Note. N = 130.
"Large value = full moon.
* p < .10. ** p < .05. *** p < .001.
Results
Since it is customary to leave as a gratuity
an amount of money proportional to the size
of the check, the principal dependent variable
analyzed in this study was the ratio of the
amount of money left as a tip to the total bill
for the meal. Prior to examining the effect of
weather on tipping, the relationship of
weather to the status variables age and sex
was examined to insure independent sam-
pling.
2
It was found, however, that there was
an association between weather and the age
and sex of people in the restaurant on a given
day. As Table 3 indicates, older people and
women were more likely to dine out when the
sunshine was bright, the weather was cool,
and the humidity, barometric pressure, and
wind velocity were high. Although these asso-
ciations are interesting in their own right,
since older people and women also left a more
substantial tip than the others, the analysis
of the impact of weather on tipping neces-
2
To insure that variations in tipping were not due
to the behavior of individual waitresses, an analysis
of variance was conducted, using the six waitresses
as independent variables. No effect due to waitresses
was found, F($, 124) = .025, ns.
WEATHER, MOOD, AND HELPING
1953
sarily must take into account this self-selec-
tion factor.
Although a regression equation using just
the seven weather variables was significant,
F((>, 123) = 4.24, p < .01, two sets of corre-
lations are presented in Table 4, the zero-
order correlation between each weather varia-
ble and tipping and second-order partial
correlations, with the association of age and
sex removed from the correlations of weather
and tipping. As Table 4 reveals, despite the
fact that sunshine was related to an increase
in the number of older people and females
dining, sunshine was nevertheless significantly
related to helping. This correlation was
smaller than in Experiment 1, which might
be expected, since participants were indoors
and were thus partially screened from effects
of the sun.
Although inspection of the zero-order corre-
lations suggested some reversals of the find-
ings of Experiment 1 with respect to tempera-
ture and humidity, the partial correlations
allayed such concerns. As might be expected
in a climate-controlled restaurant, outdoor
temperature, barometric pressure, and wind
velocity had no significant direct effect on
tipping. Group size and whether liquor was
served were unrelated to tipping, whereas hu-
midity was marginally correlated. Apparently
contrary to Experiment 1, there was a positive
association between the fullness of the moon
and the size of the tip.
Additional partial correlation analyses were
performed to determine the relationship of
each weather variable to tipping, with the
effects of the other weather variables and age
and sex removed. These analyses are pre-
sented in Table S.
Once again, sunshine was significantly cor-
related with tipping. Relative humidity was
also positively correlated with tipping,
whereas lunar phase showed a marginal posi-
tive association. A regression analysis using
sunshine, temperature, relative humidity, and
lunar phase as predictors of tipping produced
significant associations of sunshine and rela-
tive humidity with tipping, F(4, 125) = 4.73,
p < .01, with sunshine accounting for 4% of
the total variance.
Table 5
Partial Correlations of Selected Weather
Variables With Tipping
Item Partial r
Sunshine
Temperature
Relative humidity
Lunar phase"
.23***
.03
.17**
.11*
Note. N = 130. The effects of age and sex have been
partialed out as well as the other weather variables.
a
Large value = full moon.
* p < .10. ** p < .03. *** p < .005.
To test for a curvilinear relation of tem-
perature with tipping, a weighted equation
centered on 19 C (65 F) was constructed.
Curvilinear temperature was positively related
to tipping, r(128) .19, p < .02, as a zero-
order correlation but was insignificant when
the effects of age and sex were removed,
r(128) = .09.
Examination of the relationship of the
weather variables to the self-reported mood of
the waitresses, presented in Table 6, provides
further insight into the nature of the weather
effects. As Table 6 reveals, both sunshine and
temperature were significantly related to a
more positive mood of the waitress. Waitress
mood (obtained prior to the receipt of tips)
was not itself a significant predictor of tip-
ping, r(128) = .004, suggesting that the effect
of weather on tipping may have been medi-
ated by the mental or emotional state of the
customers.
