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Metals Metals Structure Structure

and Weldability and Weldability
Indian Institute of Welding ANB
Refresher Course Module 01
Contents
Structure of Metals
Structure of Steels
Weldability of Steels
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A Metallurgical Process
Welding is the joining of two or more
pieces of metal by applying
Heat or
Pressure or both . to form a
Localized union through
Fusion
Re-crystallization across the interface
Why should Welding Technologists
learn metallurgy
Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals
and alloys
The final properties of the welded assembly will
depend on the metallurgical structure of the parent
metal and the weld.
All welding processes involve heating and cooling
of the components being welded
Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component,
it is necessary to understand metallurgical
structures and how they and the weld thermal
cycle, determine the properties of the weld joint.
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Welding a major fabrication process
General Engineering
Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels
Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical &
petrochemical plants
Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses
Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons
Shipbuilding and aircraft
Power plants & pressure vessels
Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs
Defence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt.
Materials of Construction
Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels
All general engineering, Infrastructure, Automotive, Shipbuilding,
Railways
High tensile steels
Defence, penstocks for hydel plants
Creep resisting steels.
Boilers and piping in thermal power plants
Stainless steels - Austenitic
Chemical & petrochemical plant, refineries, cryogenic plant, food
processing, pharmaceuticals
Aluminium
Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars
Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium
Vessel, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food
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Structure of Metals
All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms
arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in
three directions
They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms
are in random order
Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline
bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently
oriented with respect to one another
All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact
that they contain highly mobile electrons.
Structure of metals
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Common Properties of Metals
Out of more than 106 elements known, 76 are metals
All metals do exhibit some typical properties,
common to them:
high thermal and electrical conductivity - due to presence of
free electron
positive temperature co-efficient of electrical resistivity
thermo-ionic emission
good reflectivity of light
lend themselves to plastic deformation - due to ordered
arrangement of atom
Pure Metals & Alloys
In their ordinary structural state pure metals are of
low strength and do not possess required
physicochemical and structural properties for
required service, in most cases. Consequently they
are seldom used in engineering applications.
Overwhelming majority of metals are thus used as
alloys.
Example :
Steel, Cast iron, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys etc
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Structure of metals
The basic structure of a metal or alloy is a crystal consisting
of the metal atoms located in a specific 3-dimensional
arrangement or lattice
For iron you have 2 crystal structures - polymorphism
Alpha iron upto 912 deg C Gamma iron 912 1394 deg C
Delta iron 1394 1539 deg C
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HCP- Hexagonal Close packed
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Single Crystal
Unit Cell
Polycrystal
Grain
boundary
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Crystal boundary or
Grain boundary
In these regions there exists a film of metals, some
three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to
any pattern
This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature
Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal
boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of
weakness
Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at
grain boundary or crystal boundary.
Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may
strengthen or weaken the boundary
Grain Boundary
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Defects in Metals - Dislocations
Any real crystal always has defects in its
structure and deviates from perfect periodicity
These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice
imperfections / Dislocations
Metals and alloys get deformed when
dislocations are forced to move by the
application of force
Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that
resists the flow of dislocations are the
strengthening agents in any alloy system
Structure of metals
Phases are distinct states of aggregation of
matter
Gases : Always single phase
Liquids : Pure liquid or solution single phase,
immiscible liquids eg. Oil & water two phases
Solids : Different crystal structures ( even having
the same composition ) form different phases.
Can be single or multi-phase.
A phase is a homogeneous and physically
distinct portion of the material
Microstructure, as seen under a microscope
reveals the phases that exist in the material
together
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Structure of metals..
Grains
During solidification from the liquid
phase or re-crystallization from one
solid phase to another, crystals
nucleate at different points within
the parent phase and grow until
they impinge on one another and
form individual grains.
Structure
Structure of a metal / alloy implies
the metallurgical phases present,
their dispersion, shape, orientation
and grain size. All of these go to
determine its physical and
mechanical properties
Structure of Steels
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Carbon & Alloy steels
Steels are alloys of iron with a max.
carbon content of 2%
Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65
Mn, 0.6 Si and 0.6 Cu
Alloys steels contain Mn, Si, Cu in greater
quantities or other alloying elements
Alloying additions enhance their mechanical
properties
Typical alloying elements are Ni, Cr, Mo, V
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Phases in steel
Ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in -
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.022% at 727C
Austenite:
solid solution of carbon in -
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
2.11% at 1146C
Delta() ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in delta
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.09% at 1495C
Austenite or Austenite or
iron iron
Ferrite or Ferrite or
iron iron
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Phases in steel
Graphite:
crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only
forms on very slow cooling
Pearlite:
Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and
Cementite
Cementite (Fe3C):
an inter-metallic compound having a
complex orthorhombic structure; C -
6.67% by wt. Even though this is a
meta-stable phase, carbon is almost
always present in this form in steels.
