in0 re2arks 5e s/o%l$ also in&l%$e t/ree $istin&t tren$s,
ea&/ 5it/ its o5n /istory, t/at &ontin%e to t/is $ay 5it/in &o0niti1e resear&/.
(i) T/e relations =et5een lin0%isti&s an$ 'sy&/olo0y 5ere 3or2e$ $%rin0 t/e 2i$$le o3
t/e last &ent%ry. #n lin0%isti&s one 5o%l$ /a1e to 2ention t/e &ontri=%tion o3 "teint/al, in
'arti&%lar /is 5ork Grammatik, Logik und Psychologie
34
(1F((). #n &onte2'orary
'sy&/olo0y one 5o%l$ /a1e to re&all t/e 5ork o3 7y0otsky an$ a=o1e all t/e 5ork o3 BQ/ler
5/ose )prachtheorie re2ains an %neB%alle$ synt/esis
3(
.
(ii) T/e relations =et5een lin0%isti&s an$ t/e ne%ros&ien&es 0o =a&k to t/e en$ o3 t/e
last &ent%ry. (i.e., 2ost nota=ly to t/e 5ork o3 Aerni&ke an$ o3 Li&/t/ei2).
(iii) Finally, t/e links =et5een lin0%isti&s an$ A# 5ere esta=lis/e$ t/ro%0/o%t t/e
1D(0s.
#n s/ort t/e relations =et5een lin0%isti&s an$ t/ese t/ree $is&i'lines or 0ro%'s o3
$is&i'lines /a1e &ontri=%te$ to t/e esta=lis/2ent o3 a 'ro=le2ati& 3or &o0niti1e resear&/.
%. THE POST'LATES OF COGNITIVE RESEARCH
Let %s t%rn o%r attention to 5/at /as &ontri=%te$ to t/is 'arti&%lar i2=ri&ation e1en i3 it
reB%ires %s to restri&t o%r 3o&%s to t/e so:&alle$ G&entralG $is&i'lines& #t see2s to %s t/at
&o0niti1e resear&/ is =ase$ on t5o 'ost%lates o3 a '/iloso'/i& nat%re 5/i&/ it /o'es to
trans3or2 into s&ienti3i& t/eses.
1. T/e tra$itional $%alis2 =et5een 2in$ an$ =rain s/o%l$ =e restri&te$ 'er/a's e1en
to t/e 'oint o3 $isa''earin0. #n ot/er 5or$s t/e 2in$ an$ t/e =rain 5o%l$ =elon0 to t/e
sa2e Glayer o3 Bein0G or le1el o3 reality. T/is 2onisti& 'ost%late a''ears to =e 2aterialist
36
.
!2
"ee 3or e9a2'le Ar=i=, onklin, *ill, 1DFJ, &/a'. # ) *he (ybernetic roots of (ognitive )cience&
!!
G#n t/e 1F60s an$ 1FJ0s, in a 2anner 'arallein0 t/e /o2skian &ir&le a &ent%ry later, a 0ro%' o3
yo%n0 re=els &alle$ t/e 2unggrammatiker (or neo:0ra22arians) atte2'te$ to '%t t/e sit%ation in
or$er G (1DF()1DJ).
!%
A&&or$in0 to Er5in Es'er, "teint/al $i$ lin0%isti&s t/e ser1i&e o3 re'la&in0 lo0i& 5it/ 'sy&/olo0y
(&3. Mentalism and -b3ectivism in Linguistics, !e5 +ork, A2eri&an Else1ier, 1D6F).
!"
#nter$is&i'linary en&o%nters $o not $ate =a&k to yester$ayR onsi$er t/e 3a2o%s s'e&ial iss%e o3
t/e 2ournal de psychologie (1D33).
36
Ae 5ill see /o5e1er t/at ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 2aintains &ertain 3or2s o3 $%alis2.
23
+ote ) T/is i$ea /as o3 &o%rse =een a&&%se$ o3 =ein0 re$%&tionist (2ost nota=ly in t/e
&riti&is2s $ire&te$ at t/e i$ea o3 +euronal Man). +et re$%&tionis2 /as less to $o 5it/
2aintainin0 t/is 'ost%late t/an 5it/ =ein0 satis3ie$ 5it/ it. #3 2atter t/inks, t/en it is ) t/e 2a@or
'ro=le2::one t/at t/is 3irst 'ost%late lea1es in t/e $ark::re2ains t/e relations =et5een t/e 2in$
an$ t/e rest o3 t/e =o$y. As 5ell, t/e 3a&ile an$ /asty 'arallels o3ten $ra5n =et5een t/e 2in$
an$ t/e &o2'%ter are 0enerally =ase$ on a &o2'lete ne0le&t o3 t/e =o$y ) 5/ile t/e resear&/
&on&erns re'resentations, reasonin0 'ro&esses, et&., it too o3ten ne0le&ts t/e 3%n$a2ental
'ro=le2 o3 'er&e'tion.
2. Man &an si2%late 2ental 'ro&esses =y arti3i&ial 2eans. T/is se&on$ 'ost%late::t/e
1ery 5or$s .rtificial "ntelligence s%22ari<e t/e a2=i0%ities in it::/as =een inter'rete$ in
2any 5ays.
(i) A 2ini2alist inter'retation li2its itsel3 to si2%latin0 o%t'%t 5it/o%t seekin0 to
re'ro$%&e t/e o'erations 5/i&/ 0enerate t/ese o%t'%t. #n t/e &ase o3 a 2an:2a&/ine
$ialo0%e (&3, infra, &/a'. 7#) t/is a''roa&/ &an lea$ to e&/olali& syste2s, t/e ar&/ety'e o3
5/i&/ re2ains Aei<e=a%28s EL#SAH it &o%l$ also lea$ to 2ore ela=orate syste2s &a'a=le
o3 2ani'%latin0 se2anti& re'resentations, 5it/o%t t/e 3or2 or t/e treat2ent o3 t/ese
re'resentations =ein0 ne&essarily analo0o%s to t/ose o3 t/e /%2an 2in$ (i.e., Aino0ra$8s
"*LR,;).
(ii) More a2=itio%sly, one 2i0/t &on@e&t%re t/at in or$er to 'ro$%&e &o2'ara=le o%t'%t
one 5o%l$ /a1e to =e a=le to si2%late t/e 2ental o'erations 5/i&/ 'ro$%&e t/e2::at least
as 3ar as t/ese 2ental 'ro&esses are %n$erstoo$. T/is is t/e reason 5/y &o2'%ter
s&ientists t%rn to5ar$ 'sy&/olo0ists, e1en ne%ro'sy&/olo0ists, in or$er to 1ali$ate t/eir
/y'ot/eses. O3 &o%rse t/ey &an atte2't to i2'ro1e t/e 'er3or2an&e o3 t/eir syste2s on
t/e =asis o3 5/at t/ey kno5 a=o%t 2ental o'erations 5it/o%t at all 'reten$in0 to =e a=le to
re'ro$%&e t/ese o'erations.
(iii) Arisin0 3ro2 t/e last 'oint is t/e 2a9i2alist inter'retation o3 &o0niti1e resear&/8s
se&on$ 'ost%late) in or$er to si2%late &ere=ral 3%n&tionin0 as 3ait/3%lly as 'ossi=le, one /as
to =e a=le to treat in3or2ation =y 2eans o3 net5orks o3 3or2al ne%rons. T/is is t/e 'rin&i'le
=e/in$ &onne&tionist 2o$els
3J
. T/e =asi& i$ea =ein0 t/at it is 'ossi=le to re&onstr%&t
net5orks o3 3or2al ne%rons =y t/e %se o3 s'e&i3i& 'ro0ra2s r%n on e1en a &lassi&al
&o2'%ter $esi0n. #n or$er to 0o =eyon0 t/is, it is t/o%0/t t/at ot/er syste2s are nee$e$ )
2ore so'/isti&ate$ 2a&/ines ($esi0ne$ 3or 2assi1e G'arallel treat2entsG), or entirely ne5
&o2'%ter $esi0ns. E1en t/e si2%lation o3 &ere=ral 2atter itsel3 /as =een i2a0ine$,
3ollo5in0 t/e 2o$el o3 t/e si2%lation o3 o%t'%t in t/e 3or2 o3 si2'le 1er=al synta02s.
As t/e 're&e$in0 'oints s/o5, t/ere are t/ree 'rin&i'al 5ays in 5/i&/ t/e notion o3
si2%lation &an =e %n$erstoo$, ea&/ re'resentin0 an in&reasin0 $e0ree o3 3i$elity in t/e
re'resentation o3 2ental o'erations ) t/e 3irst $e0ree o3 3i$elity 'res%2es t/at t/e
&oo'eration =et5een &o2'%ter s&ien&e an$ lin0%isti&s is s%33i&ient, in t/e se&on$ $e0ree,
t/e &olla=oration =e5een lin0%isti&s an$ &o2'%ter s&ien&e =e&o2es ne&essary, an$ in t/e
t/ir$ $e0ree, one is o=li0e$ to &olla=orate 5it/ t/e ne%ros&ien&es.