Table 6
Correlations of Weather With Waitress's
Mood
Item r
Sunshine
Temperature
Barometric pressure
Relative humidity
Wind velocity
Lunar phase"
.60*
.75**
.32
-.36
-.20
-.35
Note. Larger number is more positive mood. N = 13.
" Large value = full moon.
*P < .05. **p < .01.
1954
MICHAEL R. CUNNINGHAM
Discussion
The second study effectively controlled for
the effect on helping of comfort factors such
as temperature and wind velocity by investi-
gating the effect of weather on a helping
action that did not require the participants to
remain outdoors for a period of time in order
to be helpful. Nonetheless, this study repli-
cated Experiment 1 by finding that the out-
door sunshine level was significantly related
both to the gratuity left for the waitress in a
restaurant and to the waitress's self-reported
mood.
Of course, the fact that sunshine was asso-
ciated with both customers' helping and wait-
resses' mood does not necessarily mean that
changes in customers' mood produced the
variations in helping. The observed variations
in both helping and mood as a function of
sunshine could have involved separate media-
tional mechanisms. Yet because of the strong
experimental evidence for an effect of mood
on helping (Isen & Levin, 1972; Cunningham,
Steinberg, & Grev, in press) and the lack of a
plausible alternate mediator for the effect of
sunshine on helping, mood seems a prime can-
didate. The present study did not, however,
provide information on how sunshine might
affect mood. Explanations based on symbolic
associations, aesthetics, and biological pro-
cesses all seem reasonable.
Sunshine level could influence mood through
its symbolic connection with pleasant or dis-
appointing events. Thus sunshine could in-
crease mood by stimulating thoughts of swim-
ming, picnics, and other outings, whereas
cloudy days could be associated with the dis-
appointment of canceled plans and the annoy-
ance of rain and snow and could in that way
alter the individual's mood.
Alternatively, sunshine could produce a
more positive mood by illuminating the en-
vironment in a more stimulating and pleasing
manner. Clear sunlight has spectral character-
istics different from the light on cloudy days
and with its stronger intensity may enhance
colors and sharpen detail. The scenery on a
cloudy day may appear more dull and mono-
chromatic, by contrast. Maslow and Mintz
(1956) have demonstrated that the aesthetic
quality of indoor settings affected mood and
person perception, and sunshine might sim-
ilarly influence mood primarily through aes-
thetic responses to the environment.
Sunshine could also influence mood through
its effect on physiological processes. There are
indications both from experimental studies on
light deprivation and clinical studies of blind
and cataract patients that the level of light
detected may affect adrenal corticosteroid
production and other endocrine functions,
hemoglobin formation, thyroid activity, the
detoxification capacity of the liver, and the
overall regulation of circadian and cirannual
biorhythms (Luce, 1970). Solar radiation can
also increase the atmospheric concentration
of negative ions, and increased negative ion
concentration has been linked to increased
oxidation of serotonin and increased relaxa-
tion in humans (Krueger & Reed, 1976;
Randall, 1970). Alternately, since cloud cover
filters out ultraviolet rays, decreased ultra-
violet light may retard physiological processes
such as Vitamin D production (Ott, 1973).
Yet since no direct measures of blood chem-
istry were obtained in the present studies,
such interpretations of the effect of sunlight,
like those based on associations and aesthet-
ics, remain speculative.
The series of studies reported here em-
ployed a quasi-experimental correlation de-
sign, and the lack of total control over the
independent variables produced some am-
biguous results. First, in Experiment 2 older
people and women were more likely to eat in
the restaurant, and thus participate in the
study, on sunnier, cooler, windier, more hu-
mid, higher pressure days. Although it is be-
lieved that statistical control for such self-
selection factors was adequate, complete ran-
dom assignment to conditions would have
been more desirable.