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Pearlite Pearlite
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Fe-C phase diagram
The Fe-C (iron-carbon diagram)
helps us to understand the phases
in steel
Important Concepts to understand
are:
This is an Equilibrium diagram
Steels & Irons a clear distinction
Phase fields & reactions
Critical temperatures
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Phase transformation reactions
in steel
Peritectic reaction
(1495C)
Liquid Fe + -Ferrite =
Austenite
Eutectic reaction (1146C)
Liquid Fe = Austenite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite is called
Ledeburite)
Eutectoid reaction (727C)
Austenite = Ferrite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of Ferrite and
Cementite called Pearlite)
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Phase transformation reactions
in steel..
Micro-structures of
slowly cooled steels
Eutectoid steel
( 0.77% C ) fully
pearlitic
Hypo-eutectoid steel
(<0.77% C ) Pro-
eutectoid ferrite +
Pearlite
Hyper-eutectoid steel
(>0.77% C ) Pro-
eutectoid cementite
+ Pearlite
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Effect of composition & cooling rate on
microstructure
A large variety of microstructures can
be developed in ferritic steel by
changing composition & cooling rate
Austenite: fcc
Ferrite: bcc
Effect of cooling rate on Pearlite
Pearlitic structure is lamellar
with alternate bands of ferrite
+ pearlite
Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 40 Rc
Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 25 Rc
( air cooled )
Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )
Cooling rate
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Temperature Time Transformation
T-T-T Diagrams
Bainite
Formed in alloyed steels
when austenite is cooled
rapidly passed the nose of
the C-curve .
Extremely fine mixture of
ferrite + carbide but not
lamellar like pearlite
Formed between 500 220
C Upper Bainite or lower
Bainite depending on
temp.
Has higher hardness and
toughness than pearlite
Bainite + accicular ferrite
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Martensite
Martensite :
Very hard and brittle phase.
Formed on rapid cooling below
Ms temperature
Tempered Martensite : however
has a good combination of
strength and toughness and is
a useful structure and is
developed by re-heating
martensite
Hardness depends on carbon
content of steel
Martensite
Carbon % 0.1 0.2
Hardness Rc 38 44
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
50 57 60 63 65
Martensite formation
For carbon steels very fast cooling
rates required to form Martensite
3 deg C / sec Fine pearlite
35 deg C / sec - Very fine pearlite +
martensite
140 deg C / sec martensite
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Effect of alloying additions
Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the
nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt
which shifts it to left
This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg -
0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100
Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of
8 deg C / sec Full martensite
0.3 deg / sec Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec Pearlite
Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the
Martensite they only affect the ease with which Martensite
forms
Structural features of ferritic steel
Ferrite +
Pearlite
TS = f(P) ~ %C; grain
size & carbide spacing
Continuous plate
Upper Bainite
TS = f(plate width %
carbide & its spacing)
Broken platelets
Lower Bainite
TS = f(plate width, %
carbide & its spacing)
Broken fine platelets
Martensite
TS = f(%C)
Brittle & unstable
No ppt.
Needle (lens) shape
F P
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Mild steel for structural purposes
Carbon 0.15 0.25 % ( covered by IS: 2062 )
Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the
form of plates, channels & other structural
sections
Structure : Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite
Properties : Y.S. 300 to 350 Mpa
UTS - 400 to 450 Mpa
El - 26 30
Low carbon steels 0.1% C
Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite
Properties : YS - 200300 mpa, UTS - 300370 mpa
elongation 2840%
Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in
automobile and white goods industry
High strength low alloy structural steels
Carbon in same range as mild steels 0.15 0.25%
Low amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Ni etc
added eg. weathering steels to IS: 11587
Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and
tempered martensite
Sronger and tougher than pearlitic steels with higher
strength
Hardenability is increased which affects weldability
YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
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Micro alloyed HSLA steels
Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by
precipitation hardening
Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added
Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels
Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine
grain size ASTM 12 14. Also improves strength.
Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved
strength and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by
IS:8500 - 1991
Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low
alloy HSLA steels
Properties : UTS 600 650 MPa
YS 400 500 MPa
Elongation 20 22 %
Properties of typical Micro-alloyed steels
Grade / Trade
name
% C % Mn % Si % MA YS
MPa
UTS
MPa
ASTM A633
Gr C
0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti
=0.20
410 min 540 - 660
SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti
=0.20
450 min 570 - 720
SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti
=0.20
450 min 570 720
CVN = 19.6J
Min at 20C
TISTEN 60 0.20 1.80 0.50 0.20 440 min 590 min
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Weldability of Steels
Weldability
Weldability maybe defined as the capacity of
a metal to be welded under the fabrication
conditions imposed, into a suitable designed
structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service
Weldability is the ease with which a metal
can be welded to give the required service
Weldability is the amount and nature of
problems you face to weld a material
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Weldability Problems
Cracking - In the weld - solidification cracks
- micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ H2 induced cold cracks
- liquation cracks
- reheat cracks
Porosity
Oxidation of reactive metals
Reduced joint strength In the weld
- In the HAZ
Reduced corrosion resistance
Examples of Weldability Problems
Oxidation of reactive
metals
Aluminium, Magnesium,
Titanium
Inert gas shielding, active
fluxes
Gas-metal reaction or
dissolution
Porosity : N2 in steel , O2
in Cu &NI, H2 in Al & Ti
Use of de-oxidisers in filler
metal. Inert gas
Vaporisation of low B.P.
metals
Porosity : Zinc in brasses Use of Sn-bronze filler and
low currents
Hot cracking in weld Due to low melting
constituents , impurities eg.
S, P, Pb
Use of 2-phase fillers eg
SS electrodes with 5%
ferrite.
Hot cracking in HAZ Embrittlement, liquation Heat
treatable alloys of aluminium
Use of lower M.P. alloys
Cold cracking in HAZ Hydrogen cracking of C-Mn
and alloy steels
Use of pre-heat and low H2
electrodes
Reduction in HAZ
strength
Precipitation / Age hardened
alloys
Control heat input
Solution anneal and heat-
treat after weld.
Reduction in corrosion
resistance
HAZ of SS welds due to
Chrome carbide precipitation
Use of stabilised or ELC
steels
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Weldability is Process Related
Fusion Welding Processes
High heat input of the welding arc / heat source
and influence of arc atmosphere
Solidification of the molten filler metal and
fused portion of base metal into a separate weld
zone
Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected
by the weld thermal cycle Heat affected zone
( HAZ )
Metallurgical effects on both reheating and
cooling
Weldability is Process Related
Solid / Plastic state welding processes
- Diffusion welding, ultra-sonic welding, forge
welding, explosive welding, forge welding,
friction welding, friction stir welding
Below melting point of metals
No arc atmosphere / effect of gases
No filler metal
Bonding through diffusion / plastic state mixing
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Weldability is Process Related
Whereas the fusion welding processes have more
weldability problems, they are in general more versatile,
economic and suitable over a wide range of shapes and
sizes of fabricated products.
The solid state processes may have advantages in less
weldability constraints but limitations in practical
applicability and economics.
Demands on materials of construction
Higher strength
Improved toughness down to cryogenic
temperatures
Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of
chemicals and corrosive media.
High temperature oxidation resistance
Resistance to creep at high temperatures
Higher strength : weight ratio
Wear and erosion resistant
Should be weldable
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Mechanisms used by metallurgists for
improving strength, toughness etc.
Can have adverse effect on weldability
Strength / hardness improved by :
Solid solution hardening
Dispersion of second phase
Phase transformation eg martensitic transformation
Precipitation hardening carbides / nitrides /
intermetallic compounds
Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
Work hardening
Toughness improved by :
Grain refinement / fine grain size
Low impurity level
Austenite phase promoted by Nickel, Manganese
etc.
Creep resistance improved by :
Finely dispersed carbides of chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium etc, formed after tempering of martensitic
/ bainitic steels. eg 1Cr-0.5Mo, 2Cr-1Mo steels upto
P92 steels
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Materials Grouping for Weldability
Materials have been gouped under ASME section IX
and ISO/TR 15608 based on comparable base metal
characteristics such as
Composition
Weldability
Brazeability
Mechanical Properties
The objective is to reduce the number of welding and
brazing procedure qualifications
Under ASME these groups are assigned P-Numbers
Ferrous metals which have specified impact test
requirements have been assigned Group Numbers
within P-Numbers.