3. T/o%0/ not t/e o=@e&t o3 2%&/ $is&%ssion, a t/ir$ 'ost%late is 0enerally a&&e'te$
an$ &o%l$ =e &/ara&teri<e$ as G0noseolo0i&alGH a&&or$in0 to it, kno5le$0e is a sy2=oli&
re'resentation o3 a 0i1en reality . #3 one a0rees 5it/ ,es&artes t/at t/o%0/t &onsists o3
o'erations on s%&/ re'resentations, an$ 5it/ *o==es t/at reasonin0, t/e s%'erior 3or2 o3
t/o%0/t, &an =e re$%&e$ to a &al&%lation, t/en a 2a&/ine t/at o'erates on sy2=ols s/o%l$
3J
"ee Fel$2an an$ Ballar$ (1DF2), ottrell an$ "2all (1DF4), Aalt< an$ -olla&k (1DF(), BCro%le
(1DF(), "2olensky (1DFF)H 3or an intro$%&tion, see Eo$o%in, 1DD0.
24
=e &a'a=le o3 reasonin0 on t/e =asis o3 &ertain kno5le$0e $ata
3F
. T/is /y'ot/esis %n$erlies
t/e &o2'arisons 5/i&/ /ol$ t/at t/e =rain an$ t/e &o2'%ter are t5o 2aterial syste2s
&a'a=le o3 'er3or2in0 &al&%lations on sy2=oli& re'resentations
3D
.
T/is t/ir$ 'ost%late s%=ten$s t/e 'ro@e&t o3 si2%lation 5/i&/ 3in$s its e9'ression in t/e
2a9i2alist 1ersion o3 &o0niti1is2::as 2%&/ in A# as in &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y:: =ot/ s&ien&es
'ro@e&tin0 t/at t/e tr%e 3%n&tionin0 o3 t/e =rain 5ill =e kno5n on&e it &an =e si2%late$ =y
2eans o3 sy2=ol 'ro&essin0 2a&/ines. #n t/e $o2ain o3 lin0%isti&s, t/is /y'ot/esis 5o%l$
i2'ly t/at one 5ill &o2e to %n$erstan$ lan0%a0e an$ /%2an lin0%isti& 3a&%lties only i3 one
arri1es at =ein0 a=le to a%to2ati&ally 'ro$%&e an$ en%2erate e1ery 0ra22ati&al '/rase in
e1ery kno5n (or e1en 'ossi=le
40
) lan0%a0e.
O3 &o%rse 5e are a5are t/at s%&/ a s%&&in&t 'resentation as t/is is =o%n$ to raise a
n%2=er o3 B%estions o3 an e'iste2olo0i&al nat%re. Ae 5ill e9a2ine t5o o3 t/ese 'ossi=le
B%estions 5it/o%t tryin0 to treat eit/er o3 t/e2 e9/a%sti1ely.
1) T/e notion o3 knowledge o3 &o%rse 'lays a &entral role in &o0niti1e resear&/. +et,
e1en i3 t/eories o3 kno5le$0e a=o%n$ in t/e /istory o3 '/iloso'/y, it see2s t/at &o0niti1e
resear&/ 2akes 1ery =roa$ %se o3 t/is notion 5it/o%t en$ea1orin0 to &learly s'e&i3y its
s&ienti3i& stat%s. For e9a2'le, in A# an$ in &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y t/ere is 3reB%ent %se o3
semantic networks in or$er to re'resent kno5le$0e. *o5e1er t/e G&on&e'tsG $e3ine$ =y
t/ese net5orks are si2'ly lin0%isti& &ontents, an$ it is i2'r%$ent to assi2ilate 2eanin0 an$
kno5le$0e 5it/o%t 3irst enB%irin0 into t/eir relations. Let %s at least a0ree t/at t/ese
relations are neit/er si2'le nor %n2e$iate$ (&3. infra, &/a'. #7).
#n s/ort, %' %ntil no5 &o0niti1e resear&/ /as or0ani<e$ itsel3 on t/e =asis o3 5/at
re2ains lar0ely an i2'li&it 0noseolo0y.
2) T/e or0ani<ation an$ re0%lation o3 relations =et5een $is&i'lines 5it/in &o0niti1e
resear&/ reB%ires ot/er 're&isions. #n t/e 3irst 'la&e t/e stat%s o3 t/ese $is&i'lines is
%neB%al. Ae &an 'ro=a=ly a0ree t/at &o2'%ter s&ien&e, &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y, lin0%isti&s
an$ t/e ne%ros&ien&es 2erit =ein0 $esi0nate$ as s&ien&es, ea&/ 3or a n%2=er o3 reasons.
T/is is not t/e &ase 3or A#. T/inkin0 o3 A# as a s&ien&e 5o%l$ ine1ita=ly lea$ %s to
'er'et%ate an error t/at to$ay is al2ost =anal ) na2ely t/e =elie3 t/at a 0i1en 'ro0ra2
a''li&ation &a'a=le o3 o'eratin0 in t/e 3or2 o3 an A# syste2 is in itsel3 s%33i&ient reason 3or
validating t/e t/eoreti&al &on&e'tions 5/i&/ &ontri=%te$ to 2akin0 t/e syste2 o'erational
in t/e 3irst 'la&e. *o5e1er, t/at a 0i1en &on&e't is te&/ni&ally operational $oes not
ne&essarily 2ake it operative 5it/in t/e t/eory t/at &reate$ it. Maintainin0 t/is &on3%sion
5ill not allo5 &o0niti1e resear&/ to o1er&o2e t/e technicism 3or 5/i&/ en0ineers to$ay are
%n@%stly &re$ite$
41
.
T/e notion o3 interdiscipline, 5/i&/ !e5ell re&ently a$1an&e$ in or$er to &/ara&teri<e
A#, 1ery 2%&/ s%its t/is o'en:ar2e$ te&/nolo0yH =%t it s/o%l$ not =e e9ten$e$ to &o0niti1e
resear&/ in its entirety. E9'erien&e /as s/o5n t/at t/e inter :, trans :, or meta :$is&i'lines
!#
GReason is not/in0 =%t re&konin0G, Leviathan, 16(1.
3D
#n A#, t/is is 5/at t/e notion o3 intelli0en&e is 0enerally re$%&e$ to.
40
An$ /en&e /o2sky8s initial a2=itions 5ill /a1e =een 3%l3ille$.
41
For e9a2'le, a si2'le an$ e33i&ient syste2 o3 &a=alisti& inter'retation is entirely &on&ei1a=le an$ it
2i0/t o'erate =y t/e 'er2%tation o3 letters or =y t/e &al&%lation o3 n%2eri&al 1al%es, 5/i&/ are
2ysterio%sly atta&/e$ to t/e2. #t re2ains tr%e t/at t/e ne&essity o3 intro$%&in0 an$ 5orkin0 5it/
&o2'%ters /as le$ 2any $is&i'lines to =e&o2e 2ore ri0oro%s in t/eir resear&/. T/e &a'a&ity to
trans3or2 a 'ro=le2 into a 'ro0ra2 &an /a1e a si0ni3i&ant /e%risti& 1al%e. O3 &o%rse, one s/o%l$ not
&on&l%$e t/at only 'ro0ra22a=le 'ro=le2s are 'ertinent.
2(
are really @%st '/iloso'/ies t/at $are not $e&lare t/e2sel1es as s%&/ an$ it is 3or 're&isely
t/is reason t/ey are in3erior to t/e tra$itional '/iloso'/ies.
&. THE T(O PARADIGMS

4Paradigm clashes4 , as everyone who
goes to cocktail parties knows, are
diffuse confrontations of world views&
Eerry Fo$or
1. T/e 'ost%lates t/at 5e /a1e @%st o%tline$ are 3%n$a2ental to t/e e9tent t/at t/ey
are s/are$ =y =ot/ ri1al 'ara$i02s, so:&alle$ ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 an$ &onne&tionis2
42
.
*o5e1er t/ese la=els are t/e2sel1es 2islea$in0 ) &o0niti1is2 ne1er really &onstit%te$
itsel3 as an ort/o$o9y, alt/o%0/ Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn (1DFF) 'ortraye$ t/e2sel1es as
&/a2'ions o3 t/e classical 'oint o3 1ie5H yet 1ery o3ten 3%n$a2entalists &reate an
ort/o$o9y in or$er to &on3ir2 t/eir lea$ers/i' an$ 'er'et%ate t/eir o5n 5ay o3 t/inkin0.
onne&tionis2 on t/e ot/er /an$ $oes not re'resent a ne5 'ara$i02, one 5/ose 1o&ation
5o%l$ =e to s%''lant its 're$e&essor. #n 3a&t t/e t5o 'ara$i02s /a1e ri1ale$ ea&/ ot/er
sin&e t/e nineteen 3orties, ea&/ in t%rn 'ro3itin0 3ro2 t/e ot/er8s $i33i&%lties.
