Boiler Efficiency and Steam Quality: The Challenge of Creating Quality Steam Using Existing

Boiler Efficiencies
Glenn Hahn
Technology Manager
Spirax Sarco, Inc
May 1998
Category: Operations
Summary: The follo!ing article is a part of "ational Board Classic Series and it !as pu#lished in the "ational
Board BULLETIN $% printed pages&
Background
Boiler efficiency measures ho! much com#ustion energy is con'erted into steam energy, !hile
steam (uality measures ho! much li(uid !ater is present in the steam produced
) ma*or #enefit of using steam as a heat transfer medium is the large amount of heat released
!hen it condenses into !ater +ith a latent heat of 'apori,ation $or condensation& as high as
-,... BTU per pound, it ta/es 'ery little steam to carry a large amount of energy 0ther
ad'antages include the safe, nontoxic and nonflamma#le characteristics of steam plus its a#ility
to deli'er heat at a constant, controlled temperature Steam can also #e deli'ered to users !ith
con'entional piping and 'al'e e(uipment that is inexpensi'e, is readily a'aila#le, re(uires little
maintenance, and has a long ser'ice life Compared to other heat deli'ery and distri#ution
systems, steam is less expensi'e to operate and is -..1 recycla#le
In spite of these ad'antages, many steam users experience system safety pro#lems, premature
e(uipment failures, and poor steam system efficiency Specific pro#lems can include fre(uent
#oiler shutdo!ns from lo!2!ater le'el, damaged steam pipes and 'al'es due to !ater hammer,
'i#ration, corrosion, erosion, reduced capacity of steam heaters, and o'erloaded steam traps
These pro#lems are most fre(uently caused #y lo! steam (uality, often called 3!et steam3 or
3carry2o'er3
Steam (uality is a measure of the amount of li(uid !ater contaminating the steam $4or example,
steam at -..1 (uality contains no li(uid !ater and appears as a -..1 clear gas, !hile steam at
5.1 (uality contains 5.1 steam #y !eight and -.1 !ater #y !eight in the form of a fog, cloud,
or droplets& +ater droplets in high2'elocity steam can #e as a#rasi'e as sand particles They can
erode pipe fittings and rapidly eat a!ay at 'al'e seats )nd if a puddle of !ater is allo!ed to
accumulate in steam pipes, it !ill e'entually #e pic/ed up #y the high2'elocity steam and
accelerated to near2steam 'elocity, increasing chances of it crashing into el#o!s, tees, and
'al'es This can lead to erosion, 'i#ration, and !ater hammer This !ater hammer !ill gradually
2 and sometimes catastrophically 2 loosen pipe fittings and supports
Since steam is produced #y the rapid #oiling of !ater in high2heat flux #oilers, it can entrain $or
dra! in and transport& !ater as it escapes from the !ater surface This entrainment, !hile
damaging to the steam system, is independent of #oiler efficiency Basically, #oth high2 and lo!2
efficiency #oiler operation can produce 2 or not produce 2 excessi'e entrainment +hile
entrainment cannot #e completely pre'ented, it can #e minimi,ed #y proper #oiler and steam
system operation
Case I On!O"" Boiler #eed
In a simplified explanation of #oiler operation, a hot heat2transfer surface is co'ered !ith !ater
Steam #u##les are produced at the heat2transfer surface, rising through the !ater and then
lea'ing the !ater surface to enter the steam system Because of the heat of !ater, the pressure at
the heat2transfer surface is slightly higher than the pressure at the surface of the !ater Because
of this higher pressure, the steam #u##les produced at the heat2transfer surface !ill either lea'e
the #oiler slightly superheated or #e cooled to the saturation temperature of the !ater as it rises
through the !ater Under normal conditions, the steam #u##les tend to #e cooled to saturation
temperature as they rise through the !ater
+hen feed!ater enters the #oiler, it enters #et!een the heat2transfer surface and the surface of
the #oiling !ater E'en though the feed!ater is pre2heated, it is still necessarily colder than the
!ater in the #oiler and creates a cold layer !ithin the #oiler !ater )s steam #u##les rise from
the heat2transfer surface through this cold layer, they cool and some of the steam in the #u##les
!ill condense This causes t!o serious pro#lems
4irst, the steam #u##les lea'ing the surface of the !ater and entering the steam system !ill
contain a mist of !ater +hen a large amount of feed!ater enters the #oiler, the steam space