Nowhere are the weaknesses of the correla-
tional approach more apparent than in the
case of lunar phase effects. In the zero-corre-
lation analysis in Experiment 1, a negative
association with helping was found in both
seasons, but this relationship disappeared in
the partial correlation analysis. Experiment 2
found a significant positive relationship with
tipping, although no association was found
WEATHER, MOOD, AND HELPING
1955
with waitresses' mood. Since a recent review
of the lunar phase literature pertaining to
homicide, suicide, and psychiatric admission
frequency (Campbell & Beets, 1978) indi-
cated substantial inconsistency in findings
across studies and argued that published sig-
nificant associations were due to Type I
errors, the present small but significant corre-
lations are regarded as somewhat of a nui-
sance. As with other variables, such as
sunshine, employed in this study, a full ex-
planation of proposed effects will require mea-
surement of physical, physiological, and
psychological processes influenced by a factor
such as the moon. Given the overabundance of
speculation concerning the nature of lunar
influences, no interpretation of the present
findings will be offered.
Two other apparent inconsistencies should
be noted. In Experiment 1 humidity was
negatively associated with helping, whereas
in Experiment 2 the association was positive.
This discrepancy is reasonable, however, if
one assumes that the higher the outdoor
humidity, the more relief the restaurant
patron experienced when coming into a cli-
mate-controlled environment. Appreciation or
a more positive mood following such relief
could have increased tipping.
Another inconsistency concerns the relation-
ship of temperature with the various depen-
dent measures. Temperature showed an in-
verted U-shaped relationship with helping in
Experiment 1 but was positively related to
waitresses' mood in Experiment 2. Yet the
positive relation with waitresses' mood is com-
patible with an overall curvilinear relation-
ship, given the more restricted temperature
range of Experiment 2. Temperature was not,
however, clearly linearly or curvilinearly re-
lated to tipping in Experiment 2. This is not
surprising, however, given the climate-con-
trolled environment of the restaurant. Fur-
ther, although waitresses' mood was recorded
when the waitresses first came in to begin
their shifts, tipping did not occur until the
patrons had been away from the outdoor tem-
perature for some time.
The lack of a substantial relationship of
barometric pressure with helping in either
study was somewhat unexpected in light of
previous research. Yet it is well to bear in
mind Piccardi's (1962) observation that sim-
ply ascending to the top of a skyscraper in-
volves a pressure change equivalent to that
stemming from a tornado. Barometric pres-
sures in Experiment 1 ranged from 29..63 to
30.37 and in Experiment 2 from 29.60 to
30.27, which is an average range, but since
data were not gathered during rainy or stormy
weather, it is possible that some pressure
effects were missed.
Also unexpected was the finding that the
consumption of alcohol was not related to
tipping, nor was the size of the party, con-
trary to the results of previous research (Free-
man, Walker, Borden, & Latane, 1975). But
since the precise amount of alcohol consumed
was not recorded, and since it was frequently
difficult to determine if one person or the
entire group contributed to the tip, few con-
clusions can be drawn.
Although this series of studies has stressed
the role of weather variables in helping, the
conclusion should not be drawn that the
weather is the only or even the major factor
contributing to altruism. The strongest pre-
dictor, sunshine level, accounted for only 13^
of the helping variance when participants
were outdoors and 4% of the variance when
people were indoors, leaving a great deal to be
accounted for by social and individual differ-
ence factors. Yet given its relative neglect in
the literature, future investigations might ex-
amine the relationship between sunshine and
other affect-linked behaviors. Alternative indi-
cators of helpfulness or friendliness, such as
people's willingness to start a conversation
with a stranger or give to charity, might be
examined, as well as negative affect-related
behaviors such as reports of crime, marital
distress, suicide, initial contact with a psychi-
atric clinic, and constricted nonverbal behav-
ior (Cunningham, 1977). Given the reported
friendliness of Californians, it would also be of
interest to examine the friendliness of various
cities around the world as a function of the
amount of sunlight they receive (cf. Feldman,
1968; Robbins, DeWalt, & Pelto, 1972). And
the next time experimental subjects are not
1956
MICHAEL R. CUNNINGHAM
performing as predicted, the laboratory psy-
chologist might look outdoors to see what
kind of a day it is.
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