#t is 'ossi=le to asso&iate t/ese t5o 'ara$i02s to t5o $i33erent '/iloso'/ies
(analyti&al '/iloso'/y an$ '/eno2enolo0y), as 5ell as to t5o i2'li&it ontolo0ies (one
3a1orin0 t/e $is&rete, t/e ot/er 'ri1ele0in0 t/e &ontin%o%s), e1en to t5o $istin&t 'oeti&s
(one s%staine$ =y t/e 2eta'/or o3 t/e &o2'%ter, t/e ot/er =y t/e 2eta'/or o3 t/e =rain).
Re&allin0 t/ese $i1isions 2ay =e %se3%l =%t it is also ne&essarily ten$entio%s ) 3irstly, t/ere
are stron0 $i1isions 5it/in ea&/ &a2'H 2oreo1er, %' %ntil no5 a &ertain &on3%sion /as
$o2inate$ t/e $e=ates &on&ernin0 not only ar0%2entation =%t also t/e 1ario%s t/eoreti&al
re3eren&es s%22one$ =y ea&/ 'ara$i02.
A 're&ision is in or$er /ere ) =y cognitivism 5e 2ean ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 an$
'arti&%larly t/e GM#T s&/oolG t/e 2ost 'ro2inent re'resentati1es o3 5/i&/ re2ain /o2sky
in lin0%isti&s an$ Fo$or in &o0niti1e lin0%isti&s. Ae s/o%l$ a$$ t/at in 3or2%latin0 o%r
&riti&is2s o3 &o0niti1is2 it is not o%r intention to &on$e2n A# as s%&/.
2. As 3ar as t/e &o0niti1ist 'ara$i02 is &on&erne$, &o0niti1e resear&/ a''ears to
/a1e a &o22on o=@e&t ) kno5le$0e. T/is o=@e&t is not /o5e1er o3 t/e sa2e nat%re as t/e
o=@e&t o3 a 'arti&%lar s&ien&e. #ts s'e&i3i&ity is 2ore t/at o3 a re&%rrent t/e2e ) (i) o0niti1e
'sy&/olo0y is 'rin&i'ally intereste$ in t/e analysis an$ treat2ent o3 reasonin0, in in3eren&es
=ase$ on kno5le$0e, an$ in t/e stora0e an$ retrie1al o3 kno5le$0eH (ii) A# 3o&%ses on t/e
'ro=le2 o3 knowledge representation H (iii) lin0%isti&s atte2'ts to 'ro'ose 2o$els t/at 5ill
ena=le t/ese tasks to =e reali<e$.
%2
A&&or$in0 to An0lo "a9on e'iste2olo0y, t/e ter2 paradigm $esi0nates a s&ienti3i& 'ro=le2ati&.
#n $e3inin0 t/e notion o3 'ara$i02 in 3i1e $i33erent 5ays, K%/n intro$%&e$ a ter2 t/at /as =e&o2e a
'o'%lar re3eren&e an$ 5e 5ill not try to $i2inis/ its %tility. #s it li&it to$ay to s'eak o3 t5o 'ara$i02s I
T/e in3or2e$ rea$er 5ill @%$0e t/at t/e i$ea is not alto0et/er erroneo%s. A&&or$in0 to a n%2=er o3
'eo'le t/ere are t5o o''osin0 'ara$i02s ) "ee An$ler, 1DF6, Aino0ra$ an$ Flores, 1DF6,
M&lellan$ an$ R%2el/art, 1DF6, Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn, 1DFF.
26
Ait/in t/e &o0niti1ist 'ara$i02, knowledge is a 'ro&ess o3 re'resentation &on&ei1e$
in ter2s o3 sy2=oli& translation )
(i) T/e 5orl$ is &o2'ose$ o3 t/in0s an$ o3 states o3 a33airs.
(ii) Kno5le$0e is t/e sy2=oli& re'resentation o3 t/ese t/in0s an$ states o3 a33airs.
(iii) One o3 t/e 'rin&i'al tasks o3 A#, lin0%isti&s an$ 'sy&/olo0y is to ela=orate an$
&onstr%&t sy2=oli& re'resentations o3 kno5le$0e itsel3 in s%&/ a 5ay as to =e a=le to
analy<e an$ o'erate on t/ese re'resentations.
T/is 'ara$i02 '%ts into 'la&e 5/at &o%l$ =e &alle$ a translationist &on&e'tion o3
2eanin0 ) t/e 2eanin0 o3 a sy2=ol is eB%i1alent to its translation into ot/er sy2=ols
43
, or
2ore 're&isely, 5/at it /as in &o22on 5it/ its translation. One 2i0/t o=@e&t 5it/ t/is =y
&onten$in0 t/at t/e re'resentation o3 an o=@e&t =y 2eans o3 a sy2=ol, an$ t/e
re'resentation o3 a sy2=ol =y 2eans o3 anot/er sy2=ol /a1e not/in0 in &o22on
44
. T/is
$i33eren&e is ne1ert/eless o3ten ne0le&te$, as i3 t/e o=@e&ts o3 t/is 5orl$ 5ere t/e2sel1es
sy2=ols ) in &o0niti1is28s i2'li&it ontolo0y t/ese t5o entities s/are 2any &/ara&teristi&s
s%&/ as $is&reteness an$ %niB%eness or sel3:i$entity.
F%rt/er2ore, t/o%0/t itsel3 is assi2ilate$ to a lan0%a0e. *en&e t/e t/esis t/at a
2ental re'resentation is a series o3 sy2=ols $eri1in0 3ro2 a 2ental lan0%a0e an$
$es&ri=a=le as a kin$ o3 3or2al lan0%a0e. T/is 'ost%lation 5as ne&essary in or$er to allo5
t/o%0/t to =e inte0rate$ into t/e i$ea o3 a s%'eri2'osition o3 sy2=oli& re'resentations t/at
translate ea&/ ot/er s%&&essi1ely. T/%s t/e i2a0e o3 t/e kno5le$0e 'ro&ess t/at e2er0es
3ro2 t/is is t/at o3 a transduction, or e1en o3 a compilation H t/ese ter2s si0ni3yin0 t/e
GtranslationG o3 a series o3 sy2=ols into ot/er series o3 sy2=ols, an$ 2ore 're&isely, o3
s%'erior or$er lan0%a0es to lo5er or$er lan0%a0es. #n t/is sense, kno5in0 5o%l$ &onsist o3
trans3or2in0 o=@e&ts into G=itsG.
As 3ar as lin0%isti&s is s'e&i3i&ally &on&erne$, t/is t/eoreti&al 'ro0ra2 entails t5o
2a@or &onseB%en&es ) (i) lin0%isti& 2eanin0 is in t/e 3inal analysis $enotati1e 2eanin0 )
lin0%isti& sy2=ols $esi0nate o=@e&ts o3 t/e real 5orl$H (ii) t/e @o= o3 lin0%isti&s &onsists o3
=ein0 a=le to re'resent t/e sy2=ols o3 nat%ral lan0%a0es =y 2eans o3 sy2=ols &reate$ =y
3or2al lan0%a0es (an en$ea1or t/at 5o%l$ o'en t/e 'ossi=ility o3 &o2'%ter a''li&ations).
3. #nso3ar as a 0eneral &/ara&teri<ation is 'ossi=le, t/e &onne&tionist 'ara$i02 is
or0ani<e$ aro%n$ t/e 'ro=le2 o3 &o0nition &on&ei1e$ as t/e 3or2ation, learnin0 an$
retrie1al o3 kno5le$0e. More =roa$ly, t/e ter2 cognitive is not li2ite$ to t/e st%$y o3 so:
&alle$ s%'erior 2ental a&ti1ity::in 2an t/is a&ti1ity &%l2inatin0 in lan0%a0e an$ in t/e
&reation o3 lan0%a0es 0enerally::=%t en&o2'asses t/e 1ast 3iel$ o3 &o2'le9 intera&tions
=et5een an or0anis2 an$ its en1iron2ent. #t is =y 1irt%e o3 t/is e9tension t/at &o0niti1e
resear&/ /as o'ene$ itsel3 to t/e ne%ros&ien&es. E1en t/e notion o3 kno5le$0e 3in$s itsel3
e9ten$e$ )
%!
Eako=son, 5it/ /is %s%al e&le&ti&is2, $e3ines t/is 'arti&%lar &on&e'tion as semiotic an$ in so
$oin0 %n$%ly assi2ilates in3or2ation (5/i&/ &o2'%ter s&ien&e $eals 5it/) 5it/ Gse2anti&
in3or2ationG (5/i&/ lin0%isti&s $eals 5it/) ) GT/e se2anti& $e3inition o3 t/e 2eanin0 o3 a sy2=ol as
=ein0 its translation into ot/er sy2=ols 3in$s a %se3%l a''li&ation in t/e lin0%isti& st%$y o3 translationH
in a''roa&/in0 se2anti& in3or2ation in t/is 5ay, 5e 2eet %' 5it/ "/annon8s 'ro'osal o3 $e3inin0
in3or2ation as T5/at re2ains %n&/an0e$ a3ter all t/e re1ersi=le o'erations o3 en&o$in0 an$
translation, in s/ort, as t/e eB%i1alent 3or2 o3 all t/ese translations G (1D63, '. DJ).