a#o'e the !ater le'el #ecomes foggy This fog and the resultant !ater2contaminated, lo!2(uality
steam continue until the !ater in the #oiler #ecomes reasona#ly isothermal
The second pro#lem is the suppression of the rate of steam production The addition of a large
amount of cooler !ater slo!s steam production until the !ater reaches saturation temperature
These pro#lems can #e pre'ented #y using continuous #oiler feed rather than on2off feed Since
modulating feed adds !ater at a 'ery lo! rate compared to an on2off feed, the !ater in the #oiler
!ill remain relati'ely isothermal and no cloud !ill #e formed
Case II $educed Operating %ressure
30perate the #oiler at its maximum design pressure3 is a common saying among #oiler designers
But too often, this rule is not follo!ed !hen energy cost reductions are needed 6uring periods
of lo! steam demand, or !hen all the use points re(uire pressure2reducing stations, #oilers are
often operated at su#stantially less than design pressure
+hile operating at lo!er pressure can, in some #oilers, pro'ide slightly higher energy efficiency,
lo!2pressure operation also reduces steam (uality This reduced steam (uality can #e
demonstrated from #asic engineering principles
&o'er %ressure Increases (ntrainment
)s a steam #u##le rises through the !ater and reaches the surface, it finally #rea/s through the
final layer of !ater and enters the steam space This final act of lea'ing the !ater causes !ater
entrainment in se'eral !ays
Initially, the #ursting of the steam #u##le or the rupture of the thin layer of !ater surrounding it
produces an initial rush of high2'elocity steam that carries a small amount of that thin !ater layer
into the steam space Then, the loss of the steam #u##le from the !ater surface #riefly creates a
crater on the !ater surface +ater rushes in to fill this crater, colliding !ith !ater rushing from
the other sides of the crater, and produces a tiny splash near the center of the crater The !ater
droplets from these splashes are then easily entrained in the rising steam
The si,e of the #u##les is directly related to steam pressure 7o!2pressure operation re(uires a
larger 'olume of steam to carry the re(uired heat energy This lo!2pressure operation produces
more and larger steam #u##les and creates greater tur#ulence on the !ater surface These
#u##les produce more craters and larger craters, as !ell as more and larger splashes as they lea'e
the !ater surface In addition, lo!2pressure operation results in a higher 'apor 'elocity !hich,
!hen com#ined !ith the high tur#ulence of lo!2pressure operation, tends to carry !ater droplets
into the steam systems rather than allo!ing them to fall out #y gra'ity
The solution is to operate the #oiler at its maximum design pressure and use pressure2reducing
'al'es at the point of use !here re(uired
Case III $apidly #luctuating )emand
In most industrial steam systems, steam demand fluctuates o'er a !ide range The rate at !hich
these fluctuations occur can seriously affect steam (uality ) rapid, short2term steam demand
increase of only -81 can cause high entrainment of !ater in the #oiler 6emand increases of
-81 or more can occur (uite fre(uently in industrial plants !hen steam 'al'es are opened all at
once at shift changes and as #atch processes come online 4or example, if a process of !hich
steam consumption is only 81 of #oiler output is turned on rapidly $such as !ith an on2off
'al'e&, the system demand can easily increase #y -81 or more until the process reaches a steady
state of operation
+hen a steam 'al'e opens, t!o pro#lems occur in the #oiler 4irst, steam pressure drops rapidly
The drop in steam pressure itself causes additional entrainment as explained in Case II a#o'e
Second, the interface #et!een !ater and steam rises This occurs #ecause at the instantaneous
lo!er pressure operation, the rapid production of high2'olume steam #u##les can literally
fluidi,e the !ater $This phenomena is often called 3s!ell3& The !ater le'el can easily rise so
high that !ater is literally suc/ed into the steam line E'entually, the loss of #oiler !ater can
cause the lo!2!ater le'el alarm to sound In some cases, this !ater loss can #e so rapid that the
#oiler !ill shut do!n upon producing a lo!2le'el !ater alarm In the meantime, the steam lines
get filled !ith !ater