Sl
no
Material ASME Sec IX
P nos
ISO/TR 15608
Groups
1 Steels 1, 3 11 1 11
2 Aluminium and Al alloys 21 25 21 26
3 Copper and Cu alloys 31 35 31 38
4 Nickel and Ni alloys 41 47 41 48
5 Titanium and Ti alloys 51 53 51 54
6 Zirconium and Zr alloys 61 & 62 61 & 62
7 Cast Iron nil 71 76
ASME Sec IX and ISO/TR 15608
material groups
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Weldability Problems in C - Mn steels
Hydrogen induced cold
cracking ( HICC )
HAZ cracking
Delayed cracking
Solidification cracking
Hot cracking in the weld
Centerline cracking
Lamellar tearing
Occurs predominantly in plate
material
Due to presence of non metallic
inclusions
Solidification cracking
Steels having unfavourable Mn-S
ratio are prone to such cracking.
Due to presence of S, P
and other impurity
elements which form low
melting films at grain
boundaries
Reduced by higher
Manganese content
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Mechanism of HICC
3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking
A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid
cooling in HAZ area heated above A1 line
Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process
Presence of contractional and residual stresses
Mechanism
Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion
zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools
Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts
additional stress on the susceptible microstructure
In combination with existing stresses causes cracking
generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass
welds
Factors influencing HICC
Presence of Hydrogen Process
Presence of stress Weld design & procedure
Formation of hard microstructure
Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material )
Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint
- Heat input of process
- Degree of preheat if any and inter-
pass temp
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Hydrogen levels for different
processes and consumables
Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content in weld Rutile electrodes, LH electrodes which
have been exposed to moisture
Scale B : 10 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content - LH electrodes redried at 250 C
Scale C : 5 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content
Gas Metal arc welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes
redried at 350 C
Scale D : below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content Gas Tungsten Arc welding ( TIG ) process, LH
electrodes redried at 450 C
Carbon Equivalent
Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon
equivalent C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the
material to form a hard microstructure ( martensite )
Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with
Weldability of a steel
C.E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V ) / 5 + % (NI + Cu) / 15
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Variation in cooling rate produces a variety of
micro-structures and hence properties in steel
Combined thickness of joints
Butt welds & corner welds of
equal thickness - T1 + T2
Butt welds & corner welds of
unequal thickness
Av of T1 over 75 mm + T2
Fillet welds T1 + T2 + T3
Directly opposed simultaneous
fillet welds T1 + T2 + T3 / 2
Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
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Effect of process heat input on
grain size
Grain size significantly influences the properties
of a steel.
Finer the grain size higher the strength and
toughness
The original or re-crystallized austenite grain
size determines the ferrite and pearlite grain
size.
Higher the process heat input and longer the
time above 1050 C in austenite range coarser
the grain size in the previous runs and HAZ
Heat input during welding
Is calculated from the Arc energy divided by the
welding speed
Arc voltage X Welding current
----------------------------------------------- kJ / mm
Welding speed ( mm / sec ) X 1000
For other welding process divide by following
factors
SAW ( single wire ) - 0.8
GTAW - 1.2
GMAW - 1.0
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Procedures to reduce weldability
problems in C Mn steels
Pre-heating To reduce cooling rates and produce
softer micro-structures in the HAZ
Inter-pass
temperature
control
To control process heat input to the
weld & HAZ to produce finer grain
structure for improved toughness
Post heating Eliminate H2 by diffusion from the weld
by maintaining heating at around 300 C
without allowing the weld to cool down
Post Weld
Heat-Treatment
Heating below the lower critical
temperature to relieve internal stresses,
reduce hardness & improve ductility
Practical requirements of Welding Engineer
Given a steel of known composition or C.E.
Upto what combined thickness can be welded with
normal rutile electrodes, without danger of HAZ
cracking
Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes
Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes properly redried as per
manufacturers recommendations
Above what thickness pre-heat is required and
degree of pre-heat.
Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat
input by the welding process and parameters used
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IS 9595 : 1996 recommendations for welding of
carbon and carbon manganese steels
Annexure F gives detailed guidance on pre-heat
requirements and inter- pass temperatures for
avoiding hydrogen induced cold cracking
considering the following factors
- Carbon equivalent of steel
- Combined thickness to be welded
- Heat input of process in kJ / mm
- Hydrogen level of process in Scales A to D
Simplified table for Fillet welds
Detailed graphs for other conditions
Covers steels under IS : 2062 - 1992 and IS 8500
1991 of C.E. upto 0.53
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.Soumya Sarkar
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert
THANK YOU