44
All t/e 2ore so sin&e t/e si0ni3ie$ &annot =e sai$ to re'resent o=@e&ts. T/eir relations/i' to
o=@e&ts is 3ar 2ore &o2'le9, an$ is 2e$iate$ =y t/e re'resentations to 5/i&/ t/ese si0ni3ie$s are
asso&iate$.
2J
(i) Kno5le$0e is no lon0er $e3ine$ as an a00lo2erate o3 re'resentations. #n ot/er
5or$s, t/e 2i2eti& t/eory o3 re'resentation is re@e&te$.
(ii) !ot all kno5le$0e is ne&essarily a&&essi=le or &ons&io%s. T/e =rain &annot =e
li2ite$ to t/e &orte9, nor &an t/e ner1o%s syste2 =e restri&te$ to t/e =rain.
(iii) All kno5le$0e is not a fortiori &on&e't%al. *en&e t/e 3reB%ent e1o&ations o3 a Gs%=:
&on&e't%al le1elG.
(i1) As an e9tension o3 t/e last 'oint, kno5le$0e is not &onsi$ere$ a fortiori to =e o3 a
ne&essarily sy2=oli& nat%re. Follo5in0 "2olensky8s i2'et%s t/ere 5ill =e a ret%rn to t/e
notion o3 a Gs%=:sy2=oli& le1elG. #n any &ase t/e &o0niti1e s&ien&es, in&l%$in0 lin0%isti&s,
&annot li2it t/e2sel1es to t/e $es&ri'tion o3 o'erations on sy2=ols.
A/ereas t/e 2arke$ interest o3 ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 is 3or t/e st%$y o3 reasonin0 an$
3or r%le:0o1erne$ o'erations on sy2=ols, &onne&tionis2 ten$s 2ore s'e&i3i&ally to5ar$s
t/e 'ro=le2 o3 'er&e'tion (=iolo0i&al or arti3i&ial
4(
). #t &onseB%ently 0rants a 1ery i2'ortant
role to context (in t/e non:lin0%isti& sense o3 t/e ter2), 5/i&/ en&o2'asses s'atial,
te2'oral, e1en intentional $i2ensionsH e1ery 'er&e'tion o3 a '/eno2enon is &onsi$ere$
&losely $e'en$ent on its en1iron2ent. -er&e'tion also $e'en$s on te2'oral 3a&tors an$ in
3a&t e1ol1es 5it/ ti2eH it is also 2oti1ate$ =y so2e ai2 (an or0anis28s $ri1es, t/e
intentions o3 an in$i1i$%al, or t/e ai2s o3 a 0i1en 'ro0ra2)
46
.
Ait/ &onne&tionis2 t/e relations =et5een t/e $is&i'lines are also 2o$i3ie$ ) t/e
ne%ros&ien&es 0ain &onsi$era=ly in stat%re to t/e $etri2ent o3 &o2'%ter s&ien&e. As 5ell,
t/ere /a1e =een &onsi$era=le %'/ea1als in &ertain $is&i'lines, nota=ly in A# ) 2a&/ines are
no lon0er 'ro0ra22e$, t/ey are G&on$itione$GH an$ rat/er t/an 5ritin0 r%les, one s'e&i3ies
t/e relations =et5een G3or2al ne%ronsGH res%lts are not o=taine$ (or at least series o3
sy2=ols inter'rete$ as res%lts), instea$ one i$enti3ies sta=le or te2'orary a&ti1ations o3
&ertain 'arts 5it/in a 0i1en net5ork.
Finally, &onne&tionis28s i2'li&it ontolo0y is 2ore a&&%rately 'ortraye$ on t/e 2o$el o3
'/ysi&s rat/er t/an lo0i& ) an o=@e&t is not &onsi$ere$ to =e a $is&rete entity =earin0 a
%niB%e i$entity =%t instea$ a sin0%larity sit%ate$ 5it/in a &ontin%o%s s'a&e an$ &a'a=le o3
in3inite 1ariation.
4. #2'li&it ontolo0ies seek t/e s%''ort o3 e9'li&it '/iloso'/ies. Ort/o$o9 &o0nti1is2
/as in/erite$ 2%&/ 3ro2 lo0i&o:'ositi1ist '/iloso'/y, nota=ly 3ro2 R%ssell, arna', an$ t/e
3irst Aitt0enstein. An$ i3 $es&en$an&e is not al5ays &lai2e$ o%tri0/t it is =e&a%se lo0i&o:
'ositi1ist '/iloso'/y re'resents 3or ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 so2et/in0 like G&o22on senseG ::
t/at 5/i&/ 0oes 5it/o%t sayin0H 3or e9a2'le, t/e si2'listi& &on&e'tion o3 re'resentation t/at
5e $es&ri=e$ a=o1e 3in$s its so%r&e in Aitt0enstein8s *ractatus .
T/e relations =et5een t/is '/iloso'/y an$ ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 are &lose an$ no
$o%=t ne&essary. First o3 all, it 'ro1i$e$ t/e t/eoreti&al &on$itions ne&essary 3or t/e $esi0n
an$ $e1elo'2ent o3 &o2'%ters, 5/i&/ $o2inate t/e &o0niti1ist i2a0inary. "e&on$ly, lo0i&o:
'ositi1ist '/iloso'/y, an$ ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 3ollo5in0 it, 'ro'ose 3or2al lan0%a0es as a
kin$ o3 sy2=oli& i$eal::a 3a&t t/at is not 5it/o%t &onseB%en&es 3or s%=seB%ent &o0niti1ist
&on&e'tions o3 lan0%a0e.
4(
T/is is &lear 3ro2 t/e 3a&t t/at t/e 3irst ten$s to re$%&e 'er&e'tion to reasonin0 an$ t/e se&on$
ten$s to re$%&e reasonin0 to t/e re&o0nition o3 3or2s.
%&
All t/is es&a'es o3 &o%rse t/e lo0i&ist strain o3 t/o%0/t intro$%&e$ =y ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2H an$
5it/in so:&alle$ &lassi&al A#, it is 're&isely t/e 2ost ar$ent a$1ersaries o3 lo0i&is2 5/o /a1e &reate$
or $e1elo'e$ t/ose &on&e'ts $esi0ne$ in t/e ai2 o3 a&&o22o$atin0 t/e role 'laye$ =y &onte9t
(lin0%isti& or not) ) preferences 3or Ailks, plans or scripts 3or "&/ank.
2F
#n &ontrast t/e 'artisans o3 &onne&tionis2 e2=ra&e$ &ertain strains o3
'/eno2enolo0y
4J
in or$er to &o2=at &o0niti1is2 on t/e '/iloso'/i& 3ront. #n t/is 5ay t/ey
3ollo5e$ *. ,rey3%s8s lea$ in /is ra$i&al &ritiB%e o3 A#, an$ =eyon$ t/at, o3 lo0i&al 'ositi1is2.
B%t t/e &o2=at =et5een t/ese t5o '/iloso'/ies /as lost t/e intensity an$ l%stre o3 t/e
inter5ar 'erio$. #t is so2e5/at 'iti3%l to see /o5 Aino0ra$ an$ Flores (1DF6) seek to %se in
$%e s&/olarly 2anner e9tra&ts 3ro2 )ein und 5eit 5it/ t/e intention o3 creating a ne5
&o2'%ter design, /o5e1er &o22en$a=le t/e e33ort 2ay =e in t/eory. #n1okin0 *ei$e00er in
t/e /o'es o3 =ein0 a=le to i2'ro1e a te&/nolo0y is to &o22it a rat/er $is&on&ertin0 a&t o3
2isinter'retation.
;n3ort%nately o%r ene2ies8 ene2ies are not al5ays o%r 3rien$s. *ei$e00erian
'/eno2enolo0y is anti:te&/nolo0i&al, 5/ereas &onne&tionis2 re2ains a=o1e all a 2ean o3
&o2'%ter i2'le2entation. Moreo1er, 5/ereas t/e &onne&tionists 3in$ s%''ort in '/ysi&s (&3.
"2olensky8s t/eory o3 /ar2ony), *ei$e00erian '/eno2enolo0y =y 'rin&i'le re3%ses to treat
t/e '/ysi&al universe , t/e =rain in&l%$e$ o3 &o%rse ) at t/e 1ery 2ost it treats t/e /%2an
world (t/at is to say, t/e 5orl$ as 3ar as e9'erien&e 0i1es it 2eanin0). Finally, as 3ar as
'/ysi&s is &on&erne$, te&/nolo0y is sit%ate$ sB%arely on t/e si$e o3 being, 5/ereas
'/eno2enolo0y or0ani<es itsel3 aro%n$ t/e B%estion o3 $eing .
#n s/ort 5/ereas ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 s/ares &lose ties 5it/ lo0i&al 'ositi1is2,
&onne&tionis2 &annot lay @%st '/iloso'/i& &lai2 to *ei$e00erian '/eno2enolo0y nor
*%sserlian '/eno2enolo0y 3or t/at 2atter. #n e33e&t 5/ile t/e trans&en$ental s%=@e&t
re2ains t/e &entral 3o&%s o3 t/e latter '/iloso'/y, t/e &onne&tionist 2o$el &alls into
B%estion t/e &lassi&al '/iloso'/i& &on&e'tion o3 t/e s%=@e&t (an$ t/%s trans&en$ental
'/iloso'/y
4F
).