Compact Boilers Can Magni"y the %ro*lem
Modern #oilers are highly efficient and 'ery compact +hile this design has ad'antages, these
compact #oilers ha'e little steam space to dampen changes in steam demand If steam use
increases only slightly, the pressure in the #oiler can drop significantly This lo!er pressure
operation, com#ined !ith the shorter distance #et!een the !ater9steam interface and the steam
outlet pipe, further increase entrainment 0lder #oilers, !hile much larger, ha'e a larger steam
space !hich can tolerate greater changes in steam demand !ithout se'ere changes in steam
pressure or !ater le'el
High (ntrainment #ools &o'!+ater &e,el -larm
In some circumstances, steam demand increases are so disrupti'e to #oiler operation that #oiler
life as !ell as steam (uality suffers In some cases, the external !ater le'el indicator sho!s the
!ater le'el as satisfactory, yet the actual le'el of the !ater9steam mixture in the #oiler may #e
filling the steam space and !ater may #e literally pouring into the steam lines #y steam demand
syphoning
)s !ater is lost rapidly and the steam9!ater mixture contains more and more steam, tu#es may
o'erheat By the time the external !ater le'el detector e'entually identifies a lo!2!ater le'el and
shuts do!n the #oiler, the steam distri#ution system !ill #e laden !ith !ater and #oiler tu#es
may ha'e #een damaged 0f course, the plant !ill no! #e !ithout steam until the #oiler is
restarted
The /ey to reducing this cause of poor steam (uality is to pre'ent rapid increases in steam
demand Modern computeri,ed control systems can accommodate this solution #y measuring
instantaneous steam flo! or modulating demand #ased on a maximum allo!a#le change in
steam flo!
Case I.: High /)S
Con'entional !isdom teaches that high total dissol'ed solids in #oiler !ater increase tu#e
corrosion and9or fouling Indeed, that is true :igh or highly fluctuating T6S !ill result in lo!
heat transfer, reduced #oiler capacity and efficiency, and shortened tu#e life But it can also
affect steam (uality
Increased T6S in the #oiler !ater causes increased foam production on top of the !ater This
lo!2density, t!o2phase system;s foam is produced and easily entrained #y the steam rising out of
the !ater )s rapid drops in steam pressure caused #y demand increases, this foam can #e dra!n
into the steam system, depleting the #oiler of !ater #efore the le'el detector can identify the
pro#lem, !hile filling the steam lines !ith corrosi'e !ater
The solution is o#'ious 2 /eep T6S at least as lo! as that recommended #y the #oiler
manufacturer Unli/e #oiler feed!ater, there is no definiti'e e'idence indicating a steam (uality
difference #et!een on2off or modulating #lo!do!n to control T6S :o!e'er, gi'en the ad'erse
effect of rapid and intermittent inflo!s of ma/e2up !ater, modulated #lo!do!n !ould #e
preferred
Conclusion
Steam (uality is a measurement of the amount of !ater entrained in the steam It depends not on
the efficiency of the #oiler #ut on the a#ility of the steam to separate from #oiling !ater, !ithout
carrying li(uid !ater particles !ith it throughout the entire range of #oiler operations <ideo
camera studies of internal #oiler operation indicate the follo!ing operating recommendations for
pre'enting poor (uality steam:
Control steam usage to ensure that steam demand does not exceed #oiler capacity
Control changes in steam usage to ensure that rapid changes in steam demand !ill not
reduce steam (uality
To affect either of the a#o'e, use modulating 'ersus on2off 'al'es at steam2use points
)dd #oiler feed!ater !ith modulating 'ersus on2off controls
Use T6S controls rather than time2#ased #lo!do!n
0perate the #oiler near its maximum design pressure
+hen any of these recommendations are not follo!ed, reductions in steam (uality can #e
dramatic 7o! steam (uality can damage steam e(uipment, control 'al'es, and heat exchangers
#y !ater hammer, erosion, and corrosion, resulting in shortened e(uipment ser'ice life, steam
loss, lo! operating efficiency, and e'en safety pro#lems
(ditor0s note: Some ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code re(uirements may ha'e changed #ecause of ad'ances
in material technology and9or actual experience The reader is cautioned to refer to the latest edition and addenda of
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for current re(uirements