(. T/ese t5o ri1al 'ara$i02s /a1e $e1elo'e$ aro%n$ t5o &ontrastin0 2eta'/ors. For
&o0niti1is2, t/e &o2'%ter re2ains t/e 2eta'/ori&al &enter'ie&e. T/is 'oeti&s o3 t/e
&o2'%ter is 1ery &learly ill%strate$ =y &o0niti1e 'sy&/olo0y ) Gin$i1i$%als are s%''ose$ to
treat in3or2ation in real time, in se%uence or in parallelH effectuate a te9t on&e it is
compiledH stock in3or2ation in $i33erent 2e2ories (1irt%al 2e2ory, =%33er 2e2ory, si2'le
re0isters, et&.) L...M H all t/is 5it/ t/e /el' o3 a supervisor 5/o allo&ates reso%r&es to
speciali0ed 'ro&essorsG (,en/iUre an$ -oitrena%$, 1DF(, '. 4). !at%rally, t/e ort/o$o9
&o0niti1ists are a1ant:0ar$e in t/is res'e&t (&3. Fo$or, *he Modularity of Mind, 1DF3) an$
t/e literat%re on A# is not to =e o%t$one ) &3. *hinking (omputers (Ra'/ael, 1DJ6),
(ognitive (omputers ("&/ank, 1DF3), Machines who *hink (M&or$%&k, 1DJD).
T/e t/eoreti&al stakes are &onsi$era=le sin&e it is a B%estion o3 re$%&in0 &o0nition to
a series o3 a%to2ati& o'erations &arrie$ o%t on sy2=ols, an$ 3ollo5in0 3ro2 t/is, o3
re$%&in0 &o0niti1e resear&/ to &o2'%ter s&ien&e, t/e 3or2er =ein0 &onstr%e$ 2erely as a
t/eoreti&al as'e&t or e9tension o3 t/e latter. #n t/is sense Aino0ra$ 5rites ) GT/e $esi0n o3
&o2'%tational syste2s also /as a t/eoreti&al si$e, 5/i&/ is o3ten &alle$ cognitive science.
T/e sa2e &on&e'ts o3 'ro0ra2 an$ $ata t/at ser1e as a 3ra2e5ork 3or =%il$in0 an$
%n$restan$in0 &o2'%ter 'ro0ra2s &an =e a''lie$ to t/e %n$erstan$in0 o3 any syste2
&arryin0 o%t 'ro&esses t/at &an =e %n$erstoo$ as t/e r%le:0o1erne$ 2ani'%lation o3
sy2=olsG (1DF3 ) 2).
4J
"o:&alle$ e9istential '/iloso'/y (*ei$e00er), e1en e9istentialist (Merlea%:-onty).
4F
,rey3%s %ses *ei$e00er an$ *%sserl in$i33erently in or$er to atta&k A#, $es'ite *ei$e00er8s ra$i&al
&ritiB%e o3 *%sserl8s t/eory o3 t/e trans&en$ental s%=@e&t (5/i&/ is 're&isely 5/at lea$s /i2 to re$%&e
'/eno2enolo0y to a '/iloso'/y o3 Bein0).
2D
T/e a$/erents o3 t/is 'ara$i02 &on&ei1e o3 t/e 2in$ in t/e i2a0e o3 &o2'%ter
'ro0ra2s t/%s ena=lin0 a &orres'on$an&e to =e esta=lis/e$ =et5een t/e 2o$%larity o3
&o2'%ter syste2s an$ t/e s%''ose$ 2o$%larity o3 t/e 2in$ (&3. Fo$or
4D
, 1DF3). T/e
2o$%lar &on&e'tion o3 lan0%a0e t/at /as =een 'ro2%l0ate$ =y /o2skyis2 an$ 5/i&/ is
a&&e'te$ as &o22on sense in A#, nee$s to =e ree1al%ate$ 3ro2 t/e 3ollo5in0 'oint o3 1ie5)
i3 lin0%isti& &o2'onents are se'arate an$ 3ollo5 ea&/ ot/er seB%entially, is it not =e&a%se
t/e G2ental or0anG o3 lan0%a0e is &on&ei1e$ a&&or$in0 to 2eta'/ors o3 t/e &o2'%ter rat/er
t/an ne%rolo0i&al 3a&ts I
E1en 2ore re1ealin0 is Fo$or8s a33ir2ation t/at GT/e only 'sy&/olo0i&al 2o$els o3
&o0niti1e 'ro&esses t/at see2 e1en re2otely 'la%si=le re'resent s%&/ 'ro&esses as
&o2'%tationalG (1DJ() 2JH &3. also 1DFJ). "%&/ &on&e'tions are not rare in &o0niti1e
resear&/ an$ 5ill nat%rally /a1e an e33e&t on any &onseB%ent &on&e'tion o3 lan0%a0e. T/%s
,es&lCs 3or e9a2'le 5/o /as assi2ilate$ a $is&o%rse to a 'ro0ra2 (&a'a=le o3
a''li&ations) an$ 'ro'ose$ t/at its inter'retation is &on$itione$ =y a compilation
(0
.
+ote ) An$ler also 5rites ) GA#8s t/esis is $o%=le ) 3irst o3 all a &o2'%ter is 'otentially
intelli0ent an$ se&on$ly, t/e /%2an 2in$ ($e3ine$ as t/e Gor0an o3 intelli0en&eG) is::i3 its seen
3ro2 t/e ri0/t an0le::a 2aterial an$ a%to2ati& sy2=oli& syste2, t/at is to say, 2ore or less a
&o2'%ter. Ae s/o%l$ s'e&i3y t/at t/is %tteran&e is 3ar 2ore 're&ise, an$ t/%s 2ore risky =%t at
t/e sa2e ti2e 2ore 'ro2isin0, t/an t/e an&ient 'ro'osition a&&or$in0 to 5/i&/ t/e =rain is a
2a&/ineG (1DF6 ) 46).
*o5e1er, t/e a33ir2ation, e1en i3 it is i2'li&it, t/at t/e =rain 3%n&tions like a &o2'%ter $oes
not a''ear to %s to /ol$ any 'ro2ise 3or 3%rt/erin0 resear&/. Asi$e 3ro2 t/e 3a&t t/at t/e
/y'ot/esis r%ns &o%nter to =asi& 3a&ts, it also s%''oses as resol1e$ 5/at /as yet to =e
'ro1en
(1
... T/e 3a&t t/at /%2an intelli0en&e /as =een a=le to $ele0ate so2e o3 its tasks to
&o2'%ters $oes not @%sti3y any analo0y &on&ernin0 t/eir &o22on 3%n&tionnin0, 2%&/ less t/eir
str%&t%re.
Let %s re&all t/at t/e str%&t%re an$ 3%n&tionnin0 o3 'resent:$ay &o2'%ters $esi0ne$ 3or
0eneral %sa0e are =asi&ally t/e res%lt o3 &/oi&es 2a$e in t/e 3orties an$ =ase$ on t/e ai2s
(essentially 2ilitary) an$ te&/nolo0i&al &onstraints o3 t/e 'erio$. E1en 1on !e%2ann /i2sel3
5ante$ to see t/e $e1elo'2ent o3 syste2s ot/er t/an t/ose to 5/i&/ /is na2e 5as lent::
syste2s it 5o%l$ not /a1e =een any less 0rat%ito%s to &o2'are to t/e /%2an =rain.
A &lassi&al &o2'%ter is essentially &o2'ose$ o3 a sin0le arit/2eti&al an$ lo0i&al %nit
(A.L.;) 5orkin0 in seB%ential 3as/ion, an$ o3 a se'arate 2e2ory, entities 5/ose o'erations are
$e'en$ent on 'ro0ra2s an$ $ata. Re&ent 'ro0ress in a'/asiolo0y, an$ a=o1e all in &ere=ral
i2a0ery, /as le$ resear&/ers to re1ise 5/at 5as t/o%/0t to =e kno5n a=o%t t/e lo&ali<ation o3
&ere=ral 3%n&tions, es'e&ially in relation to t/e a&ti1ity o3 t/e &orte9H one &an not 're&isely
sit%ate in t/e =rain the 2e2ory, nor anyt/in0 t/at 5o%l$ &orres'on$ to an A.L.;.
%$
An$ sin&e G&o2'%tation 'res%''oses a 2e$i%2 o3 &o2'%tation) a re'resentational syste2G
(ibid& ), /e &on&l%$es t/at t/ere e9ists a lan0%a0e o3 t/o%0/t t/at $es'ite a''earan&es /as no
$e3ina=le relation to a&t%al lan0%a0es. #ts role, in relation to t/e =rain, is to =e a lan0%a0e:2a&/ine 3or
t/e &o2'%ter.
"0
G. linguistic discourse appears as a program capable of specific applications, 5/i&/ is
&onstr%&te$ =y an en%n&iator an$ a$$resse$ to a /earer. T/e latter 2%st &all %'on a &o2'ilation
'ro0ra2 5/ose 3%n&tion it is to &onstr%&t &o0niti1e re'resentations o3 t/e i22e$iate $is&o%rse, an$
t/is 5it/ t/e /el' o3 inter2e$iary (2etalin0%isti&) re'resentationsG (1DFJ, '. 34).
(1
As i3 2an /a$ &on&ei1e$ t/e &o2'%ter in /is o5n i2a0e an$ as i3 t/e &o2'%ter re3le&te$ t/is
i2a0e 'er3e&tly. T/is s'e&%lar e33e&t is &lear in t/e &ase o3 ro=ots. An$ ro=oti&s, not 'reo&&%'ie$ =y
t/e 2yt/s o3 s&ien&e 3i&tion, /as 'ro0resse$ =y o'tin0 3or sol%tions t/at are $e&i$e$ly non:
ant/ro'o2or'/i&.
30
!e%rons /a1e rea&tion ti2es s%'erior to t/e 2illise&on$ 5/ereas e9istin0 &ir&%its are
&a'a=le o3 'ro&essin0 $ata a=o%t one 2illion ti2es 3aster. On t/e ot/er /an$, =e&a%se &o2'le9
trans3or2ations &an =e o=taine$ in 3e5er t/an a /%n$re$ 2illise&on$s 5e &an say t/at t/ey are
o=taine$ in 3e5er t/an a /%n$re$ %nits o3 ti2e. By &ontrast, si2%lation 'ro0ra2s in A# ty'i&ally
reB%ire 2illions o3 ti2e %nits. T/%s, relati1ely s'eakin0, t/e =rain a&/ie1es res%lts ra'i$ly
alt/o%0/ t/e in3or2ation itsel3 is 'ro'a0ate$ slo5ly. T/e &o2'%ter on t/e ot/er /an$ is &a'a=le
o3 treatin0 in3or2ation ra'i$ly =%t it /as to treat it 3or a lon0 ti2e in or$er to a&/ie1e, 0rosso
2o$o, &o2'ara=le res%lts. Lastly an$ 2ost i2'ortantly, t/e $istin&tion =et5een 'ro0ra2 an$
2aterial(e1en relati1i<e$ =y firmware ) $oes not a''ly to t/e /%2an =rain 5/i&/ &on&ei1es its
strate0ies in a %niB%ely a%tono2o%s 2anner, an$ 5e 2i0/t e1en 1ent%re to say, &on&ei1es its
o5n 'ro0ra2s.

To t/is &o2'%tational re$%&tionis2, &onne&tionists /a1e ans5ere$ =y a$o'tin0 a
ne%ral 2eta'/or. For e9a2'le, R%2el/art, *inton an$ M&lellan$ assert t/eir 'oeti&s 1ery
&learly ) G Ae 5is/ to re'la&e t/e >&o2'%ter 2eta'/or? as a 2o$el o3 2in$ =y t/e >=rain
2eta'/or? as a 2o$el o3 2in$G (M&lellan$ an$ R%2el/art, 1DF6 ) J(). #n 3a&t, in A# t/e
&onne&tionist 1o&a=%lary a=o%n$s 5it/ ter2s =orro5e$ 3ro2 ne%ro'/ysiolo0y, s%&/ as
activation, inhibition, formal neurons, et&. As a &onseB%en&e o3 t/e a$2ira=le si2'li&ity o3
&onne&tionist syste2s t/e 2eta'/or o3 t/e =rain 3in$s itsel3 &onsi$era=ly 5eakene$ ) t/e
3o&%s on ne%rons::G5ire$G &ells 'ar e9&ellen&e::entails a ne0le&t o3 0lial &ells 5/i&/ are
2ore n%2ero%s an$ entirely 3%n&tionalH t/ere is also a total ne0le&t o3 t/e /or2onal =rain
5/ose a&ti1ity &annot in any 5ay =e re$%&e$ to t/e si2'le 'ro'a0ation o3 ele&tri&al si0nals.
#n s/ort, t/e i2a0e o3 t/e =rain t/at is 'resente$ is =asi&ally an o%t$ate$ &ari&at%re.
*ere a0ain &onne&tionis2 a''ears as &o0niti1is28s &o2'li&it o''osite ) its
'ra&tioners
(2
re3%se, i3 only t/ro%0/ t/eir &/oi&e o3 2eta'/ors, to a$2it t/e 'ra&ti&al an$
t/eoreti&al a%tono2y o3 t/e &o2'%tational a''roa&/ sin&e 5/at t/ey seek is an
e9'eri2ental 1ali$ation o3 t/eir '/iloso'/i& 'res%''ositions =y 2eans o3 &o2'%ter
i2'le2entation.
T/e /istory o3 t/e s&ien&es is tee2in0 5it/ 2eta'/ors ) i3 not/in0 else t/ey ser1e to
sti2%late t/eoreti&al inno1ationsH t/ey also &ontri=%te to %n&o1erin0 @%st 5/at is at stake
i$eolo0i&ally. A/at is i2'ortant is ne1er to &onsi$er t/e2 satis3a&tory, t/at is to say, as
&a'a=le o3 le0iti2i<in0 t/eories per se
(3
.
T/e &o0niti1ist 2eta'/or mind )))Vcomputer an$ t/e &onne&tionist 2eta'/or
computer )))Vbrain &an =e rea$ to0et/er so lon0 as one is rea$y to &on&e$e t/at 2atter
t/inks, an$ se&on$ly, t/at t/e =rea&/ =et5een 2in$ an$ =rain s/o%l$ =e &lose$. A/at t/en
o3 t/e re&i'ro&al &o2'arison brain W)))Vcomputer I T/is 2eta'/or re1eals t/e se&ret
&o2'li&ity =et5een t/e t5o 'ara$i02s, t/e sin0le $i33eren&e =ein0 t/at &o0niti1is2 5ants to
t/ink o3 t/e =rain in t/e i2a0e o3 t/e &o2'%ter an$ &onne&tionis2 t/e &o2'%ter in t/e
i2a0e o3 t/e =rain
(4
.
6. T/e ori0in o3 t/is G&o2'li&ityG &an =e tra&e$ to t/e e9tention o3 t/e notion o3
information t/at 'resi$e$ o1er t/e $e1elo'2ent o3 &y=erneti&s. #n ren$erin0 /o22a0e to
&y=erneti&s, E.:-. ,%'%y s%22ari<es 'er3e&tly its 3%n$a2ental analo0is2 ) Gin a &ertain
(2
Ait/ so2e =rilliant e9&e'tions, s%&/ as "2olensky (1DFF), 5/o /as $e2onstrate$ 5/y
&onne&tionist 2o$els &annot =e sai$ to =e ne%ral.
(3
,es'ite Ainston ) Go2'%ter 2eta'/ors ai$ t/inkin0. Aork 5it/ &o2'%ters /as le$ to a ri&/ ne5
lan0%a0e 3or talkin0 a=o%t /o5 to $o t/in0s an$ /o5 to $es&ri=e t/in0s. Meta'/ori&al an$ analo0i&al
%se o3 t/e &on&e'ts in1ol1e$ ena=les 2ore 'o5er3%l t/inkin0 a=o%t t/inkin0G (1DJJ, '. 3)
(4
T/is is 5/y &onne&tionists like Fel$2an an$ Ballar$ @%$0e$ t/e2 to =e G$ra2ati&ally $i33erentG
(1DF2, '. 20(). B%t 5/ere is t/e $ra2aI An$ 5/y not a&kno5le$0e t/at are stri&tly in&o2'ara=leI
31
sense, yet to =e $is&o1ere$, t/ere is &o22%ni&ation =et5een t/e ne%rons o3 ne%ral 2an
@%st as t/ere is &o22%ni&ation =et5een 2e2=ers o3 t/e sa2e so&iety, or 3%rt/er t/at
Gin3or2ationG &ir&%lates 5it/in a &o2'%ter @%st as it $oes =et5een 2an an$ &o2'%ter, or
5/y not, @%st as it 2i0/t =e a=le to &ir&%late, in 'er/a's t/e not too $istant 3%t%re, 5it/in a
so&iety o3 2a&/ines
((
G (1DF( ) D:10). One is le$ to &on&e$e, as An$ler $oes, t/at at t/e 1ery
2ost t/ere are t5o sorts o3 information ) GTo o%r kno5le$0e t/ere are t5o 1arieties) t/e
=iolo0i&al an$ t/e arti3i&ialG (An$ler, 1DF6 ) 21).
T/e t5o &o0niti1e 'ara$i02s are t/%s &on3ronte$ 5it/ t/e sa2e $ile22a. Eit/er t/e
3o%n$ational &on&e't o3 information =e&o2es a rat/er 1a0%e notion $esi0natin0 all 3or2s o3
&o22%ni&ation, an$ e1en 2ore =roa$ly, o3 intera&tion (e1en at t/e =iolo0i&al le1el), in
5/i&/ &ase &o0niti1e resear&/ risks 2eetin0 t/e sa$ 3ate o3 a &ertain se2ioti&s (5/en it le3t
t/e $o2ain o3 si0ns in or$er to 1ent%re onto t/e terrain o3 t/e G0eneti& &o$eG, an$ e1en
&/e2istry itsel3), or t/e &on&e't o3 information 2ana0es to &onser1e its te&/ni&al &ontent
(in o''osition to redundance ) an$ so re2ain 'ertinent 3or ele&tro2e&/ani&al re&e'tors 5it/
a &al&%la=le &a'a&ity. #n3or2ation &on&ei1e$ in t/e se&on$ &ase &an only =e $es&ri=e$
%sin0 t/e lan0%a0e o3 2at/e2ati&al '/ysi&s. +et as An$ler @%stly re2arks, G5/at &o%l$
'ossi=ly @%sti3y t/e s%''osition t/at t/e ty'e o3 in3or2ation t/at a 0i1en or0anis2 &/ooses
to e9&/an0e 5it/ its en1iron2ent &an also =e 1ie5e$ as a mathematically rule,governed
&on3i0%ration o3 ener0y e9&/an0es IG (1DF6 ) 6()H an$ 2oreo1er, o3 discrete B%anta o3
ener0y 5/ose 3reB%en&y &an =e &al&%late$ I T/ese notions /ar$ly &on&%r 5it/ t/e a&t%al
state o3 kno5le$0e in =iolo0y.
T/is &on&e't o3 in3or2ation, 5/i&/ =ot/ 'ara$i02s s/are, is at t/e =asis o3 t/eir
&o22on functionalism. -%tna2 (1DJ(a) $e3ine$ t/e notion o3 3%n&tionalis2
(6
=y &onsi$erin0
t/at A# 5as on t/e 5ay to reali<in0 its =asi& 'ro@e&ts. *en&e 2a&/ines &o%l$ 3in$
t/e2sel1es in1este$ 5it/ Gintelli0ent 3%n&tionsG an$ =e &a'a=le o3 t/inkin0. Be&a%se t/e
real i$entity =et5een 2en an$ 2a&/ines 5as $ee2e$ not to resi$e in t/e hardware ,
-%tna2 t%rne$ /is attention to t/e software ) all =ein0s &a'a=le o3 intelli0en&e, i.e.
2a&/ines, 2en, e1en Martians, s/o%l$ =e &a'a=le o3 'er3or2in0 t/e sa2e sorts o3
programs
(J
. #n t/is sense 3%n&tionalis2 'ro1i$e$ t/e 'ossi=ility o3 3in$in0 a no1el sol%tion to
t/e 'ro=le2 o3 t/e relations =et5een 2in$ an$ =o$y.
T/e notion o3 3%n&tionalis2 5as 3or a ti2e re2arka=ly 'o'%lar $o%=tless =e&a%se it
'er2itte$ resear&/ers to 0i1e a t/eoreti&al 3or2%lation to A#8s 'res%''ositions. An$ o3
&o%rse ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is2 &lai2e$ stake in it, 2ost nota=ly in t/e 5ork o3 -ylys/yn an$
Fo$or (on&e a st%$ent o3 -%tna2). -artly =e&a%se t/ey s/are$ t/e o=@e&ti1es o3 &lassi&al
A#, an$ only $i33er 3ro2 it =y t/e 2eans o3 si2%lation a$o'te$, t/e &onne&tionists 5ere
ne1er a=le to &riti&i<e 3%n&tionalis2 in a &on1in&in0 5ay.
F%n&tionalis2, alt/o%0/ Fo$or re3rains 3ro2 it, e1i$ently re3or2%lates a tra$itional
$%alis2. Trans'ose$ onto t/e '/iloso'/i& 'lane, t/e $istin&tion =et5een soft an$ hard
re'eats t/e se'aration o3 2in$ an$ 2atter, not in a 0eneral 5ay =%t %n$er se1eral kin$s o3
((
T/is G'ro0ra2G is not yet o%t$ate$ sin&e, a&&or$in0 to ,%'%y, it 5as an i2'ortant 'art o3 t/e
Gtrans1ersal str%&t%re o3 t/e entre !ational $e la Re&/er&/e "&ienti3iB%e (!R") 5/ose 2an$ate
5as to 'ro2ote t/e G&o22%ni&ation s&ien&esG G.
(6
!ot to =e &on3%se$ 5it/ 3%n&tionalis2 in t/e sense %se$ =y A. Ea2es.
(J
*e ne0le&ts ani2als::as al5ays in t/ese kin$s o3 $e=ates. A/y s/o%l$ t/e sea sl%0 =e re3%se$
t/e &o2'%tational 2eta'/or (t/e a'lisia $ear to t/e ne%ros&ien&es) I ,o%=tless =e&a%se it is
$e'ri1e$ o3 intelli0ent =e/a1ior, in t/e restri&te$ sense o3 t/e ter2, t/at is to say, reason. +et,
tra$itionally, reason is one o3 t/e so%l8s attri=%tes. As 3or t/e 2ental states o3 2a&/ines, t/e rea$er
5ill =e 0rate3%l i3 not/in0 2ore is sai$.
32
o''osition =et5een 3or2 an$ s%=stan&e (or 2aterial s%=strat%2
(F
). #n e33e&t, t/e Gintelli0ent
3%n&tionsG t/at are in1oke$ /a1e to $o 5it/ rational a&tions or =e/a1ior, =%t t/e rational is
i$enti3ie$ 5it/ t/e 3or2al
(D
.
F%n&tionalis2 is &onseB%ently a kin$ o3 3or2alis2
60
, t/at is to say, one o3 t/e
=ran&/es o3 i$ealis2. Re3%sin0 Aristotle8s ele0ant sol%tion o3 &lai2in0 3or2 i22anent to
s%=stan&e, t/e &o0niti1ists 2aintain a $%alis2 5/i&/ 0oes =a&k to t/e -latoni& tra$ition.
T/e no1elty /o5e1er /as to $o 5it/ t/e 3a&t t/at Reason, '%re 3or2, trans&en$s t/e
o''osition =et5een t/e nat%ral an$ t/e arti3i&ial.
"aint T/o2as o3 AB%inas a33ir2e$ t/at GT/e rational so%l is t/e 3or2 o3 2anG ()umma
*heologica #, 1, D ). -ro3essin0 a kin$ o3 0o$less s&/olasti&, t/e ort/o$o9 &o0niti1ists /a1e
'are$ t/e so%l $o5n to a sin0le attri=%te, reason, an$ a33ir2 t/at t/e Gintelli0ent 3%n&tionsG
are, &onsi$ere$ 3ro2 t/e 'oint o3 1ie5 o3 t/eir 3or2al rationality, &o22on to =ot/ 2an an$
&o2'%ters. #n s/ort, reason is t/eir &o22on 0ro%n$ an$ not 2erely t/e e9&l%si1e asset o3
2an
61
.
T/e $%ality =et5een 3or2 an$ s%=stan&e is /o2olo0ate$ to ot/er $%alities ) t/e 2in$
an$ t/e =o$y on t/e one /an$, t/e sy2=oli& an$ t/e '/ysi&al on t/e ot/er ('arti&%larly in
Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn). Fro2 t/ese &lea1a0es a''ear one o3 ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is28s a'orias )
t/e $%alis2 t/at it san&tions =ars any &orres'on$an&e =et5een t/e sy2=oli&
62
an$ t/e
'/ysi&al. *en&e Fo$or8s &lai2 o3 G2et/o$olo0i&al soli'sis2G an$ -ylys/yn8s o=ser1ation o3
an irre$%&i=le ri3t =et5een t/e &o0niti1e (internal) an$ t/e '/ysi&al (e9ternal) (&3. 1DF4 )
166:16J). *e sees B%ite @%stly in t/is ri3t an Ge9tre2ely serio%s 'ro=le2G. o0niti1is2 /as
really no 2eans o3 1eri3yin0 5/et/er or not 2ental re'resentations are a$eB%ate to 5/at
t/ey are s%''ose$ to re'resent (5/ereas kno5le$0e is &lassi&ally $e3ine$ as adae%uatio
rei et intellectus ). #t t/%s 3in$s itsel3 5it/o%t any &riterion o3 tr%t/, an$ t/e asso&iate$
soli'sis2 si0ni3ies t/e ine1ita=le o%t&o2e o3 its i$ealisti& $%alis2. orrelati1ely, t/e
lan0%a0e o3 stan$ar$ '/ysi&s t/at &o0niti1is2 %ses to $es&ri=e t/e 5orl$ is in&a'a=le o3
$es&ri=in0 5/at is salient 3or a 0i1en s%=@e&t, nor is it a=le to resol1e t/e 'ro=le2 o3
'ertinen&e (in t/e =roa$ sense o3 t/e ter2).
#t 5as in t/e /o'e o3 sol1in0 so2e o3 t/ese $i33i&%lties t/at &ertain &onne&tionists (&3.
"2olensky, 1DFF) 'ro'ose$ t/e i$ea o3 a subsymbolic level t/at is s%''ose$ to 'lay a
(F
T/e se'aration =et5een 3or2 an$ s%=stan&e is a re&%rrent t/e2e in -latoni& '/iloso'/y (3or
e9a2'le, Fi&ino $e3ine$ /ea1en as Ga sel3:s%33i&ient 3or2 5it/o%t s%=stan&eG). T/is se'aration
&ertainly /a$ an in3l%en&e on t/e /ristian tra$ition 3or 5/i&/ '%re 3or2s 5ere t/o%0/t to =e 3or2s o3
&elestial #ntelli0en&e.
(D
T/is 1ery &o22on re$%&tion is a t/reat to t/e so&ial s&ien&es ) o=li0e$ in 'ra&ti&e an$ in t/eory to
'ro3ess a rational $is&o%rse t/ey 3in$ t/e2sel1es &alle$ %'on to 'ro$%&e 3or2al &al&%lations::lest
t/ey lose t/eir 3%n$in0.
60
7isetti re2arks t/at Gin a sense, e1ery s&ien&e is 83%n&tionalist8. #t is an ine1ita=le o%t&o2e o3 any
3or2al a''roa&/ L...M t/at seeks to $is&o1er t/e essen&e o3 t/in0s =y 5ay o3 an o=@e&ti1ely arti&%late$
&/ara&teri<ation. T/ere are t/%s stron0 &/an&es t/at t/e res%ltin0 &/ara&teri<ation a''lies to a
&ate0ory o3 nat%ral or arti3i&ial =ein0s, e1en i$eal ones, 2%&/ 1aster t/an t/e one t/at %n$ertook t/e
st%$yG (1DD0) 20D). B%t not all s&ien&e %ses a 3or2al a''roa&/. As 5ell, /o5 $oes one 2ana0e to
se&%re t/e $es&ri'ti1e a$eB%a&y o3 a s&ien&e to its o=@e&t i3 t/e 3or2al a''roa&/ lea$s t/e resear&/er
to e9&ee$ t/e o=@e&t I A/at 3or e9a2'le 5o%l$ =e t/e 1al%e o3 a 0ra22ar o3 t/e Ta2an0 lan0%a0e
t/at 5o%l$ also $es&ri=e 2=ay (an A3ri&an lan0%a0e) or an&ient .as&on I
61
For2 in t/e sense o3 AB%inas takes t/e attri=%tes o3 =ein0 into a&&o%nt an$ nota=ly 5/at is
'e&%liar to it (/ere it is reaon).
&2
By symbolic 5e 2ean not t/e lin0%isti& =%t rat/er t/e 2ental states s%&/ as t/ey are 3or2%late$
in a 2ental lan0%a0e.
33
2e$iatin0 role =et5een t/e sy2=oli& an$ t/e '/ysi&al on t/e one /an$, an$ t/e sy2=oli&
an$ t/e =iolo0i& on t/e ot/er. T/e ort/o$o9 &o0niti1ists a'tly retorte$ t/at t/e s%=sy2=oli&
5as =%t an a1atar o3 t/e sy2=oli&. Ait/o%t 0oin0 into t/e $etails o3 t/e $e=ate, s%33i&e it to
say t/at t/ese 'ro=le2s /a1e yet to re&ei1e satis3a&tory sol%tions lar0ely =e&a%se t/e
&onne&tionists a$/ere to a 3%n&tionalis2 t/at is in$isso&ia=le 3ro2 A#8s 'ro0ra2 an$
&onseB%ently t/ey /a1e not =een a=le to ela=orate an alternati1e to ort/o$o9 &o0niti1is28s
t/eory o3 si0ni3i&ation.
T/is t/eory o3 si0ni3i&ation rearti&%lates 5/at is in 3a&t a tra$itional $%alis2. For -lato
an$ 3or Aristotle (at least as /e /as =een inter'rete$ =y neo:'latoni& '/iloso'/ers s%&/ as
-or'/yr%s, A22oni%s an$ Boet/i%s), t/e si0n::or at least 5/at 5e 5ill a0ree to &all =y t/at
na2e::3in$s itsel3 s'lit ) on one si$e is t/e si0ni3ier, =elon0in0 to t/e 2aterial or$erH on t/e
ot/er si$e is t/e &on&e't 5/i&/ =elon0s to t/e irre$%&i=le or$er o3 t/e 2in$. T/e /%r&/
Fat/ers::an$ ,o&tors::2ost nota=ly Ori0en an$ "aint A%0%stine, rein3or&e$ t/is se'aration
=y 2eans o3 t/e -a%linian o''osition =et5een t/e letter an$ t/e 2in$, t/e 3or2er =ein0 o3
&o%rse o3 a 2aterial nat%re
63
.
T/is an&ient $i1ision is rearti&%late$ =y t/e &o0niti1ists in t/ree $i33erent =%t
&o2'le2entary 5ays ) (i) =y t/e se'aration =et5een si0n (i.e. si0ni3ier) an$ &on&e't H (ii) =y
t/e se'aration o3 se2anti&s an$ synta9, synta9 =ein0 %n$erstoo$ as t/e or0ani<ation o3
si0ni3iers an$ se2anti&s =ein0 &onstr%e$, in a 2entalist 'ers'e&ti1e, as t/e inter'retation
(in t/e lo0i&al sense) o3 t/ese si0ni3iers =y 2eans o3 &on&e'ts H (iii) lastly, sin&e &on&e'ts
are t/e2sel1es or0ani<e$ in a 2ental lan0%a0e, t/e $i1ision =et5een Ge9teriorG lan0%a0e
an$ 2ental lan0%a0e si2'ly trans'oses t/e $i1ision =et5een si0ni3ier an$ &on&e't to a
/i0/er le1el. Ae 5ill e9a2ine t/is in 0reater $etail in &/a'ter 3.
J. Far 3ro2 =ein0 a =ran&/ o3 'oeti&s or '/iloso'/y, &o2'%ter s&ien&e $oes not 5ork
on 2eta'/ors =%t on t/e str%&t%re an$ 3or2 o3 $ata str%&t%res. #n t/e en$ t/e &on3rontation
=et5een t/e t5o 'ara$i02s &an =e re$%&e$ to t5o &o2'etin0 2o$es o3 $ata or in3or2ation
'ro&essin0 (i2'lyin0 $i33eren&es in 2eans o3 i2'le2entation, an$ soon, in $esi0n ty'es
an$ ar&/ite&t%re
64
).
#n t/e 're3a&e to t/e 2ost re&ent e$ition (1DFF ) 1iii) o3 t/eir &ele=rate$ Perceptrons
(1D6D), Minsky an$ -a'ert 'ro'ose t/e 3ollo5in0 list o3 o''ositions )
symbolic connectionist
logical analogical
serial parallel
discrete continuous
locali0ed distributed
hierarchical heterarchical
left,brained right,brained
As lon0 as 5e a0ree to ret%rn t/e &ere=ral /e2is'/eres to t/eir ri0/t3%l 'la&e, t/is list
'ortays 5ell eno%0/ t/e 'rin&i'al $i33eren&es =et5een t/e t5o kin$s o3 treat2ent
6(
.
&!
For a 2ore a2'le $is&%ssion see Rastier, 1DFJ a, &/a'. 7###. "ee as 5ell Ori0en -n the
Principles, #, 1, 1:2) GAit/o%t a $o%=t t/e letter $esi0nates &or'oreal realities, t/e mind intellle&t%al
ones t/at 5e also &all s'irit%alG.
64
onne&tionist syste2s are still i2'le2ente$ on 2a&/ines t/at 5ere &on&ei1e$ 3or ot/er ty'es o3
a''li&ation.
&"
Ait/ one reser1ation ) alt/o%0/ 3reB%ently %se$ =y &onne&tionists (i.e., Aalt< an$ -olla&k, 1DF(H
M&lellan$ an$ R%2el/art, 1DF6), t/e ter2 parallelism nee$s to =e &lari3ie$ =e&a%se it $esi0nates
34
A so&iolo0y o3 t/e 3iel$s o3 &o2'%ter s&ien&e an$ A# is no sooner e1oke$ t/an
'ra&ti&al &on&erns are in1oke$ ) &onne&tionis2 5ill not /a1e 3ir2ly esta=lis/e$ itsel3 %ntil it
is &a'a=le o3 $e2onstratin0 a s%'erior e33i&ien&y in a 5i$e ran0e o3 a''li&ations. #t see2s
t/at t/e 0ains 5ill likely =e 2a$e in t/e $o2ain o3 a%to2ati& 'er&e'tion
66
. O3 &o%rse one 5ill
/a1e to en1isa0e an$ 'ro2ote a 0reater s/arin0 o3 tasks ) 3or e9a2'le, it is $i33i&%lt to
i2a0ine an in1asion o3 &onne&tionist &al&%lators onto t/e &ons%2er 2arket H an$ not only a
s/arin0 =%t a 'ea&e3%l &o/a=itation t/at t/e sB%a==les =et5een 'ara$i02s /a1e only 2a$e
2ore $i33i&%lt.
an a$1an&e$ 3or2 o3 seB%entiality. Far 3ro2 es&a'in0 al0orit/2i&s, 'arallelis2 &onstit%tes t/e en$ o3
t/e en$.
66
#t is at least in t/is area t/at in1est2ent is /ea1iest, 'arti&%larly in 2ilitary 'ro0ra2s en0a0e$ in
re3inin0 &o2'%teri<e$ tar0et re&o0nition syste2s.